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Princeton,  N.  J. 


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INDIA 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


INDIA 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


GEOGRAPUICIL,  UISTORICAL,  POLITICAL,  SOCIAL, 
AND  RELIGIOUS; 

WITH  A PARTICULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  STATE  AND 
PROSPECTS  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 


BY 


DAVID  O.  A^LEN,  D.D. 

MISSIONARY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  BOARD  FOR  TWENTY-FIVE  YEARS  IN  INDIA; 
MEMBER  OF  THE  BOMBAY  BR^VKCH  OF  THE  ROYAL  ASIATIC  SOCIETY  ; AND 
CORRESPONDING  MEMBER  OF  THE  AAIERICAN  ORIENTAL  SOCIETY. 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED  BY  JOHN  P.  JEWETT  AND  COMPANY. 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO; 

JEWETT,  PROCTOR  AND  WORTHINGTON. 

NEW  YORK  : SHELDON,  LAMPORT  AND  BLAKEMAN. 
LONDON:  TRUBNEK  AND  COMPANY. 

1 8 5 6. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1855,  by 
JOHN  P.  JEWETT  AND  COMPANY, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


CAMBRIDGE : 

ALLEN  AND  FARNUAM,  STEREOirPEBS  AND  PRINTERS. 


r 11  E F A C E . 


The  wTiter,  on  returning  to  this  country  after  his  long  resi- 
dence in  the  East,  observed  in  the  frequent  inquiries  made 
concerning  India,  much  desire  for  information,  and  a great 
want  of  accurate  knowledge  concerning  that  country  and  its 
inhabitants.  And  when  asked  what  work  he  could  recommend 
as  containing  the  information  which  so  many  were  desirous  to 
obtain,  he  was  constrained  to  reply  that  he  knew  of  no  such 
work  suited  to  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Many  works 
on  India  have  been  published  in  England,  where  the  political 
relation  of  the  two  pountries  naturally  creates  a strong  and  gen- 
eral desire  for  information.  But  some  of  these  works  contain 
only  the  History  of  British  India,  and  others  contain  only 
one  period  of  history,  or  describe  only  one  part  of  the  country ; 
all  perhaps  well  suited  to  the  class  of  people  for  whom  they 
were  designed  in  England,  but  not  adapted  for  general  reading 
in  the  United  States;  while  no  one  work  contains  such  a 
summary  of  general  and  particular  information  as  to  make 
it  suitable  for  importation  in  any  considerable  number,  or 
for  republication  in  this  country.  The  English  Journals,  re- 
printed in  the  United  States,  contain  many  weU  written  arti- 
cles upon  India,  but  they  were  designed  for  England,  and 
though  well  suited  to  the  knowledge  which  the  people  there 
generally  have  concerning  India  and  its  inhabitants,  they  are 
not  so  well  suited  to  the  limited  views  of  that  countr}'^  which 
people  generally  have  in  the  United  States.  The  religious  jour- 
nals in  this  country  since  the  origin  of  Christian  Missions  to 

A*  [ i 


VI 


PREFACE. 


India,  have  contained  much  interesting  information  concerning 
the  social  state  of  the  inhabitants.  They  also  contain  frequent 
reference  to  the  political  state  of  the  country,  and  various  other 
matters  which  excite  a desire  for  further  knowledge,  but  they  no- 
where supply  it,  nor  give  information  where  it  may  be  found. 

A work  on  India  suited  to  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
appeared  to  be  a desideratum,  and  in  endeavoring  to  supply  this 
want,  the  writer  has  aimed  to  include  as  much  information  con- 
cerning India,  ancient  and  modern,  as  people  generally  would 
wash  to  read,  and  to  which  they  could  refer  as  often  as  they 
might  have  occasion.  Newspapers  and  other  journals  often 
contain  religious  and  political  intelligence  concerning  India, 
which  their  readers  can  but  imperfectly  appreciate  for  want  of 
more  knowledge  of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants.  And  if 
this  is  so  in  respect  to  allusions,  sketches,  and  extracts  in  Ameri- 
can Journals,  it  is  yet  more  so  in  respect  to  allusions,  extracts, 
etc.,  contained  in  the  English  Reviews  and  Journals,  as  such 
articles  were  originally  written  for  readers  who  have  much  more 
knowledge  of  India  than  the  people  of  the  United  States  gen- 
erally have. 

In  no  country  have  the  inhabitants  retained  their  rchgion, 
their  superstitions,  and  their  social  and  local  usages  for  so  long 
time,  and  with  so  little  change,  as  in  India.  The  religion  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  and 
the  Romans,  had  great  influence  in  forming  the  character  of 
those  nations.  But  they  have  aU  passed  away,  and  their  char- 
acter and  religion  can  now  only  be  known  from  their  history, 
and  from  those  monuments  and  ruins  of  which  the  present  gen- 
eration in  those  countries,  know  neither  the  origin  nor  the 
meaning.  But  in  India,  the  religious  system  which  existed  in 
the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  of  Cyrus,  of 
Solon,  and  of  Romulus,  still  continues,  and  its  influence  is  seen 
in  the  present  state  and  character  of  the  inhabitants.  This 
remarkable  fact  invests  the  ancient  history  of  India  with  great 


PREFACE. 


vii 


interest,  and  all  who  would  understand  the  present  state  of  the 
country  and  be  able  to  appreciate  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
people,  must  begin  with  their  ancient  history  and  primitive 
institutions. 

The  history  of  India  contains  a series  of  successive  periods 
and  changes.  The  first  period  was  its  state  as  indicated  by 
fragments  of  its  history  and  the  state  and  character  of  the  rude 
and  uncivilized  tribes,  in  some  districts,  who  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  aborigines.  The  first  great  change  was  the  invasion 
of  the  power,  religious  or  political,  probably  both  united,  which 
established  Brahminism,  or  what  is  frequently  called  Hinduism. 
The  second  disturbing  cause  was  Budhism,  which  originated  in 
India,  and  after  a long  struggle  with  Brahminism,  was  ex- 
pelled and  took  refuge  in  Ceylon  and  the  countries  east  from 
India,  as  Burma,  Siam,  and  China.  The  third  cause  was  the 
invasion  and  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Mohammedans, 
who  were  the  predominant  power  for  several  hundred  years. 
The  fourth  disturbing  cause  was  the  invasion  of  the  country  by 
the  European  nations,  as  the  Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  the  French, 
and  the  English.  These  causes  and  their  consequences  ap- 
peared naturally  to  suggest  the  following  order  for  this  work, 
namely.  Ancient  India,  or  the  Hindu  Period,  the  Mohammedan 
Period,  the  European  Period,  the  English  Government  of  India, 
the  Religion,  Customs,  Manners,  etc.  of  the  Inhabitants,  the 
History  of  Christianity,  and  its  Present  State  and  Prospects. 
Nothing  has  been  inserted  without  having  what  appeared  to  be 
sufficient  authority,  and  in  conflicting  statements,  those  have 
been  used  which  appeared  to  have  the  most  evidence  in  their 
favor. 

The  work  has  been  prepared  with  a view  to  exhibit  the  state 
and  character  of  the  people  of  India,  and  the  causes  now  in 
operation  to  change  their  state  and  character.  The  history  and 
state  of  the  southern  nations  of  Asia,  at  the  commencement  of 
this  century,  showed  that  there  was  little  reason  to  hope  for  any 


viii 


PREFACE. 


improvement  among  them  without  some  great  political  and 
moral  changes.  They  had  made  but  ‘little  progress  for  2 or 
3,000  years,  and  they  appeared  not  to  possess  among  themselves 
any  power  for  political  improvement,  or  for  making  any  further 
progress  in  civilization.  Within  a century  past  great  political 
changes  have  taken  place,  and  are  stiU  in  progress  through  the 
agency  of  foreign  power  and  conquest.  In  these  changes  the 
people  of  the  United  States  have  had  no  direct  agency,  and 
no  responsibility.  Great  moral  changes  have  also  commenced, 
and  are  in  progress.  In  these  changes,  many  in  this  country 
have  taken  an  important  part.  The  first  missionaries  who  left 
the  United  States  for  the  heathen  world,  proceeded  to  India, 
and  there  commenced  the  earliest  American  missions.  From 
that  time  India  has  continued  to  share  largely  in  the  prayers 
and  contributions  of  many  people  in  the  United  States.  And  it 
is  believed  that  more  knowledge  of  that  country  and  its  inhabi- 
tants, and  of  the  results  of  the  missionary  enterprise  and  of  the 
facilities  which  now  exist  for  promoting  it,  would  excite  increas- 
ing interest  in  this  cause. 

In  1827,  the  writer  went  to  India,  expecting  to  pass  his  life  in 
the  missionary  cause  in  that  country.  And  such  continued  to 
be  his  purpose  till  the  failure  of  his  health  in  1853,  made  it  neces- 
sary for  him,  if  he  would  reserve  himself  for  any  thing  more  in 
life,  to  return  to  his  native  country.  Compelled  thus  to  relin- 
quish his  purpose  of  spending  his  life  in  the  foreign  missionary 
field,  he  has  prepared  this  work  in  the  hope  of  exciting  feelings 
of  more  interest  in  the  foreign  missionary  cause,  and  an  increas- 
ing spirit  of  prayer  and  effort  for  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
in  India,  and  the  other  countries  in  the  south  part  of  Asia. 

D.  O.  A. 

Boston,  Ocx.  1,  1855. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

PAGE 

Name  and  Boundaries,  1 

Climate  and  Seasons, 2 

Diseases, 8 

Mountains,  Rivers,  etc., 10 

Population, 14 

Animals,  etc., *•  .14 

Minerals,  etc., 16 


PART  II. 

HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  I.  — The  Hixdu  Period. 

Hindu  Chronology, 18 

Aboriginal  Inhabitants, 21 

Origin  of  the  Hindus  and  Hinduism, 23 

Alexander  the  Great,  his  Invasion  of  India, 27 

State  of  India  from  the  Invasion  of  Alexander  to  the  Mohammedan  Con- 
quest,   .^.31 

CHAPTER  n.  — Mohammedan  Period. 

Invasion  from  Persia, 38 

Invasion  of  Mahmoud,  of  Ghiznl, 42 

House  of  Ghori,  A.  d.  1160,  56 

(ix) 


X 


CONTENTS 


Cuttub  ud  Deen  and  his  Successors,  a. 

D.  1206, 

• • • • • 

60 

The  House  of  Khiljee,  “ 

1288, 

• • • • . 

72 

The  House  of  Toghluck,  “ 

1321, 



83 

Tamerlane,  “ 

1398, 

• • . • . 

91 

Baber,  “ 

1526, 

• • • • • 

94 

Humayoon,  “ 

1531, 

• 

98 

Acber,  “ 

1556, 

• • • • • 

103 

Jehangheer,  “ 

1605, 

• • • • . 

no 

Shah  Jehan,  “ 

1627, 

• • • • • 

114 

Aurungzeb,  “ 

1657, 

• • • • . 

125 

The  Successors  of  Aurungzeb,  “ 

1706, 



139 

CHAPTER  III.  — Eceopean  Period. 


Discoveries  and  Conquests  of  the  Portuguese, 152 

Commerce  and  Conquests  of  the  English, 166 

History  of  Bengal  till  1800, 173 

History  of  Madras  till  1800, 199 

History  of  Bombay  till  1800, 231 

History  of  India  from  1800  to  1850,  . . ....  235 

Remarks  on  the  British  Conquest  of  India, 286 


PART  III. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


The  East  India  Company, 298 

The  Administration  of  Justice, 304 

The  Army, 306 

The  Revenue, 312 

Education, 317 

Public  Works, 326 

Government  Connection  with  Idolatry, 331 

Native  Princes, 338 

Remarks  on  the  Government  of  India, 346 


PART  IV. 


The  European  PopiJation, 355 

The  Indo-Britons, 359 


CONTENTS 


PART  V. 

THE  NATIVE  TOPULATION. 

The  First  Religion  of  India, 361 

Brahminism  — The  Vedas, 363 

The  Institutes  of  Menu, 366 

The  Purans, 36  7 

The  Supreme  Being, 368 

Minor  Deities, 373 

Brahma, 374 

Vishnu, 375 

Sheva, 381 

Other  Hindu  Deities, 383 

Demonolatry, 384 

Idols, 386 

Temples, 387 

Cave-Temples,  391 

Sacred  Places, 396 

Priests  and  Spiritual  Guides, 397 

Sacred  Days,  Worship,  Rites,  etc., 399 

Sacrifices  and  Offerings, 402 

Asceticism,  Ascetics,  and  Devotees, 405 

The  Future  State,  . 408 

The  Transmigration  of  Souls, 411 

Suttee, 416 

Suicide,  Murder,  and  Human  Sacrifices, 410 

Languages,  Literature,  and  Education, 431 

Commerce, 438 

Agricidture, 441 

Manufactures 

Architecture, 

Music, 

Painting  and  Sculpture, 453 

Astronomy, 454 

Medicine, 457 

Marriage, 458 

Polygamy, . . 462 

Caste, 465 

Customs  and  Manners, 474 

Budhism, 484 

Mohammedans, 488 

Parsees, 494 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


PART  VI. 

CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Syrian  Churches  of  Malabar,  . ......  497 

CHAPTER  n. 

Roman  Catholic  IMissions  and  Church, 504 

CHAPTER  m. 

Early  Protestant  Missions, 525 

Present  State  of  Protestant  Missions, 536 

Tables  showing  their  Number  and  State, 337-539 

India  has  been  opened  for  the  Propagation  of  Christianity,  . . . 545 

The  English  Government  has  withdrawn  its  support  of  the  Religions  of 

India, 546 

Recent  Laws  on  Religious  Liberty  and  Protection, 547 

Polygamy, . 551 

Preaching, 554 

Translations  of  the  Scriptures, 559 

Christian  Literature, 564 

Education, 566 

Native  Agency, 578 

General  Statements  and  Remarks, 579 

Conclusion, 585 


APPENDIX. 

Appendix  A. 

State  and  Prospects  of  the  English  Language  in  India,  ....  591 

Appendix  13. 

Character  of  Sanscrit  Literature, 598 

Appendix  C. 

Remarks  and  Opinions  concerning  Polygamy, 601 

Appendix  D. 

Notice  of  the  “ Tattwabodhiui  Sabha  ” in  Calcutta, 609 


I ]S  1)  I A, 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


PART  I. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

India  has  derived  its  name  from  the  Indus,  one  of  its  largest 
rivers  and  generally  considered  part  of  its  western  boundary, 
separating  it  from  Persia.  This  name  was  given  to  the  country 
by  the  Persians,  and  thus  it  became  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  name  of  the  country  in  the  Sanscrit  language 
and  in  ancient  works  generally,  is  Bharat;  it  is  sometimes 
called  Bharatkhund,  and  also  Jamhhudwip.  The  name  of 
Hindustan,  which  is  often  given  to  India  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, is  never  applied  to  the  whole  country  by  Europeans  living 
in  India,  nor  by  natives  of  the  country.  Hindustan  is  properly 
the  name  of  that  part  of  India  which  is  north  of  the  river  Ner- 
budda  or  its  latitude,  excepting  the  provinces  of  Bengal  on  the 
east  and  of  Gujerat  on  the  west,  which  are  generally  known  in 
the  history  of  India  by  their  respective  names. 

The  name  Hindustan,  or  Hindoostan,  or  Hindostan,  was  given 
to  India  by  the  Persians,  and  is  composed  of  two  Persian  words, 
namely,  Hindu  signifying  black,  or  in  the  plural,  the  blacks,  or 
black  people ; and  stan  signifying  a place  or  country.  So  Hin- 
dustan in  the  Persian  language  signifies  the  coimtry  of  the  black 
people ; as  Afghanistan  is  the  country  of  the  Afghans ; as  in 
English,  Negroland  means  the  country  of  the  negroes. 

The  boundary  of  India  on  the  south,  is  the  ocean;  on  the 

1 


2 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


west,  the  ocean  and  the  Indus;  on  the  north,  the  Himalaya 
mountains;  and  on  the  east,  the  river  Brahmaputra  and  the 
ocean,  or  the  part  of  it  called  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

The  extreme  length  of  India  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the 
mountains  which  form  the  northern  boundary  of  Cashmere, 
exceeds  1,900  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus 
to  the  Brahmaputra  exceeds  1,500  mdes.  Its  area  is  estimated 
at  1,280,000  square  miles.  Thus  it  is  larger  than  aU  the  United 
States  which  are  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  as  large  as  aU 
Europe  which  is  south  of  Russia  and  the  Baltic  Sea. 

India  at  some  period  of  its  history  was  divided  into  different 
kingdoms  corresponding  in  some  degree  to  the  names  by  which 
the  different  parts  or  provinces  are  now  known,  though  the 
names  were  somewhat  different  in  ancient  times.  Some  of 
these  names  were  given  by  Europeans  in  their  first  intercourse 
with  the  country,  and  having  become  thus  known  in  Europe 
they  have  been  retained,  somewhat  as  the  names  of  many  places 
originated  in  America  and  have  been  perpetuated.  These  divis- 
ions, as  Malabar,  Mysore,  Carnatic,  Deckan,  Gujerat,  Bengal, 
Bahar,  etc.,  have  not  very  accurately  defined  limits,  and  they  are 
not  now  recognized  as  civil  divisions  or  provinces  by  the  gov- 
ernment. The  divisions  which  have  been  introduced  by  the 
East  India  Company  for  economy  and  convenience  in  the  affairs 
of  government,  have  been  often  changed,  and  they  are  liable  for 
the  same  reason  to  be  changed  again.  The  Mohammedans  in 
establishing  their  power  and  administering  the  government  of 
the  country  in  many  instances  changed  the  names  of  provinces, 
cities,  and  villages.  But  the  English  have  made  no  such 
changes,  and  the  names  of  the  distilcts,  cities,  and  towns  have 
been  continued,  and  they  are  hlcely  to  continue  as  they  have 
been  for  two  or  three  centuries  past,  and  as  they  are  known  in 
the  modern  history  and  geography  of  the  country.  The  differ- 
ent parts  of  India  wiU  therefore  be  referred  to  by  their  usual 
names  and  these  names  wiU  be  in  the  usual  orthography. 

CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS. 

A country  extending  nearly  2,000  miles  in  length  in  a line 
nearly  north  and  south,  must  nccessarUy  have  great  variety  of 


GEOGRAPHY. 


3 


climate  and  seasons.  More  than  half  of  India  is  situated  within 
the  tropics;  its  northern  limit  is  in  the  latitude  of  South  Caro- 
Inia,  and  nine  tenths  of  it  is  further  south  than  New  Orleans. 
Thus  situated,  the  climate  of  the  country  generally,  as  might  be 
expected,  is  hot,  — in  some  parts  very  hot.  The  temperature  is 
aftected  by  proximity  to  the  sea-coast  and  elevation  above  the 
sea  as  well  as  by  the  latitude.  In  the  provinces  on  the  sea-shore 
on  the  eastern  and  western  side  of  the  peninsula,  the  heat  is 
moderated  by  the  sea-breezes,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
are  much  less  than  inland  places  in  the  same  latitude.  In  the 
provinces  situated  within  the  tropics  or  to  the  south  of  a line 
drawn  from  Calcutta  to  Cambay,  the  heat  is  everywhere  severe 
in  the  hot  months,  and  ice  or  frost  is  seldom  seen  in  the  cold 
months.  The  houses,  whether  European  or  native,  with  the 
exception  of  a few  sanatory  stations  on  the  highest  hiUs,  have  no 
chimneys  or  conveniences  of  any  land  for  using  fire  for  comfort 
in  any  part  of  the  year.  In  the  great  plains  bordering  on  the 
Ganges  and  the  Indus,  which  are  low  and  remote  from  the  sea, 
the  heat  is  generally  very  severe  in  the  hot  months.  The  ex- 
tremes here  are  greater  than  in  the  southern  provinces.  In  the 
northern  provinces  snow  and  ice  are  frequent  in  the  winter 
months. 

The  heat  of  the  sun  in  India  is  more  intense  than  in  the 
United  States  when  at  the  same  altitude.  The  difference  is  also 
much  greater  there  between  the  temperature  in  the  sun  and  in 
the  shade  than  it  is  in  this  country.  Hence  exposmre  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun  is  often  injurious  and  is  carefully  to  be  avoided 
by  aU  who  have  European  constitutions,  when  no  injury  would 
be  experienced  from  them  in  America.  Europeans  cannot 
endure  the  labor  and  continued  exertion  in  India,  which  they 
can  and  do  in  their  native  climate.  The  injury  and  suffeiings 
experienced  vary  according  to  the  difference  of  temperature, 
peculiarity  of  constitution,  habits  of  living,  etc.  But  in  all  the 
hot  districts  such  exposure,  labor,  and  continued  exertion  soon 
produce  prostration  of  strength,  disease,  and  death.*  This  fact 

* Perhaps  the  inquiry  may  occur  how  can  this  fact  or  opinion  be  reconciled 
with  the  conquest  and  government  of  the  country  by  the  English  ? An  answer 
to  this  inquiry  will  be  found  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  British  conquest  and 
administration  of  India  in  another  part  of  this  work. 


4 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

is  as  well  established  and  as  well  known  to  all  Europeans  in 
India,  as  it  is  that  they  differ  in  complexion  and  personal  appear- 
ance from  the  natives  of  the  country.  The  native  constitution 
has  become  adapted  to  the  climate,  and  compared  with  Euro- 
peans they  suffer  but  little  from  the  heat.  The  lower  classes 
will  carry  on  their  agricultural  and  other  occupations  daily,  and 
will  continue  in  their  usual  health  in  places  and  circumstances 
where  Europeans  generally  would  soon  fad,  sicken,  and  die.* 

The  sensation  of  cold  and  the  suffering  from  it,  are  greater  in 
India  than  in  Europe  and  America  at  the  same  temperature. 
This  soon  becomes  obvious  to  people  on  their  first  beginning  to 
reside  in  that  country,  and  such  continues  to  be  their  experience. 
The  native  population  are  easily  affected  by  the  cold,  and  they 
suffer  much  from  it.  This  arises  in  part  from  their  peculiar  con- 
stitution, adapted  as  it  is  to  endure  heat  and  enjoy  a hot  climate, 
and  partly  from  their  not  having  sufficient  and  suitable  clothes, 
houses,  etc. 

The  temperature  of  any  place,  as  already  remarked,  depends 
upon  its  elevation  and  distance  from  the  ocean  as  well  as  upon 
its  latitude.  This  is  more  obvious  in  hot  than  in  cold  climates. 

* While  a change  from  the  climate  of  Europe  or  of  the  United  States  at 
once  to  a tropical  climate  produces  this  effect  on  the  same  constitution,  there 
can  he  no  reasonable  doubt  that  if  the  European  constitution  should  be  gradu- 
ally subjected  to  the  influence  of  a tropical  climate  through  several  generations, 
perhaps  through  several  centuries,  if  would  become  as  much  adapted  to  the 
climate  of  India  as  the  constitutions  of  the  Hindus  now  are.  Perhaps  it  would 
require  as  long  to  effect  this  change  by  each  successive  generation  jiroceeding 
to  a hotter  climate,  as  it  does  to  produce  the  complexion  of  the  southern  Asiatics. 
No  one  can  proceed  from  England  or  any  country  in  its  latitude  to  the  south 
cape  of  India  or  Ceylon,  examining  all  the  intermediate  classes  of  people,  with- 
out becoming  satisfied  that  the  difference  in  complexion  is  to  be  found  in  the 
climate  and  other  cooperating  causes.  The  complexion  of  the  Jews  wherever 
found  confirms  this  opinion.  When  dispersed  from  Judea  at  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  the  Jews  being  of  common  origin  and  living  in  a small  country  must 
have  been  of  the  same  complexion.  But  now,  wherever  they  liave  lived  for 
several  centuries  and  followed  the  occupations,  customs,  habits,  etc.,  of  the  other 
classes  of  the  inhabitants,  they  have  become  of  the  same  complexion  with  them. 
The  Jews  in  India,  whose  ancestors  settled  there  many  centuries  ago,  have 
become  of  the  same  complexion  as  other  classes  of  the  jieojjle  of  similar  occu- 
pations and  in  similar  circumstances.  Tlie  same  is  true  of  the  Jews  settled  in 
Arabia,  Egypt,  and  western  Asia,  compared  with  other  classes  of  the  iidiabitants 
in  those  places,  as  I saw  when  1 was  in  those  countries. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


5 


The  mean  temperature  of  .January  in  Calcutta  is  67°  ; in  Mad- 
ras it  is  77°,  and  in  Bombay  78°. 

The  mean  temperature  of  May,  which  as  it  precedes  the 
rainy  season,  is  generally  the  hottest  month  of  the  year,  in  Cal- 
cutta is  83° ; in  INIadras  it  is  87° ; and  in  Bombay  85°.  In  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston,  the  mean  temperature  of  July 
does  not  generally  exceed  70°,  thus  showdng  the  difference  in  the 
hottest  weather  to  be  15°.  These  facts  show  that  the  average 
temperature  of  the  coldest  months  in  some  of  the  largest  cities 
in  India,  is  several  degrees  higher  than  the  average  temperature 
of  the  hottest  month  in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  peninsular  part  of  India  fires  are  not  generally  neces- 
sary for  comfort  in  houses,  and  chimneys  are  seldom  seen.  Cook- 
ing is  usually  done  in  out-houses.  Various  means  are  used  in 
the  hot  months  to  mitigate  the  heat  and  to  make  houses  com- 
fortable. The  more  common  way  is  to  suspend  a ventilator 
called  punka  in  the  rooms,  which  are  generally  high.  Punkas 
are  generally  small  frames  covered  with  cloth  and  in  the  form  of 
a board  or  plank,  its  length  varying  with  the  room  or  part  to  be 
ventilated,  and  its  breadth  from  18  to  36  inches.  Punkas  are 
suspended  by  ropes  so  that  they  can  be  swung  just  over  the 
heads  of  persons  standing,  and  when  swung  they  produce  an 
agreeable  circulation  of  the  air.  These  punkas  are  much  used 
in  houses,  offices,  churches,  etc.  Another  method  is  to  hang 
curtains  of  bamboo  and  other  materials  before  doors  and  win- 
dows, and  these  being  kept  constantly  wet,  the  air  passing 
through  them  is  cool.  Another  method  is  to  place  a ventilator 
constructed  somewhat  like  a winnowing  machine  in  some  cen- 
tral part  of  the  house,  and  by  working  it  and  hanging  wet  eur- 
tains  over  the  doors,  the  air  is  kept  moist  and  cool.  Some  such 
means  for  cooling  the  atmosphere  are  as  necessary  for  people  in 
health  or  in  sickness  in  India,  as  fires  in  stoves  and  furnaces  are 
for  comfort  in  the  United  States  in  the  wdnter  season. 

In  the  valleys  and  plains  of  the  interior  of  the  peninsula,  and 
of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indus,  the  temperature  in  the  hot  months 
is  often  greater  than  it  is  in  Calcutta,  or  Madras,  or  Bombay, 
and  in  the  cool  months  the  cold  is  greater.  The  temperature 
also  fluctuates  more  in  such  districts  in  any  given  time,  as  in  a 

1* 


6 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


day  or  a week,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  greater  in 
the  course  of  a year. 

In  nothing  does  India  differ  more  from  Europe  and  America 
than  in  the  seasons.  The  year  is  not  divided  there  into  seasons 
of  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  wdnter,  and  these  words  are 
seldom  if  ever  used  in  reference  to  that  country.  Instead  of  the 
seasons  ciurent  in  the  temperate  climates,  the  common  division 
of  the  year  in  India  is  into  the  rainy  and  fair  seasons.  In  the 
central  and  northern  provinces  they  sometimes  speak  of  the 
rainy  season,  the  cool  season,  and  the  hot  season,  or  months. 
And  in  some  provinces  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula, 
they  sometimes  speak  of  the  year  as  divided  into  the  south-west 
monsoon  and  the  north-east  monsoon. 

The  rainy  season,  generally  called  the  monsoon,  is  commonly 
reckoned  to  include  four  months,  namely,  June,  July,  August, 
and  September.  It  comes  from  the  south-west,  and  the  clouds 
pour  dowm  the  accumulated  stores  they  have  been  gathering  for 
some  months  over  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  approach  is  indi- 
cated in  the  latter  part  of  May  by  the  atmosphere  becoming 
hazy  and  moist,  by  large  banks  of  watery-looking  clouds  in  the 
afternoon,  and  by  white  fleecy  clouds  resting  on  the  hills  and 
mountains  for  some  hours  in  the  morning.  These  phenomena 
are  so  sure  indications  of  its  approach  that  people  accustomed 
to  observe  them,  are  seldom  overtaken  by  surprise.  In  some 
provinces,  especially  in  the  mountain  districts  and  on  the  table- 
lands, there  is  much  heavy  thunder  and  vivid  lightning  at  the 
commencement  and  again  at  the  close  of  the  rainy  season. 
The  monsoon  commences  at  Cape  Comorin  and  proceeds 
northward  extending  over  aU  parts  of  India,  except  a tract  on 
the  Coromandel  Coast.  The  greatest  quantity  falls  in  the  low 
provinces  near  the  sea  and  in  mountainous  districts.  On  the 
western  coast  of  the  peninsula  the  quantity  varies  from  70  to 
100  inches.  On  the  eastern  coast  the  quantity  is  generally  less. 
So  also  in  the  Deckan  and  in  the  great  valley  of  the  Ganges. 
On  the  Ghat  mountains  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the 
four  months  of  the  monsoon  often  exceeds  200  inches,  and 
sometimes  amounts  to  300  inches.  The  tops  of  some  of  these 
liigh  mountains  are  enveloped  in  thiek  fog  and  clouds,  and  have 


GEOGRAPHY. 


7 


almost  incessant  rain  for  several  months.  The  cascades  formed 
by  the  floods  of  rain  at  this  season  arc  often  sublime  and 
beautiful. 

The  Coromandel  Coast  is  so  much  sheltered  by  the  moun- 
tains and  high  table-land  of  INIysore  on  the  south-west  that  but 
little  rain  falls  in  the  months,  which  in  other  parts  of  India  are 
called  the  rainy  reason.  The  provinces  on  this  coast  have  their 
rain  chiefly  in  the  months  of  October  and  November,  and  it 
comes  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Hence  the  inhabitants  there 
speak  of  the  south-west  monsoon  and  of  the  north-east  monsoon. 
In  Bengal  the  rains  come  generally  from  the  south,  and  the 
same  clouds  pass  over  the  great  valley  of  the  Ganges,  gradually 
turning  to  the  north-west  in  the  direction  of  the  chain  of  the 
Himalaya  mountains  till  they  reach  Cashmere  and  the  Punjab, 
where  tlie  rains  become  comparatively  light. 

The  rainy  months  are  the  natural  season  of  production  over 
aU  India.  The  earth,  having  become  dry  and  hot,  often  to  the 
depth  of  several  feet,  absorbs  the  first  heavy  rains.  But  the 
ground  soon  becomes  saturated,  and  the  warm  state  of  the  earth 
and  of  the  atmosphere  day  and  night  adds  force  and  vigor  to  tlie 
ordinary  productive  powers  of  nature.  Vegetation  springs  up 
with  a degree  of  rapidity  and  grows  with  a luxuriousness  quite 
unknown  in  temperate  climates.  The  change  in  the  whole 
face  of  nature  is  great  and  surprising.  Li  a few  weeks  aU  the 
tanks  and  ponds  are  fuU.  Streams  flow  in  channels  where  there 
had  been  no  water  for  months,  and  rivers  which  had  become 
almost  dry,  fill  their  channels,  and  bursting  their  banks  occasion 
great  damage.  The  rains  close  gradually,  continuing  longer 
in  some  provinces  than  in  others.  September  is  included  in  the 
rainy  season,  though  generally  on  the  sea-shore  and  in  the  large 
and  low  plains  but  little  rain  falls  in  this  month.  In  the  moun- 
tainous districts  and  on  high  table-land  the  rains  often  continue 
into  October,  and  then  close  with  heavy  show^ers  and  much 
thunder  and  lightning. 

From  the  close  of  the  rainy  season  tfll  June,  the  weather  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  country  is  fair.  There  is  seldom  a 
shower  of  rain  or  a cloudy  day.  The  atmosphere,  especially  in 
the  mornings,  is  often  smoky  and  foggy.  The  gromid  is  dry 
and  parched,  and  the  wind  often  raises  clouds  of  dust.  Vege- 


8 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


tation  except  now  and  then  in  spots  cultivated  by  irrigation, 
becomes  dry  and  apparently  dead.  Cattle,  horses,  etc.,  graze 
wherever  they  can  find  any  thing  to  eat,  but  they  become  lean 
and  require  fodder,  which  is  provided  for  them  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son, as  provision  is  made  in  America  in  summer  to  supply  the 
wants  of  winter.  Trees,  whether  scattered  or  in  forests,  gener- 
ally retain  their  leaves,  but  they  have  not  the  verdure  and  fresh- 
ness of  the  rainy  season.  They  must  root  deep  in  the  ground 
and  require  little  moisture,  or  they  would  dry  up  and  perish  dur- 
ing such  a drought  and  heat  of  seven  or  eight  months’  duration. 
Those  districts  which  have  no  forests  and  few  trees,  appear  bar- 
ren, dreary,  and  desolate.  Water  fit  to  drink  often  becomes 
very  scarce,  the  springs,  wells,  and  streams  drying  up.  In  the 
months  of  March,  April,  and  May,  the  mirage*  often  appears  in 
great  beauty  for  some  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  some 
districts  hot  winds  blow  for  some  hours  in  the  middle  of  the 
day,  and  they  are  very  wdthering  and  enervating.  The  change 
from  the  hot  months  to  the  ramy  season  is  earnestly  desired  by 
all  classes,  Europeans  and  natives.  The  temperature  then  at 
once  becomes  cooler  and  humid,  and  the  sky  is  overcast  with 
clouds  most  of  the  time  for  several  months. 


DISEASES. 

Cholera  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  India  and  for  many  | 
years  its  ravages  were  confined  to  that  country,  but  it  has  now 
become  known  by  sorrowful  experience  in  nearly  aU  parts  of  the' 

♦ Tiie  following  is  an  extract  from  the  writer’s  journal  when  on  a tour  in  the 
Deckan  in  183G.  “To  day  at  several  places  on  the  road  the  atmospherical 
phenomenon  called  mirage,  appeared  in  great  variety  and  beauty.  Sometimes  it 
appeared  like  a broad  river,  flowing  with  a rapid  current  and  agitated  by  the 
wind.  In  another  place  it  exhibited  the  appearance  of  a lake,  several  miles  in 
extent,  studded  with  islands  and  rufiled  with  waves.  This  phenomenon  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  Deckan,  in  the  dry  season.  I have  several  times  seen  it  l)cforc, 
but  never  in  such  variety  and  beauty  as  I saw  it  to-day.  Tlie  name  in  the 
native  language  is  nirugzul,  literally  deer-water,  and  the  people  say  it  is  so  called 
because  the  deer,  deceived  in  believing  places  exhibiting  these  phenomena  to 
be  streams  and  ponds  of  water,  arc  often  seen  running  to  them,  and  then  from 
one  place  to  another,  pursuing  the  floating  vapor  in  the  delusive  hope  of 
quenching  their  thirst.” 


GEOGRAPHY. 


9 


world.  It  is  goneraUy  committing  its  ravages  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  and  its  appearance  in  any  place  does  not  excite 
much  attention  or  anxiety,  till  cases  of  it  have  become  fre- 
quent, and  many  of  them  have  proved  fatal.  Great  consterna- 
tion then  seizes  all  classes,  and  as  many  as  can  find  means, 
escape  for  their  lives,  so  that  villages  and  even  districts  are  for  a 
while  almost  deserted.  This  disease  has  been  a great  scourge 
to  India,  and  little  progress  has  been  made  in  ascertaining  the 
causes,  or  discovering  any  remedy  for  it.  Fevers,  dysentery, 
hepatic  affections,  rheumatism,  ophthalmia,  and  leprosy  are  fre- 
quent diseases.  Of  the  last  mentioned  there  are  two  or  three 
different  kinds.  One  of  these,  called  sometimes  the  black 
leprosy,  I have  no  doubt  is  the  disease  described  by  Moses  in 
the  laws  given  to  the  Jews.*  It  is  a dreadful  disease,  hereditary, 
contagious,  and  incurable.  I do  not  wonder  at  the  strictness 
of  the  laws  of  Moses  concerning  it.  When  an  attack  of 
disease  becomes  a clearly  developed  case  of  this  kind  of  leprosy, 
the  unhappy  subject  is  separated  from  his  family  and  aU  society, 
almost  as  much  as  such  an  one  would  have  been  of  old  among 
the  Jews.  Such  persons  often  live  for  several  years,  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  conceive  of  human  beings  more  diseased,  distressed, 
helpless,  and  hideous  than  they  become.  There  is  another  kind 
of  leprosy  which  appears  to  be  the  same  as  is  mentioned  in 
several  places  in  the  Scriptures.f  This  disease  makes  its  first 
appearance  in  a small  white  spot  or  spots  on  some  part  of  the 
body,  which  increase  till  the  skin  over  the  greater  part  and 
sometimes  over  the  whole  body  becomes  changed  into  a dull, 
dirty  white  color,  the  person  thus  exhibiting  a very  singular 
appearance.  This  disease  does  not  occasion  much  suffering, 
and  sometimes  does  not  appear  to  affect  the  general  health.  It 
is  said  to  be  incurable  and  is  considered  a great  affliction, 
though  it  does  not,  like  the  black  leprosy,  debar  the  sufferer  from 
all  domestic  and  social  intercourse.  A disease  called  elephan- 
tiasis., very  frequent  in  some  districts,  has  been  regarded  by 
many,  though  perhaps  not  properly,  as  a kind  of  leprosy.  It  has 
the  appearance  of  leprosy  and  dropsy  combined.  The  disease 
is  chiefly  confined  to  the  lower  Hmbs,  which  become  much 


7 

JLJ./7- 


5 


* See  13th  and  14th  chapters  of  Leviticus, 
f See  Ex.  4 : 6.  Num.  12:10.  2 Kings  5 : 27. 


10 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


swollen,  heavy,  and  unwieldy,  of  very  unsightly  appearance,  and 
are  often  in  an  inflamed  and  painful  state.  This  disease  is  said 
to  be  incurable,  but  I am  not  aware  that  it  occasions  death. 

The  chmate  of  India  generally  is  not  healthy  for  Europeans ; 
indeed,  to  such  persons  some  parts  of  the  country  are  particu- 
larly unhealthy.  But  this  is  not  the  general  character  of  the 
chmate  in  respect  to  the  native  population.  If  the  inhabitants 
of  India  could  be  as  weU  supphed  wdth  wholesome  food,  have 
as  comfortable  clothing  and  houses,  and  when  hi,  could  have  as 
good  medical  attendance  and  care  as  the  inhabitants  of  Amer- 
ica and  Europe  have,  perhaps  they  would  generally  have  as 
good  health,  though  probably  the  average  duration  of  human 
life  would  stfll  be  some  years  less.  In  aU  classes  both  sexes 
arrive  at  puberty  2 or  3 years  earher  than  in  Europe  and 
America,  and  they  appear  to  be  as  far  advanced  in  life  in  their 
physical  and  mental  faculties  at  40  or  45  years  of  age,  as  the 
people  of  Europe  and  America  do  at  50  or  55 ; consequently 
the  average  duration  of  life  among  them  must  be  considerably 
less. 


MOUNTAINS,  RIVERS,  ETC. 

Cape  Comorin,  the  southern  point  of  India,  is  the  termination 
of  the  great  mountain  range  commonly  called  in  European 
geography  the  Ghats,  but  by  the  native  population  the  Syadree 
mountains.  They  extend  from  Cape  Comorin  in  a north-west 
direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast  at  a distance  varying 
from  30  to  50  miles  to  latitude  21°  or  nearly  1,000  miles.  Their 
height  varies  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet ; and  in  a few  places  it 
approaches  5,000  feet.  These  mountains  rise  abruptly  on  the 
west  side  from  nearly  the  level  of  the  sea,  but  on  the  east  side 
the  descent  is  small.  They  are  generally  covered  with  forests 
and  their  appearance  adds  much  to  the  subhme  and  beautiful 
scenery  visible  from  ships  proceeding  along  the  western  coast. 
The  Neilgherry  Hills  are  east  of  the  Ghats,  between  latitude 
10°  and  11°.  They  separate  the  table-land  of  Mysore  from 
Travancore,  and  cover  a considerable  area.  Some  of  these 
mountains  rise  to  the  height  of  7,000  and  8,000  feet,  and  furnish 
scenery  of  great  sublimity  and  beauty.  Here  are  several  impor- 
tant sanatory  stations,  which  are  much  resorted  to  by  Europeans. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


11 


The  climate  varies  but  little  through  the  year,  and  is  delightfully 
cool  and  invigorating,  when  compared  with  the  low  country  and 
the  sea-coast.  The  country  of  Mysore  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  a range  of  mountains  which  extend  to  the  river  Krishna  or 
Kistna,  but  they  are  not  so  high  as  the  Ghats  near  the  western 
coast. 

In  the  north  part  of  the  Dcckan  is  a range  of  high  hills  called 
the  Sautpoora  mountains,  which  are  situated  between  the 
Taptee  and  Nerbudda  rivers.  The  Nerbudda  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  dividing  line  between  the  Deckan  and  IDndus- 
tan.  On  the  north  side  of  this  river  is  a range  of  hills  extend- 
ing for  several  hundred  miles,  called  the  Vindya  mountains. 
The  Himalaya  mountains  form  the  northern  boundary  of  India, 
separating  it  from  Thibet.  These  mountains  extend  from  the 
Brahmaputra  to  the  Indus,  more  than  1,000  miles.  They  are 
the  highest  mountains  in  the  world,  in  some  places  exceeding 
27,000  feet.*  As  they  rise  from  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  to 
the  regions  of  perpetual  snow,  they  present  every  variety  of 
climate,  from  the  torrid  to  the  frozen  zone.  The  scenery  of 
them  from  different  places  on  the  plain,  and  in  ascending  them, 
the  views  of  the  immense  plains  below  and  of  the  towering 
heights  above  surpass  the  expectations  of  aU  who  have  described 
them.  Says  Bishop  Pleber,  “ We  could  see  one  range  of 
mountains  after  another,  quite  as  rugged  and  generally  speaking 
more  bare  than  those  we  had  left,  till  the  horizon  was  terminated 
by  a vast  range  of  ice  and  snow,  extending  its  battalion  of 
white  glittering  spears  from  east  to  west  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  follow  it,  the  principal  points  rising  lilve  towers  on  the 
glittering  rampart,  but  all  connected  by  a chain  of  humbler 
glaciers.”  Says  Raper,  “ From  the  edge  of  the  scarp  the  eye 
extended  over  7 or  8 distinct  ranges  of  hills,  till  the  view  was 
terminated  by  the  Himalaya  or  Snowy  Mountains.  ' It  is 
necessary  for  a person  to  place  himself  in  our  situation  before 
he  can  form  a just  conception  of  the  scene.  The  depth  of  the 
vaUey  below,  the  progressive  elevation  of  the  intermediate  hills 
and  the  majestic  splendor  of  the  cloud-capt  Himalaya,  formed 

* Dhawalgiri  is  27,462  feet,  Juwahir  is  25,740  feet,  Jumnautri  is  25,500. 
These  mountains  are  higher  than  any  other  in  the  world,  Chimborazo  the  high- 
est peak  of  the  Andes  being  only  21,464  feet. 


12 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


SO  grand  a picture  that  the  mind  was  impressed  with  a sensa- 
tion of  dread  rather  than  of  pleasure.”  Says  Elphinstone, 
“ The  stupendous  height  of  those  mountaius,  the  numerous 
nations  by  whom  they  are  seen,  and  who  seem  to  be  brought 
together  by  this  common  object,  and  the  awful  and  undisturbed 
solitude  which  reign  amidst  their  eternal  snows,  fill  the  mind 
with  admiration  and  astonishment  which  no  language  can 
express.” 

Simla  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  Himalaya,  Darjeling  in 
Bengal,  Abu  in  Gujerat,  KhandaUa  and  Mahabuleshwur  on 
the  Ghats  nearly  east  from  Bombay,  and  Ootacummund,  Khotta- 
gherry,  and  some  other  places  on  the  Neilgherry  and  Pulney 
Hdls  in  Mysore,  are  much  resorted  to  as  health-stations  by 
Europeans,  especially  in  the  hot  months.  These  hill-stations 
correspond  in  some  degree  to  the  watering  places  in  ^Vmerica, 
as  Saratoga,  Newport,  Cape  May,  etc.  There  is,  however,  this 
important  difference.  A large  part  of  India  is  as  hot  upon  an 
average  through  the  year,  as  the  cities  in  the  United  States  are 
in  the  summer  months.  And  so  many  of  the  people  at  these 
sanatory  stations  are  persons,  who,  having  become  enervated  by 
long  residence  in  the  low  country,  continue  at  these  places 
especially  at  those  in  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  for  1, 
2,  and  3 years.  By  these  changes  many  are  able  to  prolong  their 
residence  in  India,  and  for  some  diseases  the  climate  of  these 
mountains  is  believed  to  be  the  best  that  could  be  found  in  any 
country,  better  than  a voyage  on  sea,  or  a residence  in  Europe 
or  America. 

Bengal  and  the  lands  bordering  on  the  Ganges,  in  some 
places  for  100  miles  and  more  on  each  side  of  the  banks,  are 
perfectly  level.  In  ascending  this  noble  river  the  country 
appears  for  some  hundred  miles  lilce  an  unlimited  prairie.  A 
large  extent  of  country  bordering  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Indus, 
is  level,  and  between  this  river  and  Ajmerc  is  a sandy  barren 
desert,  extending  for  several  hundred  miles  almost  without 
cultivation  or  inhabitants.  Very  little  rain  falls  over  this  large 
region,  and  the  distriets  bordering  upon  it  frequently  suffer 
from  drought  and  consequent  famine.  Gujerat  is  generally 
level  but  is  fertile.  In  some  parts  of  the  Deckan  are  plains 
nearly  level,  extending  as  far  as  the  eye  ean  reach,  while  in 


GEOaRAPIIT. 


13 


other  places  hills  or  mountains  generally  running  in  ranges 
diversify  the  face  of  the  country. 

The  Indus  rises  in  Thibet  north  of  the  Himalaya  mountains, 
runs  first  north-west  and  then  south-west  for  several  hundred 
miles,  and  enters  India  west  of  Cashmere.  It  reeeives  large 
tributaries  as  the  Sutlege,  the  Hydrastes,  the  Chenab,  and  the 
Hydaspis  in  the  Punjab,  and  then  flows  nearly  south  into  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Its  whole  course  is  1,700  miles.  Steamboats 
and  various  kinds  of  river  craft  ply  upon  it,  but  its  navigation  is 
much  obstructed  by  sand-banks,  sudden  changes  m the  channels, 
inundations,  and  rapids.  The  Ganges  rises  among  the  Hima- 
layas on  the  south  side,  and  flows  through  the  most  celebrated, 
fertile,  and  populous  part  of  India  for  1,600  miles  into  the  Bay 
of  Bengal.  This  river  is  held  in  great  estimation  by  the  Hin- 
dus, and  particular  places  on  it,  as  Hurdwar,  Allahabad,  and 
Benares,  are  among  the  most  celebrated  places  of  pilgrimage  in 
India.  There  is  much  commerce  on  this  river,  but  the  sudden 
inundations,  changes  in  the  channel,  etc.,  often  make  the  navi- 
gation tedious  and  dangerous.  The  Brahmaputra  is  nearly  as 
large  and  as  long  as  the  Ganges,  but  as  it  flows  most  of  the 
distance  through  territories  not  subject  to  the  English,  it  is  not 
so  well  kno^\^l,  and  is  less  used  for  commerce.  The  Nerbudda 
separates  Hindustan  from  the  Deckan.  Its  course  is  nearly 
west  for  700  or  800  miles  to  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  The  channel 
of  this  river  is  very  rocky.  In  the  rainy  season  the  current  is 
so  rapid,  and  in  the  hot  season  the  water  is  so  low,  that  there  is 
but  little  commerce  upon  it.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Taptee 
for  most  of  its  course  of  500  miles  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
The  city  of  Surat  is  on  this  river  a few  miles  fi:om  its  mouth. 
All  the  large  rivers  of  the  peninsula,  as  the  Godavery,  the 
Krishna,  and  the  Cavery,  flow  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  These 
rivers  are  very  useful  for  irrigating  the  lands  on  their  banks  for 
cultivation,  but  the  inundations  and  currents  are  so  great  and 
sudden  in  the  rainy  season,  and  the  water  is  reduced  so  low  in 
the  dry  season,  that  they  are  little  used  for  manufactures  or  for 
commerce.  The  mouths  of  these  rivers  are  also  much  obstructed 
by  shallows  and  sand-banks. 

2 


14 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


POPULATION. 

India  appears  to  have  been  a populous  part  of  the  world 
from  its  earliest  authentic  history.  It  probably  had  as  large  a 
population  1,500  and  2,000  years  ago  and  even  before  that  time, 
as  it  has  had  for  200  and  300  years  past  smce  it  became  known 
to  the  nations  of  Europe.  A census  of  Bengal  and  of  some 
other  parts  subject  to  the  English  has  been  taken,  but  there  has 
never  been  any  census  of  the  whole  of  India,  and  so  the  popu- 
lation of  aU  the  country  must  be  a matter  of  estimation.  Ham- 
ilton in  his  large  work  on  India  has  given  a table  of  the 
different  provinces,  exhibiting  the  population  of  each,  as 
enumerated  and  estimated,  and  makes  the  total  to  be  134,000,- 
000.  The  authors  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  in  an  ably 
written  and  carefuUy  prepared  article  on  Hindustan,  have  also 
estimated  the  population  at  134,000,000.  Mr.  McCulloch  in 
his  geography  estimated  the  population  at  131,750,000.  Elphin- 
stone  in  his  late  work  on  India  estimates  the  population  by  the 
best  information  he  could  obtain,  at  140,000,000.  These  esti- 
mates were  made  before  the  conquest  of  Scinde  and  the  Punjab. 
In  the  debates,  reports,  etc.,  in  Parliament  when  the  renewal  of 
the  East  India  Company’s  charter,  or  the  future  government  of 
India,  was  lately  under  consideration,  the  entire  population  was 
assumed  to  be  150,000,000.  This  number  included  Scinde  and 
the  Punjab.  Of  this  population  some  estimates  make  one 
eighth  and  others  make  one  tenth  part  to  be  Mohammedans.  — 
A more  particular  description  of  the  different  classes  comprising 
this  great  population,  will  be  given  in  another  part  of  this  work. 


ANIMALS,  ETC. 

The  elephant,  either  wild  or  domestic,  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
India.  In  their  wild  state  they  are  found  chiefly  in  the  forests 
on  the  Malabar  Coast,  in  Assam  and  Rajpootana.  An  elephant 
at  his  birth  is  about  3 feet  high,  and  is  said  to  be  from  20  to  30 
years  in  attaining  his  full  growth.  Their  common  height  is  9 
and  10  feet.  In  sortie  extreme  cases  they  are  said  to  reach  11 
feet.  They  were  formerly  in  great  demand  among  the  native 


OEOGRAPIIT. 


15 


powers  for  purposes  of  state,  and  were  used  in  war.  In  the 
army  of  Poms,  who  resisted  ^Vlexander  the  Great  in  his  invasion 
of  India,  were  200  war  elephants.  When  Malimoud  of  Ghizni 
invaded  India,  Jypal  the  Raja  of  Lahore  eame  against  him  with  a 
large  army  in  which  were  “ 350  chain  elephants.”  Ferishta  says 
that  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni  had  at  one  time  1,300  war  elephants, 
obtained  chiefly  from  India,  and  that  Acber  near  the  close  of  his 
reign  had  5,000,  which  appears  not  improbable  considering  his 
great  wealth  and  power.  The  changes  which  have  taken  place 
in  the  political  state  and  government  of  the  country,  and  in  the 
tactics  and  instruments  of  war  since  the  invention  of  fire-arms, 
have  greatly  diminished  the  number  and  value  of  elephants. 
Lions  are  not  unfrequent  in  the  north-western  provinces.  The 
male  differs  from  the  African  lion,  in  having  no  mane.  “ The 
lion,”  says  Bishop  Heber,  “which  was  long  supposed  to  be 
unknown!  in  India,  is  now  ascertained  to  exist  in  considerable 
numbers  in  the  districts  of  Saharanpore  and  Loodiana.”  Tigers 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  largest  and  fiercest 
tigers  in  the  wmrld  are  found  in  the  lower  part  of  Bengal  in  the 
large  forests  and  jungles  near  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges  and 
Brahmaputra.  These  are  often  called  the  royal  Bengal  tigers. 
The  hunting  of  tigers  was  formerly  a favorite  sport  of  the  em- 
perors and  princes  of  the  country.  It  is  a favorite  and  often 
very  dangerous  sport  of  Europeans.  Leopards  are  common 
and  are  large  and  fierce.  The  rhinoceros  is  found  in  the  forests 
in  the  eastern  provinces  of  Bengal.  The  camel  is  frequent  in 
all  parts  of  India,  and  is  much  used  for  riding  and  carrying  bur- 
dens. Horses  are  very  common,  but  generally  small.  The  best 
horses  in  India  are  brought  from  Arabia  and  Persia.  Buffaloes 
are  domesticated  and  kept  for  milk.  Cattle  are  abundant.  Bears, 
wolves,  wild  dogs,  and  hogs  are  abundant  in  some  provinces ; so 
also  are  antelopes  and  deer  of  various  kinds ; also  hyenas, 
monkeys,  porcupines,  jackals,  foxes,  etc.  Sheep  and  goats  are 
kept  in  great  abundance.  The  wool  of  sheep  is  coarse,  gener- 
ally black  and  of  little  value.  The  English  have  made  repeated 
efforts  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  wool  of  the  Indian  sheep, 
but  with  little  effect.  It  has  been  found  that  if  sheep  with  fine 
wmol  are  taken  from  cold  climates  to  India,  their  wmol  soon  be- 
comes coarse  like  the  indigenous  sheep  and  so  is  of  little  value. 


16 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Cross-breeding  has  not  yet  produced  the  results  which  were 
expected.  The  celebrated  Cashmere  shawls  are  made  of  the 
fine  hair  or  wool  of  goats  pecuhar  to  that  country. 

Of  serpents  there  are  many  kinds ; the  anaconda,  or  boa  con- 
strictor, grows  to  a great  size  in  the  forests ; the  much  dreaded 
cobra,  or  cobra  de  capello,  is  very  frequent ; there  are  many  other 
kinds  of  poisonous  snakes.  Scorpions  of  different  kinds  are 
frequent.  Musquitoes  are  so  numerous  and  venomous  that  it 
is  necessary  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country  in  the  hot  months, 
and  in  many  places  through  the  year,  to  sleep  under  gauze  cur- 
tains. Vultures,  eagles,  buzzards,  peacocks,  ducks,  etc.,  abound 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Fish  are  abundant,  and  fisher- 
men are  a numerous  class  on  the  sea-shore  and  along  the  large 
rivers.  Alligators,  turtles,  etc.,  are  fomid  in  the  creeks  and 
rivers. 

5IINERALS,  ETC. 

There  are  no  gold  or  silver  mines  now  wrought  to  any  extent 
in  India.  Golconda  was  once  celebrated  for  its  diamonds,  but 
these  mines  are  not  now  wrought,  and  diamonds  are  seldom 
found.  Cornelian  and  agates  are  found  and  exported  in  consid- 
erable quantities.  Iron  ore  is  abundant  in  several  places,  but 
the  want  or  expense  of  fuel  prevents  these  mines  being  wrought 
to  any  considerable  extent,  and  so  the  country  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  iron  from  Europe.  Marble  is  abundant  in  Rajpootana 
and  rock  salt  in  the  Punjab.  Saltpetre  is  produced  in  great 
quantities  in  Bengal,  and  much  is  exported  to  the  European 
and  American  markets.  Coal  has  been  found  in  several  places 
in  Bengal,  and  is  coming  into  extensive  use.  It  has  also  been 
discovered  on  the  banks  of  the  Nerbudda,  but  for  want  of  means 
of  transportation  it  has  been  but  httle  used.  The  railroads 
which  have  been  projected  and  are  now  in  fhe  process  of  con- 
struction, will  pass  through  these  coal  beds.  The  coal  will  then 
be  available  for  manufactures  and  commerce,  and  its  use  for 
these  purposes  will  form  a new  era  in  the  history  of  India. 

Cotton  is  indigenous  and  is  produced  in  abundance  over 
several  provinces.  Its  cultivation  might  be  extended  almost 
indefinitely.  The  sugar-cane  is  cultivated,  and  large  quantities 
of  sugar  arc  exported.  Indigo  and  siUc  are  produced  and 


GEOGRAPHY. 


17 


exported  in  large  quantities  to  Europe  and  America.  In  some 
provinces  the  poppy  is  cultivated,  and  opium  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  export.  Rice  is  cultivated  in  the  low  grounds 
of  the  peninsula,  in  Gujerat  and  in  the  great  valley  of  the 
Ganges,  and  in  all  these  provinces  is  the  principal  article  of 
food.  In  districts  where  the  miture  of  the  soil  or  want  of 
water  will  not  admit  of  the  cultivation  of  rice,  wheat,  barley, 
jowaree,  bazaree  and  other  kinds  of  grain  are  produced  in 
abundance.  The  forests  produce  excellent  wood  for  building 
and  furniture.  The  teak,  or  Indian  oak  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  hardness  and  durability,  and 
some  of  the  best  ships  in  the  British  navy  and  in  their  mercan- 
tile marine  have  been  built  in  India.  Elegant  furniture  is  made 
of  several  different  kinds  of  wood,  among  which  is  a kind  of 
ebony  called  blackwood,  and  a species  of  mahogany  called  jack- 
wood.  Of  bamboos,  there  are  several  different  kinds  and  aU  are 
applied  to  useful  purposes.  The  palm  and  cocoa-nut  tree  are 
abimdant,  the  groves  or  forests  often  extending  in  the  south- 
ern provinces  for  miles  in  every  direction. 

It  win  be  seen  from  the  above  that  India  is  rich  in  natural 
productions  and  resources.  Of  its  manufactures  and  commerce 
some  accoimt  will  be  given  in  another  part  of  this  work. 


2* 


. PART  II. 

HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 

The  early  history  of  India  is  involved  in  much  obscurity. 
There  are  no  means  of  determining  the  date  of  any  event  pre- 
vious to  the  invasion  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  is  generally 
reckoned  to  have  been  325  years  before  the  Christian  era.  India 
was  then  found  to  be  a civilized  and  populous  country,  contain- 
ing several  separate  and  independent  nations,  and  there  was 
evidence  that  it  had  been  such  for  several  centuries.*  Nor  is  it 
possible  to  find  any  authenticated  facts,  or  to  prepare  any  reg- 
ular, connected,  and  consistent  history  of  the  country  for  some 
centuries  after  that  invasion.  From  that  great  event  till  the 
Mohammedan  invasion,  a period  of  more  than  1,000  years,  the 
history  of  India  is  nearly  as  obscure  and  the  want  of  materials 
for  compiling  it  is  nearly  as  great,  as  they  are  in  respect  to  the 
period  before  that  country  became  known  to  the  nations  of 
western  Asia  and  Europe  by  that  memorable  invasion  of  the 
great  hero  of  antiquity.  Indeed,  history  is  a department  of 

* “ In  reading  any  thing  written  about  India,  it  is  always  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  that  India  is  oidy  a name  applied  by  Europeans  to  a great  many  coun- 
tries, peopled  by  difTerent  nations  and  races  of  men,  as  different  from  each 
other  in  language,  habits,  and  customs,  as  the  various  nations  inhabiting  modern 
Europe.  Tlic  natives  do  not  know  what  we  mean  by  India,  unless  we  inform 
them.  They  speak  of  countries  and  nations  in  which  the  Hindu  religion  is  pro- 
fessed only  in  the  same  way  that  we  speak  of  countries  and  nations  professing 
Christianit}’.  India  as  one  country,  is  unknown  to  them,  unless  they  have  an 
idea  of  the  lands  where  their  religion  prevails,  similar  to  what  we  have  when 
we  speak  of  Christendom.  The  Bengalee,  the  Ilindustance,  the  Mahratta,  and 
theTamulian,  arc  as  much  men  of  different  nations,  as  the  Jlnglish,  the  French, 
the  Germans,  and  the  Italians.” — Buyers. 


(18) 


HISTORY  — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


19 


literature  whieh  was  quite  unknown,  or  at  least  uneultivated, 
ainonsr  the  aneient  nations  of  India  — a remarkable  faet  eoneern- 
ing  a people  so  mucli  eivilized,  and  who  have  left  so  much  liter- 
ature, and  some  of  it  of  a high  character  on  other  subjects. 

And  yet  the  Hindus  have  what  they  believe  to  be  genuine 
histories  of  their  country,  contained  in  works  which  claim  to 
be  of  divine  origin.  These  works  are  their  Purans  and  poems, 
written  long  ago,  and  still  held  in  great  veneration.  These 
works,  if  not  of  the  natme  of  true  history,  yet  show  the  state 
and  character  of  the  people  of  the  ages  when  they  were  written. 
They  have  had  much  influence  on  the  state  and  character  of 
the  people  of  modern  India,  and  so  are  subjects  of  great 
interest. 

The  first  thing  that  strikes  us  in  examining  these  works,  is 
their  extravagant  claims  to  great  antiquity.  In  this  respect 
however  the  Hindus  have  only  done  like  other  ancient  nations, 
who  were  not  compelled  to  connect  their  origin  with  definite 
facts  and  acknowledged  events.  The  Athenians  boasted  that 
they  were  as  ancient  as  the  sun.  The  Arcadians  pretended 
that  they  were  older  than  the  moon.  The  Lacedoemonians 
called  themselves  the  sons  of  the  earth.  The  Egyptians  pre- 
tended that  they  were  older  than  any  other  nation.  The  Chal- 
deans pretended  that  they  could  show  their  history  for  150,000 
years.  The  Burmese  and  the  Chinese  claim  an  origin  yet  more 
extravagant  and  incredible.  But  these  pretensions  to  antiquity 
are  supported  by  no  well-authenticated  facts  or  events,  and 
they  furnish  no  materials  for  connected  and  credible  history. 

The  Hindu  chronology,  as  contained  in  their  sacred  books, 
consists  of  four  periods  called  ymgas.  The  first  period  is  called 
the  Satya  yuga,  and  continued  for  1,728,000  years  from  the 
creation.  The  second  period  is  called  the  Tret  yuga,  and  con- 
tinued for  1,296,000  years.  The  third  period  is  called  the 
Dwarpur  yuga,  and  continued  for  864,000  years.  And  the 
fourth  period  is  called  the  Kalee  yuga,  which  is  the  present  age 
or  period,  and  is  to  continue  for  432,000  years.  Of  this  last 
period,  they  believe  nearly  5,000  years  have  passed.  The 
amount  of  these  four  periods  is  4,320,000  years.*  They  refer  to 
longer  periods  than  these,  as  4,320,000,000  years  make  a kalpa 

* Tliere  is  some  difference  in  this  chronology  in  different  works.  I have 
given  the  one  that  appears  to  have  the  most  authority. 


20 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

or  clay  of  Brahm.  Each  kalpa  contains  14  periods  called 
manawantaras.  Each  manawantara  contains  71  mota  yugas,  or 
great  ages,  and  each  mota  yuga  contains  4 yugas  of  unequal 
length.  At  the  end  of  a kalpa  the  world  is  destroyed,  but  is  to 
be  renewed  again.  A comparison  of  these  yugas  with  the 
Hindu  astronomy,  will  show  that  they  were  fixed  with  refer- 
ence to  certain  supposed  retrospective  astronomical  conjunc- 
tions or  events.  Their  astronomers  were  Brahmins,  the  hered- 
itary priesthood,  and  their  teachings  and  writings,  whatever 
these  might  be,  were  received  as  true,  and  so  these  assumed 
eras  became  the  generally  believed  chronology  of  the  country. 

The  same  sacred  books  contain  other  things  yet  more  mar- 
vellous. Thus  it  is  asserted  that  in  the  Satya  yuga,  human  life 
was  100,000  years,  and  the  human  stature  was  21  cubits,  or 
about  37  feet  high.  In  the  Tret  yuga,  life  was  reduced  to  10,000 
years.  In  the  Dwarpur  yuga  it  was  reduced  to  1,000  years,  and 
in  the  Kalee  yuga  — the  present  age  — it  has  been  reduced  to 
100  years.  Some  of  the  ancient  heroes  are  declared  to  have 
had  10  and  12  faces,  and  15  and  20  arms.  A celebrated  king 
by  the  name  of  Sagur  had  60,000  sons,  aU  born  in  a pumpkin, 
nourished  in  pans  of  milk,  and  aU  consumed  and  reduced  to 
ashes  by  the  curse  of  one  Rishi.  The  sun  is  declared  to  be 
800,000  miles  from  the  earth,  and  the  moon  to  be  twice  as  far, 
or  800,000  miles  beyond  the  sun.  The  earth  is  flat  and  circular, 
and  its  circumference  is  declared  to  be  4,000,000,000  mUes. 
Mount  Sumeru  * is  declared  to  be  600,000  miles  high,  and  to 
descend  128,000  miles  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
changes  of  day  and  night  are  believed  to  be  caused  by  the  sun 
revolving  around  this  mountain.  So  when  it  is  day  in  the 
countries  on  the  south  side,  it  is  night  in  those  on  the  opposite 
side,  etc.  Their  astronomy  f and  geography  contam  numerous 

* Probably  this  name  was  then  given  to  the  Himalaya  mountains,  which  in 
that  early  age  of  the  world  were  unexplored  and  little  known,  and  when  in  the 
course  of  time  and  geograjdiical  research  these  mountains  and  the  countries 
around  them  became  so  well  known  as  to  show  that  those  descrij)tions  could 
not  be  applied  to  them,  the  brahmins  said  that  Sumeru  was  to  the  north  of  these 
mountains  in  countries  j'ct  uncxjdored.  And  such  is  still  the  opinion  of  brah- 
mins and  the  great  body  of  the  Hindus  who  believe  in  tlie  truth  of  these  works. 

t The  Purans  say  that  the  sun  is  800,000  miles,  (100,000  yozuns)  from  the 
earth,  and  the  moon  is  800,000  miles  beyond  the  sun.  The  constellations  arc 
800,000  miles  beyond  the  moon.  Mercury  is  1,000,000  miles  (200,000  yozuns) 


HISTORY — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


21 


statements  equally  erroneous,  absurd,  and  ridiculous.  And  as 
these  rest  on  the  same  autliority  as  their  chronology,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that,  as  far  as  containing  any  authority  of  themselves,  they 
are  all  to  be  regarded  alike ; that  is,  not  as  works  of  fact  but  of 
fancy  and  fiction  ; not  as  works  of  reason  and  revelation,  but  of 
romance  and  imagination.* 

It  is  evident  that  no  reliance  can  be  put  in  works  containing 
such  statements  in  chronology,  geography,  and  astronomy. 
Doubtless  some  of  the  kings  and  sages,  whose  names  are  men- 
tioned and  whose  exploits  and  wisdom  are  celebrated  in  these 
works,  were  real  personages,  but  the  accounts  of  them  are  so 
intermixed  with  fancies  and  fables  that  no  confidence  can  be  put 
in  them.  The  ancient  history  of  India  must  be  compiled  from 
a discretionary  use  of  such  facts  and  fragments  as  can  be  gath- 
ered up,  and  these  must  be  arranged  according  to  the  most 
approved  chronology  used  in  the  history  of  other  nations. 

ABORIGINAL  INHABITANTS. 

The  people  we  now  commonly  call  Hindus  and  whose  relig- 
ion is  called  Hinduism  or  Brahminism,  were  not  the  first 

beyond  tliein,  and  Venus  is  at  the  same  distance  beyond  Mercury.  Mars  is  at 
the  same  distance  beyond  Venus.  Jupiter  is  at  the  same  distance  from  Mars, 
and  Saturn  at  the  same  distance  beyond  Jupiter.  From  Saturn  to  Ursa  ^lajor  is 
800,000  miles,  and  from  Ursa  Major  to  Druv  (the  polar  star)  is  800,000  miles. 
The  residence  of  the  chief  gods  is  8,000,000  miles  beyond  Druv,  etc. 

♦ The  following  is  from  their  Shasters : — Mount  Meru  or  Sumeni  is  of 
the  shape  of  an  inverted  eone,  and  is  123,000  miles  in  circumference  at  the 
base,  and  256,000  miles  at  the  top.  On  this  mountain  are  the  different  heavens 
of  Vishnu,  Sheva,  Indra,  ete.  The  clouds  ascend  about  one  third  the  height  of 
the  mountain.  There  are  great  mountains  around  the  base,  on  which  are  trees 
8,800  miles  high,  and  producing  fruit  as  large  as  an  elephant.  Around  this 
mountain  are  several  countries,  the  farthest  of  which  is  surrounded  by  a salt 
sea.  Beyond  are  six  other  seas,  namely,  the  sea  of  sugar-cane  juice,  the  sea  of 
spirituous  bquors,  the  sea  of  clarified  butter,  the  sea  of  curds,  the  sea  of  milk, 
and  the  sea  of  fresh  water.  Beyond  all  these  seas  is  a country  of  gold  as  large 
as  the  rest  of  the  earth  ; beyond  this  are  chains  of  mountains,  and  then  a land 
of  darkness  supposed  to  be  hell.  — Strange  as  these  notions  appear,  they  have 
been  believed  in  India  for  many  hundred  years  past.  I have  often  seen  maps 
of  the  earth  drawn  by  the  Hindus  according  to  these  notions,  with  mount  Su- 
meru  in  the  centre  of  it,  and  then  the  different  seas  encircling  it. 


22 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


inhabitants  of  India.  This  is  evident  from  the  ancient  history  of 
the  country  (such  facts  and  fragments  as  we  have  of  it),  and 
from  the  present  state  and  character  of  the  inhabitants.  There 
are  no  means  of  ascertaining  when  the  first  inhabitants  settled 
in  the  country.  Probably  it  was  soon  after  the  dispersion  of 
mankind  from  the  great  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  The  climate, 
the  fertility,  and  the  rivers  of  India  would  natm-aUy  make  it  an 
inviting  country  for  settlement.  AU  records  and  all  traditions 
refer  to  the  west  and  the  north-west,  as  the  source  whence  the 
population  flowed  into  the  country.  The  first  inhabitants  of 
India  were  a rude  people,  who  in  the  course  of  time  became 
divided  into  different  governments.  The  different  languages 
still  in  use  show  the'  nations  into  which  India  was  at  some  early 
period  divided,  while  the  rude  tribes  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  who  have  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  Brahminical 
system  are  clearly  the  remains  of  the  original  population.  The 
Bheels  in  central  India,  the  Coolees  in  Gujerat,  the  Goands  in 
Orissa,  and  the  Shanars  and  other  tribes  or  castes  in  the  south- 
ern provinces  of  the  peninsiffa,  are  scattered  fragments  of  the 
aborigines,  or  earliest  population  of  the  country.  They  had  not 
the  distinctions  of  caste  among  them,  and  they  had  no  sacred 
books.  Their  principal  objects  of  worship  were  imaginary  spir- 
itual beings,  who  were  believed  to  inhabit  certain  places,  some- 
times to  appear  in  a visible  form,  and  to  interpose  as  they  pleased 
in  human  affairs.  They  had  priests  of  their  own  class,  who  pre- 
tended and  were  believed  to  have  communication  with  these 
supposed  spiritual  beings  and  to  be  able,  by  incantations, 
prayers,  offerings,  and  imprecations,  to  avert  their  displeasure  and 
to  secure  their  favor.  Some  of  these  beings  were  supposed  to 
be  benevolent,  but  they  were  generally  beUeved  to  be  malevo- 
lent. Hence  fear  and  dread  were  the  predominant  feelings  in 
their  religion,  and  their  worship  was  chiefly  designed  to  secure 
themselves  and  their  interests  Irom  injury.  K they  could  be 
assured  that  these  beings  would  let  them  entirely  alone  and  in 
no  way  trouble  or  hurt  them,  they  wished  for  nothing  more. 
They  would  ask  for  no  favors  from  them. 

These  beings  were  often  supposed  to  be  the  spirits  of  persons 
who  had  died,  and  who  from  feelings  of  sympathy,  or  affection, 
or  envy,  or  revenge  haunted  certain  persons  and  places.  Proba- 


HISTORY — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


23 


bly  most  of  tliese  beings  were  supposed  to  be  spirits  of  this 
class.  Accidents,  misfortunes,  calamities,  insanity,  and  epidem- 
ics were  ascribed  to  their  agency. 

There  are  no  means  for  ascertaining  how  long  the  aborigines 
of  India  continued  in  this  state,  but  probably  such  was  their 
character  for  some  centuries.  Indeed,  such  is  still  the  state  and 
character  of  several  tribes  in  ditferent  parts  of  the  country,  while 
in  some  districts  the  reUgion  of  the  people  is  evidently  a mix- 
tiue  of  their  primitive  superstitions  and  the  system  commonly 
called  Brahminism  or  Hinduism. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  HINDUS  AND  inNDUISM. 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  among  orientalists  that  the  people, 
who  are  now  commonly  called  the  Hindus,  w'ere  an  invadmg 
and  conquering  nation,  who  came  from  the  north-west  into 
India.  Sir  WiUiam  Jones  w’as  of  the  opinion  that  they  came 
from  Iran.  Adelung  was  of  the  same  opinion.  Klaproth 
believed  they  came  from  the  Caucasian  Mountains.  Schlegel 
ascribes  their  origin  to  some  place  on  the  border  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  Kennedy  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  Brahmins  first 
formed  a community  on  the  plains  of  the  Euphrates.  They 
brought  with  them  the  Hindu  religion  and  the  distinctions  of 
caste.  Or  more  probably  they  then  instituted  these  distinctions 
by  dividing  themselves  into  the  three  higher  castes,  namely,  the 
Brahmins  to  be  the  hereditary  priesthood,  the  Kshatryas  to  be 
the  military  caste,  and  the  merchants,  traders,  etc.,  who  accom- 
panied them  to  constitute  the  Vaishyas,  while  they  included  the 
lower  people  who  accompanied  them  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  in  the  Shudra  caste.  The  distinctions  of  caste  with 
the  rights  and  privileges  which  the  three  highest  shared  in  com- 
mon among  them,  the  degraded  state  of  the  whole  Shudra 
caste,  and  the  determination  to  keep  them  in  the  degraded  state 
described  in  the  Listitutes  of  Menu,  clearly  indicate  what  par- 
ties were  the  conquerors  and  intended  to  rule,  and  what  parties 
were  the  conquered  and  were  to  be  ruled. 

It  is  the  general  opinion  of  orientalists  that  the  Vedas  were 
compiled  and  put  into  their  present  form  in  the  14th  century 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  that  this  compilation  was  com- 


24 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


posed  of  notions,  rites,  etc.,  in  previous  use  among  them. 
According  to  this  opinion  the  invasion  of  India  by  the  nation 
or  tribes  who  introduced  the  present  system  of  Hinduism,  took 
place  as  early  as  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  This 
invading  and  conquering  nation  had  a much  higher  character 
of  civilization  than  the  inhabitants  they  found  in  India.  They 
became  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and 
there  they  matured  their  civil  and  religious  polity.  According 
to  the  Institutes  of  Menu,  supposed  to  be  wnitten  10  or  12  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era,  the  three  higher  castes  were  to 
be  invested  with  the  sacred  thread,  and  thence  they  are  called 
the  “twice  born;”  they  were  also  to  read  the  Vedas,  and  per- 
form sacrifices.  So  these  three  castes  must  then  have  under- 
stood the  Sanscrit  language.  Probably  Sanscrit  of  the  style  of 
the  Vedas  was  then  the  vernacular  language  of  the  conquerors. 
The  first,  or  original  inhabitants  of  the  country,  inferior  in  civili- 
zation, with  no  hereditary  priesthood  and  no  sacred  books  or 
clearly  defined  religious  system,  presented  but  a feeble  barrier 
against  a religious  system  thus  introduced  and  supported.  Still 
the  progress  of  Hinduism  in  some  parts  of  India  was  slow. 
The  Deckan  and  the  country  south  from  it  long  continued  to 
follow  their  original  superstitions,  and  even  now  the  knowledge 
and  influence  of  Brahminism  over  the  great  body  of  the  people 
in  the  southern  parts  of  the  peninsula  is  small  when  compared 
with  what  it  is  in  the  central  and  northern  provinces. 

The  Hindu  system  of  religion  and  government  became  first 
established  in  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  India,  and  for 
some  centuries  the  chief  seat  of  their  power  and  influence  was 
in  those  places.  The  actions  and  events  described  in  their 
Purans  chiefly  took  place  there,  and  there  most  of  these  books 
were  written.  In  the  Purans  and  early  poems  two  races  of 
kings  are  described,  called  the  Race  of  the  Sun  and  the  Race 
of  the  Moon,  or  the  Solar  and  the  Lunar  race.  The  Solar  race 
reigned  in  Ayodhya,  the  modern  Onde ; and  the  Lunar  race  in 
Pruyag,  the  modern  Allahabad.  These  two  capitals  were  near 
together,  and  the  families  were  closely  allied  in  their  origin  and 
by  intermarriages.  The  names  of  the  kings  of  these  pretended 
dynasties  arc  all  that  is  known  of  most  of  them.  Indeed,  even 
these  names  arc  perhaps  as  really  fictitious  as  the  duration  of 


IIISTOKT  — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


25 


their  reigns,  which  in  some  cases  are  said  to  have  exceeded 
10,000  years.  Fifty-seven  kings  of  the  Solar  race  are  said  to 
have  reigned  in  Ayodhya  previous  to  Rama  or  Ramchundra, 
who  appears  to  have  been  a real  personage,  and  who  probably 
lived  in  the  12th  or  13th  century  before  the  Christian  era.  This 
king  was  the  most  celebrated  sovereign  in  the  ancient  history  of 
India,  and  he  is  reckoned  one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu. 
But  there  is  no  credible  history  of  his  reign.  All  is  mixed  with 
fictions  and  fables.  His  life  and  reign  have  been  a fruitful  sub- 
ject for  the  poets,  but  the  most  celebrated  work  is  an  epic  poem 
by  Valmeeki,  called  the  Ramayana.  In  early  life  Rama,  whose 
father  Dushuruth  was  king  of  Ayodhya,  became  the  son-in-law 
of  the  king  of  Mithili,  another  branch  of  the  Solar  race.  Fam- 
ily troubles  soon  followed  his  marriage,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  retire  with  Seeta  his  wife  into  the  forests.  While  there, 
Rawmn,  the  king  of  Singul-Dwip,  or  Ceylon,  then  on  a visit  or 
expedition  to  the  north  part  of  Lidia,  carried  off  Seeta.  Rama 
collected  a large  army,  made  an  expedition  into  Ceylon,  and 
recovered  his  wife.  From  various  notices  in  this  poem,  the 
country  on  the  Ganges  appears  to  have  been  at  that  time  in  a 
much  higher  state  of  civilization  than  the  Deckan  and  the  other 
countries  through  which  Rama  passed  in  his  expedition  to 
Ceylon. 

The  next  work  that  throws  any  light  upon  the  dark  field  of 
Indian  history  is  the  Mahabharat,  written  probably  about  a cen- 
tury after  the  Ramayana.  This  work  is  also  an  epic  poem,  cel- 
brating  the  wars  which  took  place  among  the  princes  of  the 
Lunar  race.  In  the  wars  as  well  as  the  causes  and  circum- 
stances connected  v\dth  them,  Krishna,  one  of  the  reputed  incar- 
nations of  Vishnu,  was  a distinguished  if  not  the  most 
prominent  actor.  The  Lunar  race  had  at  this  time  become 
divided  into  many  different  branches  in  the  principal  cities  in  the 
central  and  northern  parts  of  India,  who  appear  to  have  been 
more  frequently  in  a state  of  war  than  of  peace  with  each  other. 
After  a long  series  of  complicated  intrigues  and  family  and  per- 
sonal quarrels,  the  parties  rallied  aU  their  strength  for  a general 
conflict.  Fifty.-six  royal  tribes  were  then  assembled  on  the  field 
of  Kura.  The  battle  continued  (so  the  poets  say)  for  18  days 
and  with  prodigious  slaughter  on  both  sides  before  the  contest 

3 


26 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


was  decided.  It  appears  from  this  poem  that  India  was  then 
divided  into  a large  number  of  small  separate  governments, 
which  were  often  engaged  in  wars  with  each  other,  and  now 
and  then  uniting  for  more  general  wars,  as  in  the  great  war  here 
celebrated. 

The  Hindus  are  fond  of  the  marvellous,  and  are  so  credulous 
that  they  readily  assent  to  almost  any  tiring  that  took  place  long 
ago,  or  in  some  distant  part  of  the  world.  Under  the  influence 
of  such  feelings  the  fictions  of  poetry  in  the  course  of  time 
began  to  be  considered  as  the  facts  of  history.  And  as  the 
exploits  ascribed  to  Krishna  exceeded  mere  human  power,  the 
difficulty  was  removed  by  placing  him  among  the  incarnations 
of  Vishnu.  There  was  much  in  his  conduct  at  different  times, 
which  was  pleasing  to  the  taste  and  habits  of  the  Hindus  gen- 
erally ; and  thus  deified,  Krishna  soon  became  one  of  the  favor- 
ite gods,  and  few  if  any  of  the  Hindu  deities  have  been  more 
worshipped. 

Buluram,  or  Buludeva,  sometimes  described  as  one  of  the 
brothers  of  Krishna,  was  one  of  the  same  age,  and  his  exploits 
are  celebrated  in  the  Mahabharat.  He  is  said  to  have  founded  a 
city  called  Palibothra,  probably  the  modern  Patna,  which  became 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  cities  in  India.  The  foundation 
of  two  or  three  other  cities  is  also  ascribed  to  Buluram.  He 
also  was  deified,  and  he  is  often  reckoned  among  the  incarna- 
tions of  Vishnu. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  first  inhabitants  of  India 
entered  the  country  from  the  west  or  north-west,  and  at  some 
subsequent  period  another  nation  from  the  same  source  in- 
vaded and  conquered  them,  introducing  a higher  state  of  civil- 
ization with  the  system  of  religion  called  Hinduism  or  Brahmin- 
ism,  and  which  still  continues  to  be  the  religion  of  the  great  body 
of  the  people.  There  are  traditions  and  fragmentary  records 
of  other  invasions  from  the  same  source  in  remote  antiquity.  But 
the  earliest  invasion  of  which  we  have  any  authentic  history, 
was  made  by  Darius  when  he  was  lung  of  Persia.  This  cele- 
brated monarch  became  king  of  Persia  518  years  before  Christ. 
He  extended  his  power  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  river 
Indus,  and  not  satisfied  with  this  magnificent  empire,  he  re- 
solved to  extend  his  authority  over  India.  With  this  view  he 


HISTORY — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


27 


directed  admiral  Scylax  to  construct  a flotilla  of  boats  in  the 
Punjab,  and  descending  the  river  to  explore  the  country  to  the 
sea.  These  orders  the  admiral  executed,  and  he  gave  such  a 
glowung  account  of  the  beauty  of  the  country  and  the  wealth  of 
the  inhabitants,  on  the  Indus,  that  Darius  resolved  to  add  it  to 
his  dominions.  He  invaded  India  with  a large  force,  defeated 
and  dispersed  the  armies  sent  against  him,  and  extended  his 
authority  over  the  provinces  on  the  Indus.  There  arc  no  means 
of  ascertaining  how  far  he  conquered  the  country,  but  the  con- 
quest must  have  been  extensive,  as  it  yielded  the  largest 
revenue  of  any  Satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire.  Lideed,  it  is 
said,  that  in  some  years  one  third  of  the  revenue  came  from 
India,  and  that  while  the  Persian  provinces  paid  their  revenues 
in  silver,  the  Indian  provinces  paid  theirs  in  gold.  We  are 
indebted  for  this  information  to  the  Grecian  historians,  who 
obtained  their  knowledge  from  the  Persians,  who  had  seen 
India,  and  who  told  them  that  the  people  of  the  country  who 
lived  beyond  the  Persian  conquests,  “ were  of  black  complexion, 
that  they  did  not  kill  animals  for  food,  but  lived  upon  rice, 
grain,  and  fruits,  that  they  exposed  to  death  those  who  were  so 
sick  that  they  were  not  expected  to  recover,  that  their  horses 
were  of  a small  breed,  and  that  the  people  manufactured  the 
cotton  of  the  country  into  fine  clothing.”  The  nations  thus 
referred  to  were  doubtless  those  living  in  the  great  valley  of  the 
Ganges,  and  this  description  shows  that  the  inhabitants  of 
India  2,300  years  ago,  much  resemble  their  descendants  of  the 
present  day. 

Gaudama,  the  author  of  Budhism  in  its  present  form,  and  so 
much  revered  by  aU  who  profess  that  system,  was  born  in  India 
about  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion.  But  his  life  and  sys- 
tem properly  belong  to  the  religious  history  of  India,  to  be 
considered  hereafter. 


Alexander’s  invasion. 

The  next  great  event  in  the  political  history  of  the  country 
was  its  invasion  by  Alexander  the  Great,  about  two  centmies 
after  the  invasion  of  Darius.  Of  the  state  of  the  pro\nnces 
which  Darius  had  annexed  to  his  own  dominions  during  this 


28 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


period  we  have  no  particular  information.  But  from  the  state 
in  which  Alexander  found  them,  it  appears  that  in  the  reigns  of 
the  later  Persian  monarchs,  the  provinces  on  the  Indus,  or  at 
least  all  to  the  east  of  the  Indus,  had  recovered  their  inde- 
pendence. Alexander  having  subverted  the  Persian  empire, 
directed  his  course  towards  India.  Some  say  his  object  was  to 
take  possession  of  the  eastern  provinces  of  the  Persian  empire, 
which  had  assumed  their  independence.  But  it  is  more  proba- 
ble that  his  object  was  to  extend  his  dominions  by  the  conquest 
of  India,  of  whose  power  and  riches  he  had  heard  such  marvel- 
lous accounts  from  the  Persians.  Having  obtained  possession 
of  Cabul  and  there  rested  awhile,  he  proceeded  towards  India, 
requiring  and  when  refused  enforcing  the  submission  of  all  the 
chiefs  and  people  along  hi^  march.  He  reached  the  Lidus  near 
Attock,  and  crossed  the  river  on  a bridge  of  boats.  He  found 
India  divided  into  separate  and  independent  kingdoms.  Two 
princes,  Arbissares  and  Taxiles  submitted  to  Alexander  without 
making  any  resistance,  and  friendly  relations  were  formed 
between  them.  He  then  proceeded  to  Hydaspes,  now  called 
Jylum,  one  of  the  rivers  of  the  Punjab.  The  rainy  season  had 
commenced  and  the  river  was  much  swollen.  Porus,  king  of 
the  country,  was  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  to  oppose 
his  passage.  The  Indian  army  was  arranged  with  much  skill ; 
a long  range  of  elephants,  used  to  war,  was  placed  along  the 
shore  in  front  of  the  army.  As  often  as  Alexander  made 
arrangements  to  cross  the  river,  he  saw  corresponding  arrange- 
ments made  by  his  enemy  to  resist  him.  He  saw  it  was  neces- 
sary to  devise  some  new  way,  and  to  elude  the  observation  of 
his  vigilant  enemy.  He  had  obtained  information  that  the  river 
could  be  more  easily  passed  at  an  island,  some  miles  above, 
and  taking  11,000  veterans  he  left  lus  camp  in  a dark  and 
stormy  night,  and  proceeding  to  the  island,  they  crossed  the 
river  before  morning.  As  Alexander’s  camp  presented  the  usual 
appearance  in  the  morning,  Porus  was  not  aware  of  what  had 
been  done,  till  informed  that  some  of  the  Greeks  had  crossed 
the  river,  and  were  approaching  him.  Supposing  it  must  be 
some  small  detachment,  he  despatched  his  son  against  it.  But 
his  son  was  defeated  and  slain.  Porus  then  learned  with  sur- 
prise that  .(Vlexander  had  liimself  passed  the  river  with  a large 


HISTORY — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


29 


body  of  his  army.  He  at  once  proceeded  against  him  with 
30,000  foot,  4,000  horse,  and  many  chariots  and  elephants. 
The  battle  continued  for  several  hours.  Alexander’s  army 
consisting,  as  already  stated,  of  11,000  men,  was  very  inferior 
in  numbers,  but  their  cool  courage,  their  skill  in  using  their 
weapons,  and  their  impetuosity  in  attack  made  them  irresist- 
ible. The  Indian  army  gave  way  before  them,  and  flight  soon 
became  general.  But  Porus  mounted  on  the  largest  elephant, 
and  surrounded  by  a few  chosen  troops,  continued  the  battle, 
apparently  determined  to  die  fighting.  Alexander  admiring  his 
gallantry  and  anxious  to  save  his  life,  sent  messengers  to 
beseech  him  to  surrender  on  honorable  terms.  To  this  arrange- 
ment he  at  length  consented.  When  conducted  into  the  pres- 
ence of  the  emperor,  and  asked  how  he  wished  to  be  treated,  he 
replied  with  a noble  dignity,  “ As  a king.”  Alexander  was  so 
much  pleased  wdth  his  manners  and  conduct  in  such  trying  cir- 
cumstances that  he  gave  him  his  liberty  and  established  or  con- 
firmed him  in  Ms  kingdom.  Porus  showed  that  he  could 
appreciate  such  conduct  in  Alexander,  and  continued  to  be  his 
ally  and  friend. 

Having  made  an  amicable  arrangement  with  Porus,  Alexan- 
der proceeded  through  a rich  and  populous  country  to  the 
Hyjjhasis,  now  called  the  Sutlege.  The  natives  of  India  must 
by  this  time  have  become  aware  of  the  nature  and  object  of 
his  invasion,  and  of  the  valor  and  general  character  of  his  anny. 
Such  an  victorious  army  already  within  the  borders  of  their 
country  must  have  produced  great  excitement,  if  not  consterna- 
tion throughout  aU  the  nations  and  tribes  of  northern  India. 
This  state  of  the  country  and  the  accounts  concerning  the 
power,  resources,  and  riches  of  its  kings,*  were  well  calculated 
to  raise  the  ambition  of  Alexander  to  the  Mghest  pitch.  He 

♦ Such  as  the  following,  “ Here  he  heard  of  the  kingdom  of  Magadi  on  the 
Ganges,  the  mighty  sovereign  of  which  could  bring  GOO, 000  foot  into  the  field 
with  300,000  horse  and  9,000  elephants.  He  heard  of  the  splendor  of  its  capital, 
Palibothra,  nine  miles  long,  and  his  ambition  was  kindled  to  plant  his  standard 
on  its  ramparts.” 

No  ciW  of  the  name  of  Palibothra  is  now  known  in  India.  Some  orientalists 
believe  it  stood  where  Allahabad  now  is ; others  assign  its  location  to  Patna,  and 
others  again  to  Eajamahl.  It  appears  probable  that  Patna  is  a contraction  of 
the  ancient  Palibothra  under  its  modern  name. 

3* 


30 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


was  at  this  time  just  30  years  of  age,  and  by  inheritance  or  con- 
quest had  obtained  possession  of  all  parts  of  the  world  then 
known,  and  previously  supposed  to  be  worth  conquering  and 
governing.  He  was  at  the  head  of  such  an  army  as  no  monarch 
ever  before  had  under  his  command  — an  army  trained  first  by 
his  father  and  then  by  himself,  an  army  superior  to  any  they  had 
ever  encountered,  everywhere  accustomed  to  victory,  and  every 
one  of  them  able  in  the  day  of  battle  to  take  the  command  of 
the  whole.  He  had  now  opening  before  him  a dazzling  career 
into  parts  of  the  world  hitherto  very  imperfectly  known,  but  of 
which  marvellous  accounts  were  current  through  the  western 
world. 

But  Alexander’s  army  generally  did  not  share  in  these  feel- 
ings. Many  of  them  were  becoming  advanced  in  age  and 
wished  to  exchange  the  active  labors  of  war  for  a quiet  life. 
They  had  been  long  absent  from  their  own  country  and  desired 
to  return  home.  Their  labors  had  been  hard  and  their  sufferings 
had  been  great.  They  had  accomplished  all  the  objects  for 
which  they  at  first  engaged  in  the  war.  They  saw  no  reason  or 
propriety  in  pursuing  an  apparently  interminable  career  of  con- 
quest in  unknown  parts  of  the  world  merely  for  the  further 
glory  of  their  leader,  who  had  already  acquired  more  renown 
than  any  man  ever  had  before  him.  And  further,  they  saw  that 
they  would  have  to  endure  a climate  more  severe,  enervating 
and  sickly  than  they  had  ever  known.  These  things  were  well 
calculated  to  make  the  army  hitherto  invincible  refuse  to  proceed 
any  further.  Alexander  commanded,  he  entreated,  he  threat- 
ened, and  he  wept,  but  all  was  in  vain.  The  army  continued 
inflexible.  He  was  compelled  to  yield  and  to  limit  his  conquest 
and  his  dominions  to  the  Indus.  Unable  to  proceed  any  further 
into  India,  he  resolved  to  make  somewhat  further  examination 
of  the  country  that  was  now  in  his  power.  He  caused  a flotilla 
of  boats,  one  account  says  2,000,  to  be  prepared.  When  aU 
were  ready,  solemn  sacrifices  were  offered  according  to  the 
Grecian  and  to  the  Indian  rites.  A jiart  of  the  army  embarked 
in  the  boats,  and  the  rest  made  arrangements  to  proceed  along 
the  banks  of  the  river.  And  then  with  great  shoutings  and 
rejoicings  they  commenced  their  return  homewards.  Their  pro- 
gress down  the  Indus  was  delayed  by  wars  with  some  of  the 


HISTORY  — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


31 


tribes  on  the  banks,  and  they  were  nine  months  in  reaching  the 
sea.  On  arriving  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  Nearchus  with  a 
part  of  the  fleet  proceeded  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  wliile  .iVlexander 
proceeded  with  the  army  to  Persia. 

It  was  iVlexander’s  intention  to  return  to  India,  but  lus  death 
whicli  occurred  in  less  than  two  or  three  years,  put  an  end  to  all 
his  plans.  From  the  works  of  the  Greek  authors  who  accom- 
panied him,  we  mayv  learn  much  concerning  the  state  of  the 
country  and  manners  of  the  people  at  that  time.  The  people 
were  divided  mto  classes  or  castes,  among  whom  the  Brahmins, 
called  by  some  of  the  Greeks,  gymnosophists  and  philosophers, 
especially  excited  the  curiosity  and  attention  of  Alexander  and 
the  learned  men  who  accompanied  him.  In  this  account  of 
India  it  is  said  that  the  people  burned  their  dead,  and  that 
women  sometimes  voluntarily  burned  themselves  with  the 
bodies  of  their  deceased  husbands.  Marriages  were  restricted 
to  those  of  the  same  class,  and  often  took  place  as  early  as  7 or 
8 years  of  age.  Lideed,  the  customs,  manners,  employments, 
etc.,  of  the  people  of  India  2,000  years  ago,  appear  to  have  con- 
tinued with  bttle  change  till  the  present  time. 

STATE  OF  INDIA  FROM  THE  INVASION  OF  ALEXANDER  TO  THE 
MOHAMMEDAN  CONQUEST. 

iVlexander  founded  no  colony  in  India  and  made  no  perma- 
nent changes  in  the  government  or  institutions  of  the  comitry. 
In  the  divisions  and  changes  in  the  empire  consequent  upon  his 
decease,  Seleucus,  one  of  his  ablest  generals,  obtained  the  east- 
ern part  of  his  dominions,  and  established  what  has  been  called 
the  Bactrian  and  Greco-Bactrian  kingdom.  He  claimed  those 
provinces  which  Alexander  had  conquered  on  the  Indus,  and 
resolved  to  carry  into  effect  the  scheme  of  conquest  which  his 
master  so  much  desired.  The  history  of  the  Bactrian  kingdom 
is  very  obscure,  but  it  appears  that  Seleucus  invaded  India  and 
had  somewhere  a conflict  with  the  army  of  Chandragupta, 
king  of  JMagadi,  called  by  the  Greek  historians  Sandracottus, 
and  described  as  sovereign  of  the  greater  part  of  central  and 
northern  India.  The  Greek  historians  say  that  Seleucus  was 
victorious,  but  the  result  of  the  invasion  does  not  show  such 


32 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


success  as  he  anticipated,  for  a treaty  of  peace  was  concluded, 
by  which  he  relinquished  all  claim  to  any  possession  east  of  the 
Indus.  A man-iage  connection  was  formed  between  the  two 
royal  families,  and  Seleucus  appointed  Magasthenes  to  reside  as 
his  minister  at  Pahbothra.  The  Bactrian  kingdom  under  a 
succession  of  Greek  sovereigns  continued  for  several  reigns. 
From  some  fragments  of  Grecian  and  Indian  history,  and  from 
numerous  ancient  ruins,  it  appears  that  there  were  three  differ- 
ent dynasties  of  Bactrian  kings,  who  had  much  intercourse  with 
the  princes  of  northern  India.  It  appears  that  sometimes  their 
dominions  included  provinces  east  of  the  Indus,  and  perhaps 
one  of  them  for  a while  made  his  capital  in  some  of  these  prov- 
inces. It  appears  not  unlikely  that  the  Purans  refer  to  this  king- 
dom when  they  say  that  eight  Yuwun  kings  once  reigned  in 
some  of  the  northern  parts  of  India.  Yuwuns  is  beheved  to  be 
a corruption  of  lonians,  the  name  given  to  the  Greeks  by  the 
people  of  India. 

The  Magadi  sovereigns  appear  at  this  time  to  have  been  the 
most  powerful  in  India.  Of  these  Chandragupta  was  the  most 
celebrated.  Pie  died  about  300  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mitragupta,  and  this  kingdom 
under  different  dynasties  continued  till  about  A.  D.  450,  or  for 
more  than  eight  centuries.  At  one  time,  either  as  compensa- 
tion for  territory  relinquished,  or  to  purchase  exemption  from 
invasion,  these  sovereigns  paid  to  the  Bactrian  monarchs  annu- 
ally, “ a tribute  of  50  elephants  and  a considerable  sum  of 
money.”  The  state  of  India  is  described  as  prosperous  and 
happy  under  the  Magadi  dynasty.  Commerce,  the  arts,  litera- 
ture, and  husbandry,  all  flourished.  A royal  road  is  said  to 
have  extended  from  the  capital  Pahbothra  to  the  Indus,  and 
another  to  Broach  in  Gujerat.  These  sovereigns  patronized 
learned  men  and  supported  a brilliant  court.  It  appears  to  have 
been  in  this  reign  that  the  Sanscrit  language  attained  its  highest 
state  of  polish  and  refinement. 

The  religion  professed  by  the  last  sovereigns  of  the  MagacU 
kingdom  was  Budhism.  P'he  long  continued  controversy 
between  those  professing  the  Brahminical  system,  or  common 
Hinduism,  and  those  professing  Budhism  appears  at  this  time 
to  have  come  to  a crisis,  and  probably  the  religious  wars  which 


HISTORY  — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


33 


terminated  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Budhists  from  India,  were 
connected  with  the  subversion  of  this  Idngdom.  There  is  no 
connected  and  authentic  history  of  these  events,  but  only  scat- 
tered fragments  and  poetic  allusions  to  them  in  the  Purans,  and 
notices  of  them  in  inscriptions,  ruins,  etc.  Some  of  the  large 
cave-temples  were  made  in  these  dynasties. 

Thus  the  religion  of  India  previous  to  the  INIohammedans’ 
establishing  their  power  in  the  country,  was  of  three  kinds, 
namely : — 

1.  The  religion  of  the  first  inhabitants  whieh  consisted  in  the 
worship  of  numerous  local  deities,  many  of  them  supposed 
to  be  the  spirits  of  deceased  men.  Some  of  these  were  believed 
to  be  benevolent  and  to  delight  in  the  happiness  of  mankind, 
but  they  were  oftener  believed  to  be  malevolent,  and  their  prin- 
cipal interference  in  human  affairs  was  to  inflict  misery  of  some 
kind.  Hence  the  general  sentiment  towards  them  was  fear,  and 
the  princijial  worship  consisted  in  sacrifices,  offerings,  rites,  and 
ceremonies  to  pacify  them  and  induce  them  to  let  mankind 
alone  — not  to  injure  or  trouble  them.  The  votaries  of  this 
horrid  superstition  have  no  affection  for  the  beings  they  worship, 
they  only  fear  and  dread  them.  They  expect  no  favors  or  good 
from  them.  They  only  fear  evil,  as  though  they  interfere  in 
human  affairs  only  to  do  evil.  Sometimes  they  will  torture 
themselves  or  inflict  pain  upon  one  another  in  the  belief  that 
their  supposed  deities  are  pleased  with  such  sufferings.  A 
religion  with  such  supposed  deities  for  its  objects  of  worship 
contains  material  and  wTU  furnish  occasion  for  every  kind  and 
degree  of  cruelty  and  wickedness,  which  the  depraved  and 
guilty  heart  of  man  can  conceive,  or  which  human  nature  can 
endure.  And  this  religion  with  its  dreaded  divinities,  its  sacri- 
fices of  food  and  animals,  its  offerings  of  various  kinds  of  food 
and  spirituous  liquors,  its  horrid  cruelties  and  its  self-inflicted 
tortures,  continues  still  in  some  districts  and  among  some  tribes, 
who  are  reckoned  to  belong  to  the  lower  castes. 

2.  The  next  form  of  religion  in  India  was  Brahminism,  or  the 
religion  of  the  Vedas  and  Purans,  and  commonly  called  Hindu- 
ism. The  system  was  probably  introduced  12  or  14  centmies 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  became  established  and  matured 
in  the  districts  which  compose  the  vaUey  of  the  Ganges.  From 


34 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


these  provinces,  its  first  seat  in  India,  it  spread  by  degrees,  in- 
corporating in  its  progress  in  different  directions  many  of  the 
local  deities  with  their  legends,  rites,  etc.,  till  it  became  the 
religion  of  the  most  populous  and  civilized  parts  of  the  country. 
This  system,  though  varying  much  in  different  places,  as  might 
be  expected  from  its  many  and  conflicting  sacred  books,  its 
almost  innumerable  deities,  and  its  rites  and  ceremonies  more 
than  one  man  could  ever  learn  or  have  time  to  perform,  con- 
tinues to  be  the  religion  of  the  great  body  of  the  people  to  the 
present  time. 

3.  Budhism  was  the  next  form  of  religion.  This  appears  to 
have  been  at  first  a schism  in  the  brahminical  system.  There 
is  much  obscurity  about  its  origin,  but  so  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, it  appears  to  have  originated  in  attempts  to  reform  some 
pretended  abuses  in  the  prevailing  religion,  but  it  soon  became 
a rival  system.  It  appears  certain  that  Budhism  was  awhile  the 
established  religion  of  several  dynasties  in  central  and  northern 
India,  and  many  monuments  of  it  remain  in  the  peninsula.  Of 
the  contests  and  controversies  between  Budhism  and  Brahmin- 
ism,  and  by  what  means  the  former  was  expelled  from  nearly  aU 
India,  we  have  little  authentic  information.  It  is  still  the 
religion  of  Nepaul  and  the  south  part  of  Ceylon,  and  it  is  the 
prevailing  religion  of  the  countries  east  from  India,  as  Burma, 
Siam,  and  China.  Its  temples  in  India,  now  generally  in  ruins, 
or  appropriated  to  the  system  which  triumphed  over  it  and 
expelled  it  from  the  country,  show  that  its  power  was  once 
great  and  had  a strong  hold  on  the  feelings  of  its  votaries. 

From  the  compilation  of  the  Code  of  Menu  to  the  Mohamme- 
dan invasion  was  2,000  years,  so  there  was  ample  time  for 
aU  the  changes  which  the  allusions  and  fragments  of  history 
and  the  fables  of  mythology  suggest.  The  system  of  the  Vedas 
and  Purans  (of  which  the  Institutes  of  Menu  form  a part,)  be- 
came early  established  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and  there 
obtained  its  greatest  development.  We  may  suppose  that  this 
Code  shows  the  state  of  civilization  for  a very  considerable 
period  in  those  provinces,  while  in  the  other  parts  of  India  the 
inhabitants  were  in  every  stage  of  civilization  up  to  a state  of 
barbarism.  The  religion  and  civilization  which  had  thus 
become  established  in  the  central  parts  of  India,  supported  and 


HISTORY — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


35 


enforced  as  they  were  by  a learned  hierarchy  and  a military 
class,  was  gradually  extended  in  different  directions  till  they  in- 
cluded nearly  all  India,  especially  the  parts  which  were  most 
fertile  and  populous. 

The  Hindu  governments  have  always  been  despotic,  and  are 
described  as  having  power  to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  State  as 
they  pleased.  The  sacred  character  and  supposed  spiiitual 
power  of  the  brahmins  must  always  have  been  a restraint  upon 
the  exercise  of  arbitrary  power.  The  distinctions  of  caste  also 
must  have  caused  a peculiar  kind  of  civilization,  and  it  is  re- 
markable that  some  of  the  ancient  rajas  and  princes  belonged  to 
the  general  division  or  caste  called  Shudras.  Such  facts  show 
that  the  Listitutes  of  Menu,  which  assign  all  honor  and  power 
to  the  liigher  castes  and  only  servitude  and  degradation  to  the 
Shudras,  were  not  the  laws  of  all  Lidia.  Indeed,  these  are  some 
of  the  mdications  which  show  that  this  celebrated  Code  was 
the  work  of  men,  who  wrote  it  to  show  the  form  of  government 
and  society  which  they  preferred  and  wished  to  be  adopted  and 
followed,  and  not  a body  or  system  of  laws  and  usages  actually 
in  force.  These  Shudra  princes  or  their  famffies  probably 
acquired  their  power  before  they  embraced  the  religion  of  the 
Vedas  and  Purans.  This  extension  of  Hinduism  increased  the 
number  of  castes,  and  contributed  to  the  confusion  which  now 
exists.  The  people  of  a new  province  or  kingdom  were  formed 
more  or  less  mto  distinct  castes,  but  did  not  amalgamate  or 
unite  wdth  those  of  other  districts. 

The  state  of  civilization  m India  previous  to  the  JMohamme- 
dan  invasion,  though  very  unequal  in  the  different  kingdoms  into 
which  the  coimtry  was  divided,  was  yet  such  as  clearly  to  place 
the  inhabitants  among  civilized  nations.  This  is  evident  from 
the  character  of  the  Sanscrit  language  and  many  works  in  its 
literature.  Among  these  works  none  have  excited  more  atten- 
tion and  none  deserve  more  consideration  than  the  Institutes  of 
IMenu.  This  work  has  been  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
wiitten  as  early  as  the  9th  or  10th  century  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  it  contains  a code  of  religious,  civil,  and  criminal  laws, 
all  claiming  to  be  of  divine  authority,  and  so  regarded  by  the 
orthodox  Hindus.  The  great  object  of  these  laws  appears  to 


36 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


be  to  exalt  the  brahminical  caste,  and  they  contain  evidence  of 
having  been  compiled  by  men  of  this  caste  and  with  an  un- 
scrupulous view  to  their  own  interest.  Some  have  supposed 
that  this  Code  was  once  the  universal  law  of  India.  But  there 
is  not  sufficient  reason  for  believing  this  opinion.  It  is  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  compilers  arranged  these  laws  so 
as  to  show  what  in  their  opinion  ought  to  be,  or  what  they 
wished  to  be  observed,  than  what  had  been  or  were  being  ob- 
served. StiU  this  Code,  if  not  at  its  origin,  yet  at  an  early 
period  in  its  history,  was  received  as  of  divine  authority,  and  so 
exerted  much  influence  among  the  people.  But  it  was  probably 
with  this  Code  as  it  was  with  the  Je\^^sh  laws  of  old,  and  as  it 
has  been  in  modern  times  with  the  doctrines  of  Mohammedan- 
ism and  Christianity,  that  many  who  live  in  countries  where 
these  systems  prevail,  pay  little  or  no  regard  to  them ; while 
many  others  who  profess  to  believe  them,  yield  obedience  no 
farther  than  is  convenient  and  agreeable. 

Among  the  celebrated  names  in  Indian  mythology  and  his- 
tory is  Vikram  and  Vikramditya,  and  these  names  are  applied 
at  pleasure  to  the  same  individual.  Several  monarchs  of  this 
name  are  mentioned,  but  the  one  who  established  the  com- 
mencement of  his  reign,  as  an  era  which  stiU  continues  in  use 
in  central  India,  has  been  chiefly  celebrated.  He  commenced 
his  reign  in  Oujein,  then  called  Awanti,  56  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  He  was  renowned  for  his  virtues  in  peace  and 
for  his  prowess  in  war.  He  encouraged  learning  and  supported 
many  learned  men  at  his  court,  among  whom  was  the  celebrated 
poet  Kalidas.  Those  who  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  mon- 
arch, celebrated  his  piety,  liberality,  and  bravery  in  a manner 
which  shows  that  if  some  actions  and  qualities  ascribed  to  him 
were  facts,  yet  mueh  of  what  they  said  must  be  fiction.  He  is 
said  himself  to  have  worshipped  the  infinite  and  invisible  God, 
but  at  the  same  time  to  have  erected  temples  and  endowed 
shrines  of  the  deities  whieh  were  generally  worshipped  by  his 
subjects.  This  may  have  been  all  true  concerning  him,  or  it 
may  have  been  said  merely  to  praise  him  ; as  though  his  knowl- 
edge was  so  great  and  his  mind  so  enlightened  that  he  could 
worship  without  the  use  of  any  images,  rites,  etc.,  while  yet  he 


niSTORT  — THE  HINDU  PERIOD. 


37 


was  so  kind  and  liberal  as  to  provide  such  aids  for  the  use  of 
those  to  whom  for  want  of  knowledge  or  mental  capacity  they 
were  necessary.  ^ 

In  the  Deckan  a king  by  the  name  of  Shalewahan  reigned  at 
Pvtan  on  the  Godavery,  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  popular  literature  and  tradition  contain  some  marvellous 
and  fabulous  stories  about  his  birth  and  early  life.  He  made 
war  upon  Vikram  and  compelled  him  to  withdraw  from  the 
Deckan.  They  then  came  to  a mutual  understanding  that  Vik- 
ram should  reign  over  all  the  country  lying  north  of  the  Ner- 
budda  and  that  his  era  should  be  there  used,  and  that  Shalewa- 
han should  reign  over  all  the  country  south  of  that  river  and 
that  his  era  should  there  be  used.  These  eras  continue  to  be 
used  according  to  this  supposed  agreement  up  to  the  present  time. 

It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  at  the  time  of  the  Moham- 
medan invasion  and  at  every  previous  period  when  we  can  get 
a view  of  the  state  of  India,  we  see  it  divided  into  a number  of 
separate  and  independent  kingdoms.  Thus  in  the  extreme 
southern  parts  of  the  peninsula  we  see  the  kingdom  of  Pandion 
with  Madura  for  its  capital  and  using  the  Tamul  language ; 
then  next  to  it,  the  kingdom  of  Carnata  with  Vejyanuggur  for 
its  capital  and  using  the  Carnarese  language ; then  the  kingdom 
of  Telingana  with  Warangole  for  its  capital  and  using  the 
Telugu  language ; then  north-east,  the  kingdom  of  Orissa  with 
Cuttac  for  its  capital  and  using  the  Oriya  language ; then  in 
the  Deckan,  the  kingdom  of  Marashtra  wdth  Pytan  and  the 
Deoghur  for  its  capital  and  using  the  Mahratta  language; 
then  to  the  north-west,  the  kingdom  of  Gujerat  wdth  Anhalwara 
for  its  capital  and  using  the  Gujeratee  language.  In  this  way 
we  might  proceed  all  over  India.  Awanti  (now  Oujein)  in 
Malwa,  Gouri  in  Bengal,  Palibothra,  Magadi,  Ayodhya  (now 
Oude),  MithUi,  and  Delhi,  in  the  great  valley  of  the  Ganges 
were  the  ancient  capitals  of  kingdoms.  Sometimes  one  of 
these  kingdoms  was  divided  into  two  or  three  governments  for 
awhUe,  and  would  then  be  united  again.  These  kingdoms 
could  generally  show  long  genealogies  of  kings,  often  terminating 
to  fables  and  mythology.  The  virtues  and  victories  of  their 
kings  were  chronicled  in  legends,  celebrated  in  poetry,  and 
sung  in  ballads,  but  they  had  no  properly  connected  and  arranged 

4 


38 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


records  of  public  events  or  authentic  history  of  their  kings  or 
then  kingdoms.  It  appears  to  be  unnecessary,  in  view  of  the 
present  state  of  Lidia  and  the  object  of  this  work,  to  try  to 
gather  up  or  to  arrange  any  further  facts  or  opinions  concerning 
these  obscure  kingdoms,  whose  pohtical  existence  ceased  some 
centuries  ago,  and  which  do  not  appear  likely  again  ever  to 
recover  any  political  importance  or  any  national  existence. 
Some  account  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus,  their  deities, 
their  literature,  their  religious  rites  and  ceremonies,  their  customs, 
manners,  etc.,  will  be  given  in  another  part  of  this  work. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  MOILVMMEDAN  PERIOD. 

For  many  centuries  previous  to  the  origin  of  the  Moham- 
medan religion  the  inhabitants  of  Arabia  and  the  southern 
parts  of  Persia  had  carried  on  a large  trade  with  the  western 
coast  of  India,  and  when  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries 
embraced  the  Mohammedan  rehgion  and  became  imbued  with 
its  spirit,  they  would  naturally  endeavor  to  propagate  it  in  those 
parts  of  India  with  which  they  were  best  acquainted,  and  had 
most  intercourse.  And  so  it  was.  In  the  time  of  the  early 
Caliphs,  expeditions  were  sent  from  Arabia  and  Persia  to  the 
western  coast  of  India  to  propagate  the  new  faith.  The 
accounts  of  these  are  meagre,  consisting  of  traditions  gathered 
up  by  Mohammedan  historians  long  afterwards.  In  the  time  of 
the  Cahph  Waleed,  the  governor  of  Bussora  dispatched  an 
army  of  6,000  men  to  India  under  the  command  of  Moham- 
med Causim.  This  army  was  well  prepared  with  means  for 
aggressive  war,  and  the  commander  was  determined  to  retain 
possession  of  the  countries  he  might  conquer,  and  to  convert 
their  inhabitants  to  the  true  faith.  This  army  made  its  first 
descent  at  Dcwal  a seaport  in  Scinde,  belonging  to  a Hindu 
prince,  called  by  Mohammedan  historians.  Raja  Hahir.  Causim 
commenced  his  warfare  by  beseiging  a large,  fortified  temple 
near  the  city.  Being  informed  that  a large  flag  flying  at  the 


niSTORT  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


39 


top  of  the  temple  was  regarded  as  its  palladium  by  the  super- 
stitious inmates,  Causim  directed  his  engines  to  it  and  soon 
brought  it  do\\m.  The  people  seeing  the  flag  fall  were  panic- 
struck,  and  soon  surrendered.  Causim  issued  orders  that  all 
the  males  should  be  circumcised,  but  on  account  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  brahmins,  or  for  some  other  reason,  he  became  so 
much  exasperated  that  he  caused  all  the  males  over  17  years 
old  to  be  put  to  death,  and  all  under  that  age,  as  well  as  the 
women  and  children  to  be*  reduced  to  slavery. 

Causim  next  attacked  the  town,  which  was  soon  taken,  and 
much  booty  was  obtained  in  it.  One  fifth  part  of  the  booty 
was  reserved  for  the  governor  of  Bussora  or  the  Caliph,  accord- 
ing to  early  Mohammedan  usage,  and  the  rest  was  divided 
among  the  captors.  The  submission  of  the  country  around 
Dewal  soon  followed,  and  Causim  proceeded  up  the  Indus  to 
Schwan  and  other  places,  of  which  he  took  possession.  This 
invasion  from  a foreign  country,  and  the  barbarous  manner  of 
forcing  the  inhabitants  to  embrace  a new  faith,  aroused  the 
native  powers  and  the  spirit  of  the  people,  and  Causim  found 
his  further  progress  opposed  by  a large  army  under  the  Raja. 
Having  been  reinforced  by  2,000  cavalry  from  Persia,  and  ani- 
mated by  that  enthusiasm  which  so  powerfully  influenced  the 
early  Mohammedan  conquerors,  Causim  resolved  to  maintain 
his  ground,  though  attacked  by  an  army  of  50,000  men.  The 
attack  was  commenced  by  the  Raja,  who  in  the  style  of  that 
age  in  India,  was  mounted  on  a war-elephant.  A fire-ball, 
thrown  from  the  engines  having  struck  the  animal,  he  was  so 
much  frightened  that  he  ran  from  the  battle  field,  and  plunged 
into  the  river.  The  army,  supposing  that  the  Raja  had  been 
killed,  became  dismayed  and  soon  gave  way  on  every  side. 
And  though  the  Raja  returned  to  the  field,  yet  he  could  not 
rally  his  flying  troops.  But  he  showed  his  own  courage  by 
continuing  the  battle  till  he  fell  among  the  slain. 

This  battle  took  place  near  Allore,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Scinde.  The  Raja’s  widow,  or  the  widow  of  one  of  his  sons, 
then  in  the  city,  furnished  an  instance  of  the  courage  and  des- 
peration w'hich  sometimes  occur  in  the  ancient  history  of  India. 
“ She . collected  the  remains  of  the  scattered  army,  put  the  city 
into  a posture  of  defence,  and  maintained  it  against  the  attacks 


/ 

40  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

of  the  enemy  until  the  failure  of  provisions  rendered  it  impos- 
sible to  hold  out  any  longer.  In  this  extremity  her  resolution 
did  not  desert  her,  and  the  garrison  inflamed  by  her  example 
determined  to  devote  themselves  along  with  her,  after  the  man- 
ner of  her  ti'ibe.  The  women  and  children  were  first  sacrificed 
in  flames  of  their  own  kindhng ; the  men  performed  their  ablu- 
tions, and  then  with  solemn  ceremonies  took  leave  of  each 
other  and  of  the  world ; the  gates  were  then  thrown  open,  the 
men  rushed  out,  sword  in  hand,  and  esicountering  their  enemies, 
aU  perished  to  a man.” 

K this  tragic  scene  exhibits  the  character  and  spirit  of  the 
Hindus,  the  following  shows  the  savage  barbarity  of  the  IMo- 
hammedans : “ Those  of  the  garrison  who  did  not  share  in  this 
act  of  desperation,  gained  little  by  their  prudence  ; the  city  was 
carried  by  assault ; all  the  men  in  arms  were  slaughtered  in  the 
storm,  and  their  famflies  were  reduced  to  bondage.” 

Causim  continued  the  war  tfll  the  dominions  of  Raja  Dahir 
had  submitted  to  his  authority.  These  dominions  included  the 
country  each  side  of  the  Indus,  from  its  mouth  to  Multan, 
which  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  cities  he  conquered.  This 
territory  then  included  aU  Scinde  and  the  southern  part  of  the 
Punjab.  These  conquests  were  made  in  the  sphit  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan religion  at  that  early  period  of  its  history.  When 
the  army  approached  any  city,  the  inhabitants  were  summoned 
to  embrace  the  Mohammedan  faith,  or  to  submit  to  such  tribute 
as  might  be  imposed  upon  them.  If  they  refused  such  terms, 
the  city  was  attacked,  and  if  it  did  not  capitulate  upon  some 
stipulated  conditions,  when  taken,  all  the  fighting  men  were 
killed  and  their  families  reduced  to  slavery.  When  cities 
resisted  to  the  last  extremity,  the  slaughter  was  often  very 
great,  and  the  misery  of  families  was  extreme.  Traders,  me- 
ehanics,  etc.,  if  they  continued  quiet,  were  not  oppressed  or 
injured  beyond  paying  the  tribute  exaeted,  and  enduring  such 
evils  as  originated  in  the  seige  or  storming  of  the  city.  When 
tribute  was  agreed  to,  either  on  the  part  of  the  prince  or  the 
people,  they  were  allowed  to  live,  so  long  as  they  paid  the 
tribute,  according  to  their  own  religion,  and  to  such  laws  and 
usages  as  were  conceded  to  them.  The  Mohammedans  who 
invaded  India,  appear  soon  to  have  lost  something  of  the  stern 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


41 


and  fanatical  spirit  which  animated  the  first  Mohammedan 
conqnerors  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Persia.  Cansim  made  treaties 
with  several  Hindu  princes,  and  employed  natives  of  the  coun- 
try in  high  situations  under  his  government.  He  formed  plans 
for  greatly  extending  his  eonquests,  and  was  preparing  to  carry 
them  into  effect  when  sudden  reverses  came  upon  him,  and  he 
was  deprived  of  the  eommand  of  the  army.  Mohammedan 
historians  say  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  orders  of  the  Caliph, 
upon  some  groundless  charges  made  against  him.  Temin  his 
suecessor  had  not  the  ability  and  enterprise  required  to  lead  the 
army  to  further  eonquests.  The  Mohammedan  doctrines,  and 
espeeially  the  rite  of  eircumcision,  were  exceedingly  odious  to 
the  Hindus,  and  they  defended  their  religion  and  their  country 
with  great  obstinacy.  The  Mohammedan  army,  in  the  course 
of  a few  years,  bceame  much  reduced,  and  the  Hindus  uniting 
in  a general  insurrection  expelled  the  invaders  from  India,  and 
the  country  continued  for  several  generations  in  their  undis- 
turbed possession. 

The  failure  of  the  Mohammedans  to  extend  their  conquests 
and  even  to  retain  what  they  had  acquired  in  India,  so  different 
from  their  progress  and  suceess  at  that  time  in  other  countries, 
arose  from  the  state  of  India  and  the  peculiar  character  and 
institutions  of  the  Hindus.  The  country  was  subject  to  many 
independent  princes,  who  must  all  be  conquered  in  succession, 
and  could  only  be  subdued  by  carrying  war  into  the  successive 
territory  of  each  one  separately.  The  Hindu  religion  has  so 
little  connection  with  the  state  that  the  conquest  of  the  country 
and  the  expulsion  or  extinetion  of  dynasties  would  have  but 
little  direct  influence  upon  the  religion  of  the  people.  Their 
religion  depends  upon  their  hereditary  priesthood  and  their 
sacred  books  and  places,  and  this  priesthood  has  nothing  like  a 
hierarchy,  has  no  authoritative  spiritual  head.  Again,  the  divis- 
ion of  the  people  into  different  castes  presents  a great  barrier  to 
social  intercourse  and  religious  sympathy,  and  yet  those  of  the 
same  caste  are  more  closely  united  together  than  any  society  or 
community  which  has  ever  existed  in  any  other  social  state  or 
religious  system.  These  were  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  which  it  had  never  encountered  in  any 
other  country.  Further,  the  invasion  was  made  from  Persia, 

4* 


42 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

where  the  people  had  not  the  stern  fanatical  zeal  for  religion 
wliich  distinguished  the  early  proselytes  and  immediate  succes- 
sors of  Mohammed,  as  they  went  from  Ai-abia  to  sjDread  their 
faith  and  reform  the  world.  And  as  this  zeal  for  the  simple 
faith  of  their  creed  and  their  admiration  of  the  austere  manners 
of  the  prophet  diminished,  they  gradually  acquired  a love  of 
wealth,  luxury,  and  splendor.  They  were  glad  to  exchange  the 
simple  tent  for  the  splendid  palace,  and  the  plain  dress  which 
their  prophet  wore  for  the  gorgeous  robes  of  courtiers  and  mon- 
archs.  And  in  order  to  attain  these  tilings  they  became  willing 
to  make  treaties  of  alliance  with  idolaters,  and  the  consequence 
of  this  course  was  that  they  were  themselves  expelled  horn  the 
country. 

The  next  Mohammedan  invasion  of  India  was  &om  a 
different  direction  and  was  of  a more  permanent  character. 
Persia  was  one  of  the  first  countries  which  the  Mohammedans 
invaded  and  conquered.  The  inhabitants  generally  embraced 
the  faith  of  the  conquerors  more  from  compulsion  than  from 
conviction  of  its  trath,  for  in  a few  years  they  attempted  to  ex- 
pel their  conquerors  and  to  reestablish  their  former  religion. 
Such  people  are  not  hlmly  to  have  much  zeal  for  spreading  their 
new  faith,  and  Mohammedanism  made  its  way  very  slowly  in 
the  countries  between  Persia  and  India.  In  the  year  977  of  the 
Christian  era,  Subuctagee  became  the  governor  of  the  province 
of  Candahar.  lie  had  a high  character  for  military  talents,  and 
the  army  having  selected  him  as  their  sovereign  he  assumed 
independence.  He  selected  Ghizni  for  his  eapital  and  laid  the 
foundation  for  one  of  the  most  powerful  kingdoms  then  in  the 
world.  The  Hindus,  who  had  painful  experience  of  the  aggres- 
sive and  intolerant  spirit  of  the  Mohammedans,  looked  wiih 
great  anxiety  upon  this  kingdom  now  established  near  their  bor- 
der, and  several  excursions  of  Afghans  into  their  territories  soon 
convinced  them  that  their  fears  were  not  without  reason.  Pro- 
voked by  these  attacks,  Jypal,  Raja  of  Lahore,  collected  a large 
army  and  proceeded  towards  Ghizni  either  to  invade  Afghanis- 
tan, or  to  repel  an  expected  invasion.  As  he  and  Snbuctagee 
were  preparing  to  engage  in  battle,  a great  tempest  arose,  which 
either  from  its  violence  or  some  eircumstances  connected  with 
it,  frightened  and  disheartened  the  Hindus  so  much  that  Jypal 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


43 


solicited  peace,  which  he  at  length  obtained  by  paying  a large 
sum  of  money  and  surrendering  50  of  his  elephants.  This 
treaty  in  some  of  its  conditions,  it  is  said  he  afterwards  refused 
to  fulfil,  and  also  treated  the  ambassadors  of  Subuctagee  with 
great  insolenee. 

Such  conduct  greatly  exasperated  the  Afghan  sovereign,  and 
assembling  a large  army  he  began  his  march  towards  India, 
while  Jypal,  who  aware  what  the  effect  of  his  conduct  would  be, 
had  formed  an  alliance  with  several  princes  in  the  northern  parts 
of  India,  prepared  to  defend  his  territory.  The  Mohammedan 
historians,  to  whom  we  are  chiefly  indebted  for  information  on 
the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  India,  say  that  Jypal’s  army  con- 
tained 100,000  eavalry  and  an  almost  incredible  number  of  foot- 
soldiers.  But  such  great  numbers  add  little  to  the  strength  or 
efficiency  of  a half-disciplined  army.  They  can  seldom  all  be 
arranged  so  as  to  engage  in  battle.  The  disciplined  force  in 
whatever  direction  it  moves,  compels  all  to  give  way  before 
it,  and  when  disorder  and  eonfusion  once  commence,  the 
greater  the  army  the  greater  the  carnage  and  slaughter.  The 
fierce  and  warlike  tribes  of  iUghanistan  have  seldom  had  reason 
to  feel  much  respect  for  the  armies  of  India,  and  they  have  often 
had  reason  to  hold  them  in  contempt.  Subuctagee  commenced 
the  attack  by  a succession  of  charges  by  his  best  cavalry  upon 
the  centre  of  the  Indian  army,  and  as  soon  as  he  saw  this  part 
in  disorder  and  giving  way,  he  ordered  an  attack  to  be  made 
upon  their  whole  line.  The  Hindus  soon  gave  way;  a total 
rout  ensued,  and  the  fugitives  were  pursued  with  great  carnage 
to  the  Indus.  Subuctagee  obtained  great  booty  in  the  Hindu 
camp ; he  took  possession  of  all  the  country  west  of  the  river 
and  annexed  it  to  his  dominions. 

Subuctagee  died  in  997,  leaving  the  character  of  a wise 
prince  and  skilful  general.  As  usual  in  the  oriental  kingdoms 
at  that  time,  dissensions  arose  and  civil  war  followed  aboift  the 
succession.  His  son  Mahmoud  had  generally  accompanied  his 
father  in  his  campaigns,  and  had  displayed  much  military  talent. 
His  father  had  reposed  great  confidence  in  him,  and  he  had 
generally  been  regarded  as  the  heir  to  the  throne.  But  he  was 
in  some  of  the  western  provinces  at  the  time  of  his  father’s 
death,  and  a yovmger  brother,  Ishmael,  succeeded  in  obtaining 


44 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


possession  of  his  father’s  treasures,  and  in  causing  himself  to  be 
acknowledged  the  successor  of  his  father’s  power.  A war  now 
ensued  between  the  two  brothers,  which  after  exhibiting  for 
some  time  the  usual  characteristics  of  intrigue  and  deceit  in 
oriental  armies  and  courts,  was  terminated  by  a severe  battle, 
the  taldng  of  Ghizni,  and  the  confinement  of  Ishmael  for  life. 
Mahmoud,  now  the  undisputed  sovereign  of  aU  his  father’s  do- 
minions, was  occupied  for  some  time  in  establishing  order  and 
strengthening  his  government.  As  soon  as  he  had  arranged  his 
affairs  so  that  they,  no  longer  requbed  his  personal  attention,  he 
began  his  preparations  for  invading  India,  a pmpose  he  had 
long  cherished  if  he  should  succeed  his  father.  He  had  accom- 
panied his  father  in  his  expedition  to  Multan  and  Lahore,  and 
so  had  seen  something  and  heard  more  of  the  wealth  and  glory 
of  India.  He  had  seen  what  armies  the  Hindu  princes  brought 
into  the  field.  He  knew  the  superior  qualities  of  his  Afghan 
troops,  and  believed  that  victory  would  foUow  his'  colors  when 
unfurled  in  battle  with  the  armies  of  the  idolaters  of  Hindustan. 
He  was  at  this  time  a very  devout  Mussulman,  believing  it  was 
his  duty  to  destroy  aU  idols  and  temples  for  idol-worship,  and 
to  bring  all  idolaters  to  embrace  Mohammedanism  as  the  only 
true  faith. 

hlahmoud,  with  such  means  at  command,  such  a purpose 
long  and  fondly  cherished,  and  such  views  of  his  own  faith  and 
of  idolatry,  would  soon  cause  his  power  to  be  felt  in  India. 
In  1001,  the  4th  year  of  his  reign,  he  left  Ghizni  with  a large 
force  to  invade  those  parts  of  India  which  were  contiguous  to 
his  own  dominions.  Jypal,  Raja  of  Lahore,  was  yet  living  and 
prepared  to  meet  him  with  a large  army.  But  Mahmoud 
defeated  this  army  and  took  Jypal  prisoner.  He  then  took 
Betinda,  which  was  the  capital  or  one  of  the  principal  cities 
of  Jypal,  and  contained  his  treasures.  He  then  returned  to 
Ghizni  with  a great  amount  of  spoil.  Jypal  was  set  at  lib- 
erty to  govern  his  own  dominions  as  a dependent  and  tribu- 
tary prince  or  deputy  of  Mahmoud.  This  purpose,  if  it  ever 
was  his  purpose,  lie  did  not  carry  into  effect.  On  arriving 
in  his  ca|)ital  he  invested  his  son  Anundpal  with  the  govern- 
ment, caused  a funeral  jiile  to  be  prepared  and  funeral  ceremo- 
nies to  be  performed,  and  then  prostrating  himself  upon  it  he 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


45 


applied  the  fire  wdth  his  own  hand  and  perished  in  the 
flames.* 

Mahmoud  was  now  engaged  for  some  time  in  wars  with  the 
princes  and  tribes  north  and  west  of  i\ighanistan,  and  so  had 
not  leisure  to  add  to  his  conquests  in  India.  He  made  a hur- 
ried expedition  to  Lahore,  and  also  to  Multan  to  adjust  some 
matters  requiring  his  personal  attention,  but  he  returned  to 
Ghizni  as  soon  as  possible.  So  the  Hindu  princes  had  time  to 
consider  what  a dangerous  neighbor  they  had  on  their  borders, 
and  to  concert  measures  among  themselves  for  self-defence.f 
From  what  they  knew  of  Mahmoud’s  warlike  character,  his 
hatred  of  idolatry,  and  his  love  of  plunder,  they  had  reason  to 
expect  he  would  repeat  his  invasion  as  soon  as  the  state  of  his 
dominions  w’ould  admit,  and  so  they  formed  a strong  confeder- 
acy to  resist  him  as  their  common  enemy.  This  confederacy 
included  the  Rajas  of  Lahore,  Oujein,  Gwalior,  Kalinga, 
Kanouj,  Delhi,  and  Ajmere.  This  large  combination  shows 
that  the  invasion  of  Mahmoud  had  caused  great  excitement  in 
northern  India.  And  this  excitement  was  not  without  sufficient 
cause.  "Wars  in  India  have  generally  been  contests  betw’een 
princes  for  the  governing  power,  and  in  no  way  affecting  the 
interests  of  the  great  body  of  the  people,  who  cared  little  about 
the  issue,  if  they  were  only  let  alone.  But  the  invasions  and  con- 
quests of  Mahmoud  were  of  a very  different  character.  They 
aimed  at  the  subversion  of  the  religion  of  the  inhabitants  as 
weU  as  of  the  power  of  the  princes,  and  aU  classes  were  roused 
to  self-defence.  “ Even  the  Hindu  women  sold  their  jewels, 
melted  down  their  golden  ornaments,  and  sent  their  contributions 
from  a distance  to  furnish  resources  for  this  holy  war.” 

* “ In  those  days  it  was  a custom  of  the  Hindus  that  whatever  Raja  was 
twice  defeated  by  his  enemies,  should  be  by  that  disgrace  rendered  unfit  for 
further  command.  Jypal,  in  compliance  with  this  custom,  having  raised  his  son 
to  the  government,  ordered  a funeral  pile  to  be  prepared,  upon  which  he  sacri- 
ficed himself  to  his  gods.” 

f Mahmoud’s  reign  of  33  years  was  spent  in  continual  war,  enlarging  his 
dominions  or  plundering  idolaters,  or  suppressing  insurrections.  But  we  shall 
only  give  a sketch  of  those  which  had  respect  to  India.  IVe  would  remark, 
however,  as  showing  his  power  and  the  customs  and  means  of  war  in  that  age, 
that  in  a great  battle  near  Balk,  ilahmoud  had  500  war-elephants,  which  spread 
around  them  terror  and  death  and  contributed  much  to  gain  the  Aactory. 


46 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Mahmoud,  as  soon  as  the  state  of  his  dominions  would  allow 
of  his  leaving  them  for  awhile,  again  invaded  India  with  a large 
force.  The  confederated  army,  which  had  been  prepared  to 
resist  his  further  advance,  much  exceeded  his  expectations.  He 
selected  his  position,  entrenched  his  camp,  and  resolved  to 
watch  some  favorable  opportunity  to  attack  the  hosts  arrayed 
against  him.  A body  of  archers  who  were  sent  out  to  attack 
the  Hindus,  brought  on  a conflict  in  which  the  army  of  Mah- 
moud at  first  suffered  severely,  but  the  elephants  of  the  Raja  or 
general  commanding  the  Indian  army,  becoming  frightened,  fled 
from  the  field,  and  the  Hindus  seeing  their  general  had  disap- 
peared, and  supposing  he  had  been  killed,  relaxed  their  efforts 
and  soon  began  to  give  way.  Mahmoud  observing  their  state 
sent  out  a large  body  of  cavalry,  which  routed  and  dispersed 
them  with  great  carnage.  Resolved  to  make  the  utmost  of  the 
dismay  thus  produced,  he  pursued  them  in  every  direction,  and 
so  completely  dispersed  them  that  they  did  not  rally  or  unite 
any  more  to  resist  him  while  on  this  expedition. 

Thus  relieved  from  apprehension  of  any  attack  or  further 
resistance,  Mahmoud  proceeded  to  attack  a fortified  temple 
called  Bheem  or  Bheemghur,  in  the  territory  of  Nagracote. 
This  temple  being  regarded  as  a sacred  place  as  weU  as  impreg- 
nable fortress,  the  neighboring  princes  and  rich  people  had 
deposited  in  it  a great  amount  of  treasure,  jewels,  etc.  Accord- 
ing to  Ferishta,  “ This  temple  contained  a greater  quantity  of 
gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  and  pearls  than  was  ever  collected 
in  the  royal  treasury  of  any  prince  on  earth.”  But  the  state- 
ments of  Mohammedan  historians  concerning  the  amount  of 
treasure  found  in  some  of  the  Hindu  temples,  must  be  greatly 
exaggerated.  This  temple  was  strongly  fortified,  but  the  garri- 
son had  been  removed  to  swell  the  army  just  defeated  and  dis- 
persed ; only  the  priests  and  a few  families  remained,  and  they 
soon  surrendered  at  discretion.  All  the  treasures  and  whatever 
of  value  was  found  in  the  temple,  were  seized  and  became  the 
property  of  the  conquerors.  From  this  place  Mahmoud  returned 
to  Ghizni,  and  the  next  year  he  appointed  a festival  to  cele- 
brate his  victories  and  conquests  in  India.  A large  plain  was 
selected  for  the  exhibition,  and  the  festival  continued  for  3 days. 
The  gold  and  precious  stones  were  exhibited  in  a manner  to 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


47 


excite  the  greatest  admiration  of  the  speetators  and  the  highest 
ideas  of  their  value,  as  well  as  of  the  riches  of  the  country 
where  they  were  obtained.  His  generals  assisted  in  giving 
splendor  to  the  festival.  “ Sumptuous  banquets  were  provided 
for  the  spectators,  alms  were  liberally  distributed  among  the 
poor,  and  splendid  presents  were  bestowed  on  persons  distni- 
guished  for  their  rank,  merits,  or  sanctity.” 

Such  scenes  were  well  fitted  to  prepare  the  minds  of  a people 
like  the  Afghans  to  make  further  invasions  and  yet  greater  con- 
quests in  India,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  were 
designed  to  produce  this  effect.  Accordingly  we  find  that 
apparently  as  often  as  the  state  of  his  dominions  would  allow 
of  his  absence,  Mahmoud  made  expeditions  into  some  parts 
of  Lidia.  In  1017  he  commenced  his  ninth  expedition,  in 
which  the  amount  of  forces  he  took  with  him,  and  the  plans  he 
intended  to  accomplish,  exceeded  all  the  preceding.  Ferishta 
says  that  his  army,  when  he  left  Ghizni,  consisted  of  100,000 
horse,  and  20,000  foot.  His  intention  was  to  take  the  city  of 
Kanouj,  which  is  situated  on  the  Ganges,  200  miles  south-east 
from  Delhi,  and  was  then  one  of  the  most  wealthy  and  popu- 
lous cities  in  Lidia.  He  took  an  unusual  route,  passing  on  the 
south  side  of  Cashmere  and  the  Himalaya  mountains  till  he 
reached  the  Ganges,  and  then  followed  the  river  to  Kanouj. 
He  fomid  the  Raja  quite  unprepared,  who  surrendered  at  dis- 
cretion. Mohammedan  historians  agree  in  saying  that  Mah- 
moud neither  exacted  any  tribute  nor  obtained  any  plunder. 
They  describe  the  city  as  being  the  most  wealthy  and  splendid 
in  India,  and  say  that  he  left  it  uninjured,  after  tarrying  only 
three  days.  All  this  may  be  true,  but  it  is  so  different  from  his 
general  character  and  his  conduct  towards  other  cities  in  India, 
and  also  from  what  might  be  expected  from  him  and  his  army, 
and  po  different  from  their  intentions  and  expectations  when 
leaving  Ghizni,  and  during  their  march  of  three  months,  that 
we  feel  inclined  to  doubt  what  the  historians  say,  or  to  suppose 
that  we  do  not  understand  the  subject  in  some  of  its  important 
connections  and  circumstances.  IMahmoud  proceeded  to  Mut- 
tra, taking  and  plundering  several  places  on  the  way.  Muttra, 
or  jMathura,  had  long  been  a place  of  great  sanctity,  and  the 
temples  were  large  and  splendid.  He  stopped  there  for  20 


48 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


days,  and  plundered  the  temples  and  the  city  of  aU  the  wealth 
that  could  be  found.  This  amount  is  described  as  being  very 
great,  many  of  the  idols  being  large  and  of  pure  gold  and 
silver,  all  which  were  seized  and  melted  down.  One  idol,  when 
melted,  yielded  2,150  lbs.  of  pure  gold,  and  the  gold  and  silver 
obtained  from  all  the  idols  were  sufficient  to  load  100  camels. 
So  say  Ferishta  and  the  Mohammedan  historians. 

But  if  Mahmoud  found  great  plunder  in  some  places,  he 
encountered  great  resistance  in  others.  One  fort,  called  Mun- 
gee,  resisted  his  attacks  for  25  days.  “ And  when  the  beseiged 
found  the  place  no  longer  tenable,  some  rushed  through  the 
trenches  upon  the  enemy  and  met  that  death  which  they  no 
longer  endeavored  to  avoid.  Some  threw  themselves  headlong 
fi’om  the  walls,  and  were  dashed  to  pieces,  while  others  burnt 
themselves  in  their  houses  with  their  wives  and  children,  so  that 
not  one  of  the  garrison  survived  the  fatal  catastrophe.” 

At  length  Mahmoud,  weary  of  destroying,  or  satisfied  with 
plundering,  returned  with  his  army  to  Ghizni.  “ The  plunder  or 
spoils  he  had  obtained,  consisted  of  23,000,000  drachms,  53,000 
captives,  350  elephants,  besides  jewels,  pearls,  and  precious  stones, 
which  could  not  be  properly  estimated.  Nor  was  the  private  spoil 
less  than  that  which  came  into  the  public  treasury.”  A part  of 
their  plunder  was  expended  in  the  erection  of  a splendid 
mosque,  far  exceeding  any  before  seen  in  Afghanistan.  He 
also  founded  a university,  which  had  a large  library  and  many 
learned  men  connected  with  it.  Ilis  nobles  also,  who  had  seen 
the  splendid  buildings  in  Kanouj,  Muttra,  and  other  cities  in 
India,  erected  large  palaces,  with  parks  around  them,  and 
Ghizni  soon  became  one  of  the  most  splendid  cities  of  that  age. 

Some  years  passed  without  any  expedition  being  made  into 
India,  when  Mahmoud  heard  that  the  Raja  of  Kanouj,  with 
whom  he  had  made  some  treaty,  was  involved  in  war  with 
some  of  the  neighboring  princes.  lie  hastened  into  India  with 
a large  force,  but  did  not  reach  Kanouj  in  time  to  save  the  Raja 
from  being  defeated,  his  capital  taken,  and  himself  put  to  death. 
The  ])rinces  who  had  united  to  effect  his  ruin,  on  hearing  of  the 
arrival  of  Mahmoud,  retreated  in  difi’erent  directions,  and  find- 
ing it  imj)ossible  to  gratify  his  feelings  of  revenge  upon  them, 
he  hastened  back  to  Ghizni. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


49 


Mahmoud  gloried  in  being  one  of  the  great  apostles  of 
Mohammedanism,  and  a destroyer  of  idols  and  idolatry.  He 
had  caused  a work  to  be  written  in  which  his  great  efforts  for 
propagating  the  true  faith  and  his  zeal  against  idols  and  idola- 
try were  celebrated.  This  book  he  sent  to  the  Caliph.  The 
Caliph  was  extremely  pleased  with  the  work,  and  “ he  appointed 
a festival  day  when  it  was  read  to  aU  the  people  of  Bagdad, 
and  God  was  publicly  praised  for  the  spread  of  the  true  faith.” 

Still  Mahmoud  was  not  satisfied  with  the  reputation  he  had 
acquired  for  his  zeal  and  exertions  in  propagating  the  true  faith, 
or  his  avarice  was  not  satisfied  with  the  spoils  he  had  acquired 
in  eleven  different  expeditions  into  India.  He  had  heard  of  a 
celebrated  temple  called  Somnat,  which  was  situated  in  the 
south-west  part  of  Gujerat  on  the  sea-shore.  This  temple  was 
strongly  fortified  and  richly  endowed.  The  revenues  of  2,000 
villages  were  appropriated  for  its  support.  From  200,000  to  300,- 
000  people  sometimes  resorted  there  at  the  time  of  an  eclipse. 
Princes  and  rich  men  in  aU  western  India  often  sent  valuable 
presents  to  the  temple.  2,000  brahmins,  500  dancing  women 
(courtezans),  and  300  musicians  were  attached  to  it.  The  idol 
was  reported  to  be  of  pure  gold  and  was  so  sacred  that  it  was 
daily  washed  with  water  brought  from  the  Ganges,  a distance 
of  nearly  1,000  miles.  The  brahmins  and  votaries  reported  and 
professed  to  believe  that  the  success  of  the  Mohammedans  in 
plundering  the  temples  and  destroying  the  idols  in  the  northern 
provinces  of  India,  was  because  the  people  there  had  offended 
their  gods  and  so  had  been  abandoned  to  their  enemies,  but 
that  neither  Mahmoud  nor  any  other  Mohammedan  would  ever 
be  able  to  obtain  possession  of  Somnat ; and  so  none  of  his  wor- 
shippers had  any  reason  to  fear,' for  the  god  would  repel  aU 
attacks,  was  able  to  destroy  aU  his  enemies  in  a moment,  and 
that  this  power  would  be  at  once  manifested,  if  any  violence 
should  be  offered  to  his  temple  and  his  idol. 

These  reports  stirred  up  the  zeal  of  Mahmoud,  and  he  re- 
solved to  make  another  expedition  into  India,  which  should 
exceed  all  he  had  yet  made.  He  left  Ghizni  with  a large 
army  in  September,  1024,  and  proceeded  to  Multan.  From  this 
city  he  had  to  cross  a desert  of  more  than  300  miles  nearly  des- 
titute of  water  and  forage.  He  caused  20,000  camels  to  be 

5 


50 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


loaded  with  water  and  provisions,  and  enjoined  on  all  Ms  army 
and  followers  to  provide  for  themselves  as  weU  as  they  could. 
He  crossed  the  desert  to  Ajmere  and  proceeded  to  Somnat  by 
way  of  Anhalwara,  then  the  capital  of  Gujerat.  His  appearance 
was  everywhere  so  sudden  that  neither  the  princes  nor  the  peo- 
ple were  prepared  to  make  any  resistance,  and  they  generally 
fled  from  their  towns  and  cities  for  safety,  while  he  pressed 
forward  to  accomplish  the  great  end  of  his  expedition.  At 
length  Mahmoud  came  in  sight  of  Somnat,  which  appeared 
Like  a great  castle  situated  on  a peninsula  connected  with 
the  main  land  by  a narrow  isthmus.  Tliis  isthmus  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  the  walls  were  covered  with  men  prepared 
to  defend  the  place  from  sacrilege.  As  Mahmoud  approached 
the  place,  a herald  proclaimed  to  him  and  Ms  army  the  danger 
of  making  any  attack  upon  the  temple,  and  warned  them  that 
if  they  should  have  the  presumption  and  wickedness  to  show 
any  disrespect  to  the  god,  he  woifld  instantly  destroy  them. 
Mahmoud  had  too  much  confidence  in  his  own  faith  and  too 
much  contempt  for  the  Hindu  idols  and  deities  to  be  deterred 
by  such  threats,  and  he  made  arrangements  for  attacking  the 
temple  the  next  day.  His  army  was  no  less  eager  than  Mmself, 
and  as  soon  as  it  was  sufficiently  fight,  the  archers  commenced 
the  attack  upon  the  men  on  the  walls.  The  courage  which  the 
assailants  manifested  and  the  great  numbers  that  fell  before 
their  deadly  aim,  spread  dismay  amongst  the  Hindus.  They 
assembled  in  the  temple  and  prostratmg  themselves  before  the 
idol  and  imploring  the  god  to  assist  them,  they  devoted  them- 
selves to  death  for  his  honor  and  the  defence  of  his  temple.  In 
tlie  spirit  of  desperation  or  rather  of  self-sacrifice,  they  seized 
their  weapons  and  rushed  to  the  walls.  Some  of  the  Moham- 
medans had  got  upon  the  wall,  many  others  were  ascending  by 
ladders,  and  all  were  shouting  “ Allaho  Acber,”  “ God  is  great.” 
The  Hindus  attacked  them  with  such  fury  that  all  who  had  got 
upon  the  walls,  were  killed  or  thrust  down,  and  those  ascending 
were  repelled.  Ferishta  says  the  attack  was  commenced  early 
in  the  morning  and  was  continued  through  the  day  till  evening, 
when  the  Mohammedans  retreated  to  their  tents. 

Ths  next  day  Mahmoud  ordered  the  attack  to  be  made  simul- 
taneously the  whole  length  of  the  walls,  but  the  Hindus  de- 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


51 


fended  the  place  with  great  vigor,  killing  or  thrusting  down  all 
who  reached  the  top,  so  that  the  loss  of  the  Mohammedans  was 
greater  than  on  the  first  day.  On  the  third  day  Mahmoud  was 
informed  that  a large  army,  the  united  forces  of  several  princes 
who  were  anxious  to  protect  their  temple,  was  approaching  to 
attack  him.  He  arranged  his  army  in  order  of  battle,  and 
marching  to  meet  them,  the  two  armies  were  soon  engaged  in 
conflict.  While  the  battle  was  raging  the  Raja  of  Anhalwara 
arrived  with  a large  force  and  joined  the  Hindus.  This  gave 
them  fresh  courage  and  disheartened  the  Mohammedans.  Mah- 
moud seeing  the  dangerous  state  of  himself  and  army,  dis- 
mounted, and  prostrating  himself  on  the  ground,  implored  God 
to  interpose  for  the  true  faith  and  for  the  destruction  of  idolatry. 
He  then  mounted  his  horse,  and  exhorting  all  around  him  to 
fight  for  God  valiantly  and  in  the  assured  hope  of  victory,  he 
calltHl  on  them  to  follow  him  in  the  last  and  desperate  attack 
upon  the  idolaters.  By  these  means  he  inspired  them  with  fresh 
courage,  and  raising  a shout  they  renewed  the  battle  with  such 
impetuosity,  that  the  Hindus  soon  gave  way  and  fled,  leaving 
5,000  men  dead  on  the  field. 

The  men,  who  had  defended  the  temple  with  so  much  valor 
and  obstinacy,  seeing  no  hope  of  relief  lost  aU  courage,  and 
attempting  no  further  defence,  a large  part  of  the  people  in  the 
temple  endeavored  to  escape  in  boats.  But  Mahmoud  having 
learned  what  they  were  doing,  ordered  his  men  to  seize  all  the 
boats  they  could  find,  and  then  to  pursue  and  destroy  the  fugi- 
tives. He  placed  guards  around  the  place,  and  with  a few  select 
companions  proceeded  to  inspect  the  interior  parts  of  the  tem- 
ple. They  were  struck  ■^dth  admiration  at  the  grandeur  of  the 
structure.  The  roof  or  dome  was  supported  by  56  great  pil- 
lars curiously  ^^TOught  and  ornamented  \\dth  precious  stones. 
No  external  light  was  admitted,  but  the  temple  was  iUuminated 
by  a great  lamp  in  the  centre,  suspended  from  the  roof  by  a 
chain  of  gold.  The  idol  Somnat,  which  was  15  feet  high,  stood 
facing  the  entrance.  Mahmoud,  who  gloried  in  his  abhorrence 
and  destruction  of  idolatry,  was  filled  with  indignation  at  the 
sight  of  this  idol,  and  aiming  a blow  at  the  face  wdth  his  iron 
mace,  he  struck  off  the  nose.  The  brahmins  of  the  temple  ap- 
parently shocked  at  such  daring  wickedness  and  anxious  for  the 


52 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


honor  of  their  god,  threw  themselves  at  his  feet  and  offered  an 
enormous  ransom  * if  he  would  spare  the  idol.  Ilis  friends  who 
accompanied  him,  advised  1dm  to  accept  the  sum  offered,  and 
allow  the  brahmins  to  retain  their  idol.  But  Mahmoud,  ex- 
claiming that  he  had  always  gloried  in  destroying  idolatry,  and 
wished  to  be  known  and  remembered  as  “ a breaker  and  not  a 
seller  of  idols,”  repeated  his  blow  upon  the  idol.  Others  then 
joined  him,  and  the  idol,  which  was  hollow,  soon  bursting 
poured  out  a great  quantity  of  diamonds,  pearls,  rubies,  etc., 
which  had  been  concealed  in  it,  and  would  have  been  amply 
sufficient  to  pay  the  ransom  offered  by  the  brahmins.  Besides 
the  idol  and  the  treasures  contained  in  it,  “ there  were  in  the 
temple  some  thousands  of  small  images  of  gold  and  silver,”  and 
the  amount  of  gold,  jewels,  and  silver  exceeded  aU  he  had  ac- 
quired in  his  former  expeditions  into  India. 

Mahmoud  remained  at  different  places  in  Gujerat  for  consid- 
erable time,  and  was  so  much  pleased  with  the  chmate  and 
country  that  he  thought  of  transferring  his  court  to  some  place 
in  that  part  of  India,  and  making  it  his  residence.  Ilis  success 
in  acquiring  possession  of  Somnat  and  the  great  amount  of 
treasure  obtained,  appear  to  have  inspired  him  with  a desire  of 
further  conquests.  But  his  friends,  who  wished  to  return  to 
Ghizni,  united  in  dissuading  Ixim  from  undertaking  such  plans, 
and  he  relinquished  them.  Having  inflicted  what  he  thought 
was  merited  punishment  upon  the  Hindu  princes  who  had 
united  in  opposing  him,  he  set  out  on  his  return  home.  On  his 
way  through  the  desert  he  and  his  army  suffered  exceedingly  for 
want  of  water  and  provisions,  and  many  died,  but  Mahmoud 
with  his  spoils  succeeded  in  reaching  Ghizni  in  safety.  From 
this  time  till  his  decease  he  was  occupied  in  expeditions  into 
different  parts  of  his  extensive  dominions  to  collect  arrears  of 
tribute,  or  to  chastise  some  refractory  vassals.  A short  time 
before  his  death,  aware  from  his  declining  health  that  he  could 
not  long  survive,  he  ordered  all  his  gold,  jewels,  silver,  etc.,  to  be 
brought  out  and  arranged  before  him.  “ And  after  surveying 
them  for  awhile  he  wept  at  the  thought  of  scchig  them  no  more, 

♦Fcrislita  says,  “some  crores  of  gold.”  A “crorc  of  gold”  would  be  nearly 
5,000,000  dollars.  Dow  says  “ton  millions  of  gold.”  A ororo  is  10,000,000. 
Gibbon  says  the  brahmins  ofTered  1110,000,000,  or  nearly  §50,000,000. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


53 


and  ordered  tliem  all  to  be  carried  back  into  the  treasury.  The 
next  day  he  ordered  a review  of  all  his  army,  his  elephants, 
camels,  horses,  and  chariots,  with  which  having  feasted  his  eyes 
for  some  time  from  his  travelling  throne,  he  again  burst  into 
tears  and  retired  in  grief  to  his  jialace.”  He  died  at  Ghizni  in 
1030  at  the  age  of  63,  of  which  he  had  reigned  for  35  years. 

Mahmoud  was  the  most  distinguished  sovereign  of  the  cen- 
tury in  which  he  lived,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  in  all 
Mohammedan  history.  By  some  historians  he  has  been  extolled 
as  the  model  of  a perfect  prince,  and  by  others  he  has  been  des- 
cribed as  a monster  of  avarice,  injustice,  and  cruelty.  Moham- 
medan historians,  forming  their  opinions  of  his  conduct  and 
character  according  to  their  principles  and  prejudices,  would 
give  him  a high  place  as  a religious  man  and  as  a sovereign. 
But  the  inhabitants  of  India,  who  suffered  so  much  from  his 
avarice,  his  cruelty,  and  his  fanaticism,  would  regard  him  as  a 
man  and  monarch  of  unparalleled  wickedness.  lie  appears  to 
have  acted  on  the  sentiment  too  common  in  Asiatic  princes  that 
it  was  right  to  treat  as  enemies  and  to  plunder  all  who  will  not 
purchase  peace  upon  such  terms  as  may  be  dictated  to  them. 
He  also  appears  to  have  acted  upon  the  principle  of  some  other 
early  Mohammedan  conquerors  that  it  was  right  to  make  war 
upon  all  idolaters,  to  seize  their  property  and  sell  them  into 
slavery,  if  they  did  not  at  once  embrace  the  faith  of  the  Koran. 
He  encouraged  learning  and  founded  a university  at  Ghizni. 
He  invited  several  learned  men  to  his  court,  and  gave  them  lib- 
eral salaries.  Among  these  was  the  celebrated  Persian  poet 
Ferdousi,  whose  work  called  Shah  Navieh  is  so  well  known  in 
oriental  literature.  Parts  of  this  poem  were  recited  to  Mah- 
moud at  different  times,  who  expressed  great  admiration  of  the 
work,  and  gave  liberal  gifts  to  the  author.  But  when  finished 
after  30  years’  labor  upon  it,  the  sum  IMahmoud  offered  to  give 
to  the  writer  was  so  much  less  than  he  expected,  that  he  refused 
to  receive  it,  left  the  court  of  the  monarch  in  disgust,  and  would 
never  return.  The  edifices  Mahmoud  had  seen  in  India  made 
him  anxious  to  increase  the  splendor  of  his  own  capital,  and  the 
mosques  and  palaces  erected  by  him  and  his  nobles  made 
Ghizni  at  the  time  of  his  decease  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
cities  in  the  world. 


5* 


54 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Whatever  may  have  been  the  character  of  his  government 
over  the  countries  professing  his  own  faith,  his  expeditions  into 
India,  12  in  number  and  made  at  different  times  during  his  reign 
of  35  years,  inflicted  great  miseries  upon  the  inhabitants.  Princes 
were  defeated,  dethroned,  and  in  many  cases  put  to  death  ; cities 
were  plundered  and  burnt ; forts  were  seized  and  the  garrisons 
massacred;  the  country  was  laid  waste  and  so  many  of  the 
inhabitants  carried  to  Ghizni  and  sold  into  slavery,  that  some- 
times the  price  of  a man  did  not  exceed  one  dollar.  Mahmoud’s 
zeal  against  idolatry  wms  conspicuous  in  robbing  and  profaning 
temples,  in  destroying  idols,  and  when  intrinsicafly  valuable  in 
appropriating  them  to  his  own  use,  and  in  plundering  their  wor- 
shippers. But  he  showed  little  anxiety  to  convert  them  to  his 
own  faith,  nor  does  it  appear  that  the  Mohammedan  religion 
made  any  considerable  progress  in  India  in  the  way  of  conver- 
sions during  his  reign. 

Mahmoud  left  two  sons,  Mohammed  and  INIasoud.  The 
former  was  designed  by  Mahmoud  to  be  his  successor,  and  soon 
after  his  death  Mohammed  was  duly  invested  with  authority, 
and  generally  acknowledged  to  be  the  sovereign.  But  Masoud, 
who  was  at  that  time  in  Ispahan,  possessed  the  personal  qual- 
ities which  in  the  opinion  of  the  Afghans  better  fitted  him  for 
exercising  the  supreme  power.  lie  had  daring  courage,  a noble 
personal  appearance,  love  of  power,  and  great  decision  and 
energy  of  character.  These  qualities  had  always  made  him  the 
favorite  of  the  army,  and  plans  were  soon  formed  to  invest  him 
with  the  supreme  authority.  On  his  arrival  at  Ghizni  the 
whole  army  declared  themselves  in  his  favor.  Mohammed  was 
seized  ; and  his  eyes  were  put  out ; he  was  placed  in  confinement, 
and  Masoud  ascended  the  throne  in  a few  months  after  his 
father’s  death.  The  western  provinces  of  his  kingdom  were  in 
a very  unsettled  state,  and  he  was  occupied  much  of  the  time 
for  several  years  in  suppressing  insurrections  and  repelling  the 
invasions  of  the  Tartar  tribes.  In  1039  he  was  defeated  by  the 
Turki  chief,  Togrul  Beg,  and  finding  himself  no  longer  able  to 
defend  his  dominions  or  to  support  his  authority,  he  collected 
what  force  he  could,  and  proceeded  into  India.  Soon  after 
crossing  the  Indus,  a mutiny  took  place  in  his  army,  which 
finally  resulted  in  deposing  him,  and  declaring  his  brother 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


55 


Mohammed  to  be  Sultan.  JMohammed  was  incapable  of  ad- 
ministering the  government  on  account  of  his  blindness,  and  so 
retaining  only  the  name  for  himself  he  appointed  his  son 
Ahmed  to  be  his  deputy,  who  began  his  administration  by 
putting  Masoud  to  death. 

The  affairs  of  Ghizni  continued  for  a long  time  in  an  unset- 
tled state.  The  army  was  occupied  in  repelling  the  invasions 
of  the  Tartar  tribes,  and  in  suppressing  insurrections  in  the 
western  and  central  provinces  of  the  empire.  The  provinces 
on  the  Indus  continued  in  nominal  subjection  to  Ghizni,  while 
the  Hindu  princes  of  places  further  east,  as  Delhi,  Kanouj,  etc., 
gradually  recovered  courage  and  strengthened  their  power 
against  any  future  invasions.  The  temples  were  rebuilt  and 
new  idols  were  consecrated  in  the  place  of  those  destroyed  by 
Mahmoud.  Encouraged  by  the  distracted  state  of  Ghizni,  and 
anxious  to  expel  the  Mohammedans  from  India,  some  Hindu 
princes  laid  siege  to  Lahore,  then  the  capital  of  the  Moham- 
medan possessions  east  of  the  Indus.  But  they  failed  to  ac- 
complish their  object.  Lahore  was  vigorously  defended,  and 
the  Hindus  after  beseiging  it  for  some  months,  were  compelled 
to  leave  it  in  the  possession  of  their  enemies. 

The  sovereigns  of  Ghizni,  though  unable  for  several  successive 
reigns  to  extend  their  power  in  India,  and  frequently  without 
the  means  of  enforcing  their  authority  in  provinces  nominally 
subject  to  them,  did  not  relinquish  their  claim  to  their  former 
conquests,  nor  their  purpose  of  extending  their  dominions.  The 
Hindu  princes  were  aU  aware  of  this  fondly  cherished  purpose, 
and  had  frequent  presages  that  it  would  at  some  future  time  be 
carried  into  effect.  Among  the  sovereigns  of  Gliizni  was  Sul- 
tan Ibrahim,  who  was  a professed  devotee.  He  spent  much 
of  his  time  in  religious  duties,  as  prayer,  fasting,  etc.  He  sent 
two  splendid  copies  of  the  Koran,  written  by  himself,  as  pres- 
ents to  the  Caliph,  who  caused  one  of  them  to  be  deposited  in 
the  library  of  IMecca,  and  the  other  in  the  library  of  IMedina. 
IMohammedan  historians  say  that  his  government  was  as  re- 
markable for  its  moderation  and  justice,  as  he  was  himself  for 
his  temperance  and  piety.  As  soon  as  he  was  quietly  settled  in 
his  own  dominions  he  despatched  an  army  into  India,  which 
Ferishta  says,  “ conquered  many  places  which  had  not  before 


5G  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 

been  visited  by  the  Mussulman  arms.”  Some  time  afterwards 
he  made  another  expedition  into  India,  accompanying  the  army 
himself.  He  is  said  to  have  penetrated  further  into  the  country 
than  any  previous  conqueror.  He  took  several  cities  and  forti- 
fied places,  and  returned  to  Ghizni  with  much  plunder  and  a 
gi’eat  number  of  captives.*  He  reigned  42  years,  and  he  left  40 
sons  and  32  daughters.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Masoud, 
who  sent  a large  army  into  India  under  one  of  his  distinguished 
generals.  “ This  army  crossed  the  Ganges,  and  plundered 
many  rich  cities  and  temples  of  their  wealth.”  He  transferred 
his  court  from  Ghizni  to  Lahore,  and  made  this  city  his  capital 
during  a part  of  his  reign.  He  was  the  first  Mohammedan 
sovereign  who  fixed  his  capital  in  India. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  12th  century  a violent  civil  war  raged 
in  Ghizni,  and  for  several  days  the  city  was  plundered  and  the 
inhabitants  were  massacred.  Ferishta  says,  “ The  noble  city 
was  given  up  to  flame,  slaughter,  and  devastation.  The  mas- 
sacre continued  for  the  space  of  7 days,  in  which  time  pity 
seemed  to  have  fled  the  earth,  and  the  fiery  spirits  of  demons  to 
actuate  the  bodies  of  men.”  The  splendid  mosques  and  palaces 
erected  by  Mahmoud  and  his  nobles  and  successors,  were  burnt 
and  demolished.  AU  were  destroyed  except  the  tombs  of  Mah- 
moud, Masoud,  and  Ibrahim.  Thus,  this  city,  which  had  been 
made  so  magnificent  by  the  plunder  of  the  cities  and  temples 
of  India,  became  itself  a scene  of  desolation,  and  never  again 
recovered  its  former  splendor.  From  this  time  Lahore  became 
the  capital  as  long  as  the  descendants  of  hlahmoud  retained 
their  power. 


THE  HOUSE  OF  GHORI,  A.D.  1160-1206. 

This  civil  war  resulted  in  the  triumph  of  AUa  ud  Heen,  a 
prince  of  the  province  of  Ghor,  and  hence  the  dynasty  which  he 
commenced  took  the  surname  of  Ghori.  His  family  after  some 
reverses  succeeded  in  establishing  their  power  in  Ghizni.  They 
exhibited  the  too  common  qualities  of  the  princes  of  central 
Asia,  courage,  cruelty,  treachery,  and  revenge.  In  a.d.  1176, 
Shahab  ud  Heen  of  this  family  made  his  first  expedition  into 


* Ferislita  says,  “ one  hundred  thousand."’ 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


57 


India,  and  took  Uch,  then  a considerable  city  at  the  junction  of 
the  rivers  of  the  Punjab  and  the  Indus.  Tw'o  years  after  he 
made  an  expedition  into  Gujerat.  lie  was  here  defeated  and 
was  compelled  to  return  with  mucli  loss  and  in  great  dis- 
tress. He  made  two  attacks  on  Lahore  and  compelled  the 
prince  Khusm  Malik  to  deUvcr  up  his  son  as  a hostage  for  ful- 
lilling  the  treaty  then  made.  He  next  invaded  Scinde  and  over- 
ran the  country  to  the  mouth  of  the  Lidus.  Returning  from 
Scinde  he  again  made  an  attack  upon  Khusru  Malik,  apparently 
determined  to  subvert  his  power  and  take  possession  of  his  king- 
dom. Khusru  defended  his  kingdom  with  unexpected  vigor, 
and  Shahab  ud  Deen  resorted  to  treachery  to  accomjdish  his 
purpose.  He  pretended  that  in  consequence  of  alarming  intelli- 
gence from  Ghizni  he  was  anxious  to  proceed  there  immediately 
with  his  army,  and  wished  first  to  make  peace  with  Khusru. 
And  to  show  how  anxious  he  was  for  peace  he  unbound  Khus- 
ru’s  son,  who  had  continued  with  him  as  a hostage,  and  sent 
him  to  his  father  with  the  proposals.  The  aged  king  not  sus- 
pecting any  treachery,  went  out  with  a small  force  to  meet  his 
son  thus  unexpectedly  sent  to  him.  In  the  mean  time  Shahab 
ud  Deen  with  a select  body  of  cavalry  interposed  by  an  unfre- 
quented way  between  Khusru  and  his  capital.  He  then  sur- 
rounded him  and  took  him  prisoner.  Lahore  made  no  further 
resistance.  Khusru  and  his  family  were  sent  prisoners  to 
Ghizni,  where  after  a while  they  were  all  put  to  death.  Shahab 
ud  Deen  took  possession  of  all  Khusru  Malik’s  dominions,  and 
had  no  Mohammedan  rival  or  power  to  oppose  him  or  to  inter- 
fere with  his  purpose  of  conquest. 

India  was  at  this  time  divided  into  many  small  kingdoms, 
and  apparently  no  way  prepared  to  contend  with  an  army 
of  Afghans,  Tartars,  and  other  tribes  of  central  Asia,  whose 
profession  was  war,  and  who  had  passed  much  of  their  life  with 
their  weapons  in  their  hands.  The  Hindus,  too,  had  much  pain- 
ful experience  of  the  superior  skUl,  courage,  and  prowess  of  the 
Mohammedans.  The  effect  of  Mahmoud’s  expeditions  and 
\dctories  was  that  the  Mohammedans  went  into  battle  expecting 
to  conquer,  and  the  Hindus  engaged  in  conflict  with  the  expec- 
tation of  being  defeated.  The  fanatical  spirit  of  the  JMohamme- 
dans,  their  avowed  principle  that  it  was  their  duty  to  propagate 


58 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


their  faith  in  the  use  of  all  the  means  they  had  used,  as  the 
robbing  and  profaning  of  temples,  the  destruction  of  idols,  and. 
plundering  and  reducing  to  slavery  aU  who  resisted,  all  this  was 
well  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  India.  If  the  INIohammcdans 
despised  and  abhorred  the  Hindus  for  their  superstition  and 
idolatry,  these  in  turn  dreaded  and  detested  the  former  for  their 
bigotry  and  intolerance,  for  the  contempt  they  showed  to  aU  the 
rules  of  caste,  and  for  the  violent  and  sacrilegious  manner  in 
. which  they  treated  the  most  sacred  persons,  places,  and  things 
of  the  Hindu  religion.  If  the  Mohammedans  believed  that 
they  were  obeying  the  command  of  God,  when  compelling  the 
Hindus  to  abandon  idolatry  and  embrace  the  faith  of  their 
prophet,  the  Hindus  were  not  less  confident  that  they  were  them- 
selves obeying  their  deities  and  securing  their  favor  when 
defending  their  temples  from  being  profaned,  their  idols  from 
being  destroyed,  and  themselves  and  their  families  from  being 
polluted.  The  views  of  the  Mohammedans  in  invading  and 
conquering  India,  and  of  the  Hindus  in  repelling  such  inva- 
sion and  endeavoring  to  preserve  their  independence,  involved 
motives  and  feelings  of  a very  different  character  fiom  those 
which  are  involved  in  the  common  wars  of  aggression  and 
defence. 

Shahab  ud  Deen’s  first  battle  was  with  the  Rajas  of  Delhi  and 
Ajmere,  who  had  united  their  armies  to  resist  him.  Ferishta 
says  the  united  army  of  these  princes  contained  200,000  men 
and  3,000  elephants.  The  battle  was  fought  on  the  great  plain 
a few  miles  from  Panniput,  where  the  fate  of  the  empire  of 
India  has  been  several  times  decided.  The  Afghan  armies  con- 
sisted chieffy  of  cavalry,  and  their  mode  of  fighting  was  to 
make  successive  charges  at  full  speed  upon  the  centre  of  their 
enemies,  till  they  gave  way  and  were  thrown  into  confusion. 
The  Hindu  mode  of  fighting  was  to  outflank  their  enemies  and 
so  inclose  them  on  three  sides.  In  this  battle  they  succeeded 
by  their  superior  numbers  in  nearly  surrounding  the  Afghans. 
Shahab  ud  Decn  fought  with  great  valor  till  he  was  severely 
wounded,  when  he  escaped  with  much  difficulty,  and  his  army 
fled.  The  Hindus  pursued  them  with  great  slaughter  for  many 
miles.  At  Lahore  Shahab  ud  Decn  collected  the  remains  of  his 
army,  and  putting  the  city  in  a state  of  defence,  proceeded  to 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


59 


Ghizni.  Here  he  collected  an  army  of  .Afghans,  Tartars,  and 
Turkish  adventurers,  who  were  ready  to  follow  the  fortunes  of 
war  under  his  command  in  India.  The  Raja  of  Delhi  expect- 
ing he  would  return,  had  collected  an  immense  army  and  pro- 
ceeded to  meet  him.  Shahab  ud  Deen  found  an  opportunity  of 
attacking  the  Hindu  army  unexpectedly  witli  a part  of  his  force 
in  the  night.  The  attack  at  first  caused  some  confusion,  but 
daylight  soon  appearing,  order  was  restored,  and  the  Hindus 
prepared  to  become  the  assailants.  Having  failed  in  his  original 
design,  Shahab  ud  Deen  now  retreated  before  them  till  they 
became  disordered  in  pursuit,  when  suddenly  turning  “ he 
attacked  them  at  the  head  of  12,000  chosen  horse  in  steel  anuor, 
and  this  prodigious  army  once  shaken,  lilve  a great  building  tot- 
tered to  its  fall  and  was  lost  in  its  own  ruins.”  The  victory  was 
complete,  and  the  loss  of  the  Hindus,  among  whom  were  several 
of  their  princes,  was  very  great.  After  this  battle  Shahab  ud 
Deen  extended  his  conquests  in  India,  taking  and  plundering 
Kanouj,  Benares,  Gwalior,  Gujerat,  and  many  other  places  and 
provinces.  AVlien  encamped  on  the  bank  of  the  Lidus,  the  state 
and  circumstances  of  his  tent  were  carefully  observed  by  some 
Gakkars,  whose  friends  he  had  caused  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
w'ho  were  watching  for  an  opportunity  to  take  revenge.  Twenty 
of  these  men  swam  over  the  river  in  the  night,  and  entering  his 
tent  assassinated  him  when  he  was  asleep.  He  had  reigned  32 
years.  His  conquests  in  India  were  greater  than  those  of  IMah- 
moud,  and  they  were  of  a more  permanent  character.  IMah- 
moud  retained  possession  of  only  a small  part  of  what  he 
conquered  and  plundered.  Shahab  ud  Deen  annexed  the  prov- 
inces he  conquered  to  his  own  dominions,  and  as  far  as  possible 
retained  possession  of  them.  The  treasures  he  accumulated 
were  immense,  requiring  4,000  camels  to  carry  them.  At  the 
time  of  his  decease  nearly  all  India  north  of  the  Nerbudda, 
together  '\\dth  Bengal,  Scinde,  and  Gujerat,  had  acknowledged 
his  authority.  He  had  no  sons,  and  one  of  his  nephews,  Mah- 
moud Ghori,  was  proclaimed  his  successor.  No  opposition  was 
made  to  this  course,  but  it  was  soon  obvious  that  he  would  not 
succeed  to  his  micle’s  power.  Shahab  ud  Deen  had  educated 
several  Turkish  slaves,  and  then  put  them  into  responsible  situ- 
ations. At  the  time  of  his  death,  Cuttub  ud  Deen,  one  of  these 


60 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


slaves,  was  governor  of  the  provinces  in  the  northern  part  of 
India,  and  another,  Nasir  ud  Deen,  was  in  charge  of  Multan 
and  Scinde.  These  governors  became  virtually  independent 
princes  on  Shahab  ud  Deen’s  death  in  a.d.  1206. 


CDTTUB  UD  DEEN  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS A.D.  1206-1288. 

From  the  death  of  Shahab  ud  Deen  the  Mohammedan  domin- 
ions in  India  became  entirely  separated  from  the  countries  west 
of  the  Indus,  and  so  formed  an  independent  kingdom.  Cuttub 
ud  Deen,  the  first  independent  sovereign,  was  originally  a Turk- 
ish slave,  and  was  pm'chased  by  Shahab  ud  Deen,  who  find- 
ing that  he  possessed  good  natural  abilities  and  had  been  well 
educated,  intrusted  him  with  some  important  transactions.  In 
these  matters  he  exhibited  so  much  capacity,  moderation,  and 
faithfulness  that  Shahab  ud  Deen  intrusted  him  with  the  admin- 
istration of  the  government  when  absent  himself  from  his 
capital  on  political  affairs  at  Ghizni,  or  pursuing  his  career  of 
conquest  in  India.  Cuttub  ud  Deen  had  been  intrusted  with  the 
administration  of  Delhi  and  its  dependent  provinces  for  most  of 
the  time  for  several  years  previous  to  Shahab  ud  Deen’s  death, 
and  soon  after  that  event  he  was  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
sovereign,  or  emperor.  He  was  respected  for  his  ability,  moder- 
ation, and  justice,  but  unhappily  for  his  subjects  he  lived  only  4 
years  after  his  accession  to  the  supreme  power. 

Cuttub  ud  Deen  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Aram,  who  soon 
showed  that  he  had  not  capacity  for  administering  such  a gov- 
ernment, and  was  removed  to  make  room  for  his  brother-in-law 
Altumsh,  who  had  for  some  time  been  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army.  Altumsh  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  son  of  a 
Tartar  chief,  but  being  the  favorite  of  his  father  he  was  envied 
by  his  broihers  and  sold  to  some  travelling  merchants,  who  car- 
ried him  into  Bochara  and  again  sold  him.  He  was  remarka- 
ble for  his  beauty  and  his  abilities,  and  having  passed  through 
various  hands  and  lived  in  different  places,  he  was  at  length 
purchased  at  Delhi  by  Cuttub  ud  Deen,  and  became  a great 
favorite  with  his  daughter.  He  was  occupied  for  several  years 
after  his  accession  to  power  in  suppressing  insun-ections  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  his  dominions.  The  Hindus  were  ready  to 


HISTORY THE  MOIIAMMEDAX  PERIOD. 


61 


embrace  any  opportunity  which  occurred  for  expelling  the  Mo- 
hammedans, whose  government  and  religion  with  the  means 
they  used  to  propagate  it,  were  exceedingly  odious.  It  was  in 
the  reign  of  Altumsh  that  Ghengis  Khan  with  his  Tartar  hordes 
overran  and  laid  waste  Persia  and  other  countries  west  of  the 
Indus.  Great  anxiety  was  felt  for  several  years  in  view  of  their 
probable  invasion  of  India,  and  aU  eyes  were  turned  to  the  west. 
But  this  scourge  of  so  many  nations  did  not  extend  his  ravages 
east  of  the  Indus.  One  of  his  chiefs  crossed  the  river  and  laid 
siege  to  Multan,  but  failing  in  his  attempts  to  take  it,  he  pro- 
ceeded into  Scinde  and  then  went  into  the  countries  west  of 
the  Indus.  In  this  invasion  the  Tartars,  or  Moguls,  as  they 
were  usually  called,  conducted  with  their  accustomed  cruelty 
and  barbarity,  ravaging  the  country,  plundering  the  cities  and 
seizing  the  inhabitants  for  slaves,  if  they  could  make  any  use 
of  them,  or  obtain  any  price  for  them.  At  one  time  they  mas- 
sacred 10,000  prisoners  to  save  the  expense  of  keeping  them 
rather  than  set  them  at  liberty,  when  they  would  have  gone  into 
different  parts  of  the  country  and  found  provisions  for  them- 
selves. 

Altumsh,  as  soon  as  he  was  relieved  from  apprehension  of  an 
invasion  by  the  Moguls,  resolved  to  extend  his  dominions  in  In- 
dia, and  he  was  thus  engaged  during  the  remaining  years  of  his 
reign.  At  the  time  of  his  decease  all  the  countries  to  the  north 
of  a line  running  from  Surat  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  ac- 
knowledged the  government  of  Delhi.  The  measure  of  obedi- 
ence, however,  differed  much  in  different  places,  and  at  different 
times.  In  some  provinces  the  old  Hindu  dynasties  of  sovereigns 
were  soon  annihilated,  and  in  other  places  they  were  allowed  to 
retain  and  exercise  much  of  their  former  power  in  their  own 
territory,  upon  condition  of  paying  an  annual  tribute  to  the  em- 
peror. This  tribute  was  always  paid  reluctantly,  and  was  with- 
held when  it  was  believed  payment  could  not  be  enforced.  The 
army  of  the  emperor  and  his  deputies  or  governors  consisted 
chiefly  of  Mohammedans,  who  became  the  military  class,  but 
the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants  stiU  continued  to  profess  the 
Hindu  religion,  and  to  practiee  its  rites  and  ceremonies  openly 
so  far  as  they  corfld  do  it,  xvdthout  incurring  persecution.  The 
Hindus  were  so  much  attached  to  their  superstitions,  especially 

6 


62 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEEN. 


to  their  distinctions  of  caste,  that  they  often  chose  to  suffer 
death  rather  than  embrace  the  Mohammedan  faith.  This  pas- 
sive resistance  to  Mohammedanism  on  the  part  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  India,  concurred,  with  some  other  causes,  to  abate  the 
zeal  of  the  conquerors  for  its  propagation.  Some  of  them  be- 
came apparently  satisfied  with  the  possession  of  the  country 
and  the  professed  obedience  of  the  people,  leaving  conversion  to 
be  effected  gradually  by  persuasion,  and  the  aid  and  influence  of 
the  government  in  giving  rewards  and  employment  to  prose- 
lytes. Stfll  the  course  of  the  government  varied  according  to 
the  religious  character  of  the  respective  conquerors  and  their 
subordinates,  and  the  Hindus  had  the  greatest  dread  of  zeal- 
ously religious  rulers. 

Near  the  close  of  his  reign  Altumsh  received  investiture  from 
the  Caliph  of  Bagdad.  This  was  a great  honor,  and  it  came 
in  the  view  of  all  Mohammedans  from  the  highest  authority. 
His  zeal  for  Mohammedanism  and  hatred  of  idolatry,  may  have 
procured  this  honor  for  him ; or  it  may  have  inspired  him  with 
zeal  in  propagating  the  faith  of  the  Prophet.  The  historian  says 
that  in  the  ancient  city  of  Oujein  “ Altumsh  destroyed  the 
magnificent  and  rich  temple  of  Makal,  which  was  formed  upon 
the  same  plan  with  that  of  Somnat,  had  been  building  300 
years,  and  was  surrounded  by  a wall  100  cubits  liigh.”  In  this 
city,  also,  he  found  an  image  of  Vicramditya,  formerly  a cele- 
brated Raja,  from  whom  the  people  of  that  country  still  reckon 
their  era.  This  image,  with  many  others,  some  of  stone 
and  others  of  brass,  “ he  ordered  to  be  carried  to  Delhi,  and 
broken  to  pieces  at  the  door  of  the  great  mosque.” 

The  celebrated  column  called  Cuttub  Minar,  near  Delhi,  was 
commenced  in  the  reign  of  Cuttub  ud  Deen,  but  was  finished 
in  the  reign  of  Altumsh.*  Near  it  is  a mosque  in  an  unfinished 

* This  pillar,  or  tower,  is  242  feet  high  and  106  feet  in  circumference  at  the 
base.  It  has  4 balconies,  each  supported  on  large  stone  brackets,  and  sur- 
rounded with  battlements  of  richly  cut  stone,  to  enable  people  to  walk  round 
the  pillar  with  safety.  The  1st  balcony  is  at  the  height  of  90  feet;  the  2d  at 
140  ; the  3d  at  180,  and  the  4th  at  203  feet.  Up  to  the  3d  balcony  the  pillar 
is  built  of  fine  red  sandstone.  From  the  3d  balcony  it  is  built  chiclly  of  white 
marble,  but  “ the  summit  is  crowned  with  a majestic  cupola  of  the  fine  red 
sandstone.”  From  the  base  to  the  1st  balcony  the  exterior  part  is  (luted  into 
27  divisions,  alternately  semicircular  and  angular.  From  the  1st  to  the  2d  bal- 


niSTORT  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


63 


state,  which  for  grandeur  of  design,  and  elegance  of  execution 
is  said  not  to  be  exceeded  by  any  in  India.  Several  men,  dis- 
tinguished for  learning,  lived  upon  his  bounty  at  his  court,  and 
by  their  presence  and  inllucnce  increased  his  fame.  His  reign 
continued  for  26  years,  and  he  is  reckoned  by  the  Mohammedan 
historians  as  a prince  of  great  valor,  prudence,  and  piety. 

Some  years  previous  to  his  death  Altumsh  appointed  his  son 
and  intended  successor,  Feroze  Shah,  to  high  situations,  that  he 
might  acejuire  experience  and  reputation,  and  so  be  prepared  to 
succeed  him.  He  was  at  Delhi  when  his  father  died.  He 
immediately  ascended  the  throne.  The  nobles  swore  allegiance 
and  brought  their  presents  to  him.  The  poets  celebrated  his 
praises,  and  he  gave  presents  to  them.  These  congratulations 
and  rejoicings  were  scarcely  passed  when  he  began  to  show  how 
unworthy  he  was  of  the  imperial  dignity,  by  indulging  in 
debauchery  and  profligacy,  and  by  squandering  the  treasures 
his  father  had  accumulated,  on  “ courtezans,  comedians,  and 
musicians.”  The  affairs  of  government  were  chiefly  managed 
by  his  mother,  who  to  gratify  her  envy  or  ambition  caused 
many  innocent  persons  to  be  put  to  death.  The  profligacy  of 
the  emperor  and  the  abuse  of  power  by  his  mother  gave  so 
great  dissatisfaction  that  several  attempts  were  made  to  de- 
throne him.  One  of  these,  in  which  the  nobles  put  his  sister. 
Sultana  Rezia,  upon  the  throne,  was  successful.  The  emperor 
was  taken  prisoner  and  kept  in  confinement  until  his  death. 

Sultana  Rezia  is  remarkable  among  the  rulers  of  India. 
Ferishta,  the  most  reliable  historian  of  that  period,  in  describing 
her  reign,  says,  “ This  princess  was  adorned  with  every  quali- 
fication required  in  the  ablest  kings,  and  the  strictest  scrutineers 

cony,  the  flutings  are  all  semicircular ; from  the  2d  to  the  3d  they  are  all  angu- 
lar ; and  from  the  3d  to  the  summit  the  surface  is  smooth.  Around  the  1st  story 
are  5 horizontal  belts  containing  sentences  from  the  Koran,  engraved  in  bold 
relief  In  the  2d  story  are  4 such  belts,  and  in  the  3d  there  are  3.  The  ascent 
is  by  a spiral  staircase  ■within,  containing  380  steps.  From  this  staircase  are 
passages  into  the  balconies  with  •windows  at  intervals  for  the  admission  of  air 
and  light.  This  pillar,  generally  reputed  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world,  has 
stood  more  than  600  years.  The  same  emperor  began  to  erect  another 
pillar  near  this,  but  died  before  it  was  raised  to  the  first  balcony.  Tradi- 
tion says  that  he  designed  these  pUlars  to  be  the  minarets  of  a mosque  of  corre- 
sponding size  and  grandeur. 


64 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


of  her  actions  could  find  in  her  no  fault  but  that  she  was  a 
woman.”  Her  education  was  such  that  she  could  read  the 
Koran,  and  so  ascertain  for  herself  the  principles  of  her  faith. 
She  evinced  such  a knowledge  of  business  and  talent  for  govern- 
ment, that  her  father  Altumsh,  when  leaving  Delhi  to  conduct 
the  war  in  Malwa,  appointed  her  to  be  regent  in  his  absence. 
And  when  asked  by  his  nobles  why  he  appointed  his  daughter 
to  such  an  office,  instead  of  some  one  of  his  sons,  he  rephed 
that  she  was  more  capable  and  trustworthy  than  any  of  them. 
The  reputation  she  then  acqubed  in  her  father’s  reign,  procured 
her  elevation  to  power  when  her  brother  was  dethroned  for  his 
incapacity  and  profligacy.  On  being  invested  with  the  supreme 
power  she  changed  her  apparel,  and  assuming  the  imperial 
robes  appeared  daily  on  the  throne,  and  transacted  all  the 
public  business  in  the  manner  usual  with  the  emperors. 

Of  the  parties  who  united  in  dethroning  Feroze  Shah,  one 
was  opposed  to  investing  Rezia  with  the  supreme  power, 
and  collecting  a large  force,  they  proceeded  to  Delhi  and  de- 
feated the  first  army  that  marched  against  them.  The  em- 
press, however,  proved  herself  quite  equal  to  the  exigency  by 
sowing  dissensions  among  the  leaders,  so  that  the  confederacy 
was  soon  dissolved,  and  peace  restored.  The  commander-in- 
chief of  the  army  having  died,  several  changes  were  soon  made 
among  the  great  officers  of  State.  One  of  them,  who  was 
originally  an  Abyssinian  slave,  gave  great  offence  to  the  other 
nobles,  who  formed  a combination  to  depose  her,  as  soon  as 
they  could  find  an  opportunity  to  do  it.  The  empress  having 
ascertained  their  plan  opposed  them  with  great  spirit.  She 
marched  against  the  governor  of  Lahore,  who  was  one  of  the 
parties.  He  was  disappointed  in  respect  to  aid  from  some  of 
the  confederates,  and  was  compelled  to  throw  himself  upon  her 
mercy.  When  on  the  way  with  her  army  to  chastise  another 
refractory  noble,  a mutiny  occurred  among  her  own  forces,  in 
wliich  the  Abyssinian  favorite  was  killed,  and  she  was  herself 
seized  and  sent  to  the  fort  of  Tibcrliind.  The  nobles  then 
assembled  at  Delhi,  and  declared  Byram  Shah,  her  brother,  to 
be  emperor.  Alturia,  to  whose  fort  she  was  sent  for  custody, 
who  was  one  of  the  first  that  rebelled  against  her,  on  becoming 
acquainted  with  her,  was  so  much  captivated  with  her  beauty, 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


65 


her  accomplishments,  and  her  talents,  that  he  offered  to  marry 
her,  at  the  same  time  pledging  himself  to  support  her  right  to 
the  throne  asrainst  all  his  former  friends  and  confederates.  The 
marriage  was  soon  celebrated,  and  by  their  united  influence 
collecting  a large  force  they  proceeded  to  Delhi  to  assert  and 
sustain  her  rights.  A severe  battle  was  fought  near  the  city,  in 
which  the  empress  was  defeated  and  fled  to  Tiberhind.  In  a 
short  time  she  was  able  again  to  appear  iji  the  field,  but  she 
suffered  another  defeat.  She  and  her  husband  were  taken 
prisoners,  and  both  were  put  to  death.  Thus  died  Sultana 
Rezia  or  Rezia  Begum,  who,  considering  the  class  of  people  to 
whom  she  belonged  and  the  age  in  which  she  lived,  appears  to 
have  been  one  of  the  most  remarkable  personages  in  the  Mo- 
hammedan history  of  India.  Her  reign  continued  for  three  and 
a half  years. 

The  nobles  united  in  putting  Byram  Shah  on  the  throne,  but 
he  soon  showed  that  he  was  unfit  for  the  dignity  to  which  he 
had  been  promoted,  and  it  became  equally  obvious  that  some 
of  the  nobles  had  united  in  raising  him  to  this  dignity  merely  to 
attain  their  private  ends.  Dissensions  and  intrigues,  conspira- 
cies and  assassinations  followed  each  other  in  quick  succession. 
In  the  mean  time  news  reached  Delhi  that  the  Moguls  had 
invaded  the  Punjab  and  plundered  Lahore.  A general  council 
of  the  State  was  called,  and  it  was  determined  to  send  a large 
army  to  Lahore  under  the  vizier.  This  man  appears  to  have 
been  talented,  ambitious,  and  treacherous.  Wliile  absent  from 
Delhi  with  the  army,  by  misrepresentations  to  the  nobles  con- 
cerning the  emperor,  he  excited  their  disaffection  towards  him, 
and  then  by  informing  the  emperor  of  their  disaffection  he 
excited  his  jealousy  of  them,  and  obtained  from  him  an  avowed 
intention  of  punishing  them.  The  consequence  was  that  the 
army  returned  to  Delhi  and  besieged  the  emperor  three  months 
in  his  capital,  when  the  city  was  taken,  and  he  was  first  thrown 
into  prison,  and  then  put  to  death. 

AUa  ud  Deen  was  the  next  emperor.  He  was  raised  to  this 
dignity  by  those  who  had  deposed  his  predecessor.  K he 
excelled  his  predecessor  in  capacity,  he  was  also  more  profli- 
gate, more  addicted  to  low  vice,  more  cruel  and  more  oppres- 
sive. In  his  reign  the  Moguls  made  an  invasion  into  Bengal 

6* 


66 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

through  Tibet,  but  they  were  defeated  and  driven  back.  The 
next  year  they  invaded  Scinde,  but  on  the  approach  of  the 
emperor’s  army  they  retreated  and  soon  left  the  country.  The 
emperor  at  length  became  so  unpopular  that  the  nobles  united 
in  deposing  him.  He  was  then  thrown  into  prison  and  there 
kept  till  he  died. 

Nasir  ud  Deen,  a grandson  of  Altumsh,  became  the  next 
emperor.  For  some  years  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  was 
kept  in  confinement  by  the  reigning  sovereign.  He  was  after- 
wards released  and  intrusted  with  the  government  of  Barage, 
where  he  was  much  respected  for  his  moderation,  wisdom,  and 
love  of  justice.  The  Moguls  had  now  obtained  possession  of 
the  countries  west  of  the  Indus,  and  the  government  and  people 
of  India  were  in  continual  dread  of  them.  No  great  invasion, 
however,  was  made  by  them  during  this  reign.  Nasir  ud  Deen’s 
reign  continued  for  20  years.  Misrule  and  anarchy  had  prevailed 
in  some  provinces  of  the  empire  during  the  two  preceding  reigns, 
and  he  was  occupied  for  several  years  in  restoring  order  and 
enforcing  the  payment  of  tribute.  Lr  accomplishing  these 
objects  he  had  some  severe  conflicts  with  some  of  the  Moham- 
medan governors  of  provinces  and  with  the  Hindu  princes. 
Among  these  the  Rajpoots  were  conspicuous.  The  conflicts 
with  them  were  severe  and  conducted  with  great  barbarity  on 
both  sides.  In  one  battle  10,000  Rajpoots  were  slain,  and  90 
chiefs  were  taken  prisoners.  The  chiefs  were  all  put  to  death, 
and  aU  the  soldiers,  who  were  taken  prisoners,  were  lulled  or 
condemned  to  perpetual  slavery. 

In  this  reign  an  ambassador  came  to  Delhi  from  Ilaluku  Khan, 
the  grandson  of  the  celebrated  Ghengis  Khan,  and  was  received 
and  entertained  with  royal  magnificence.*  Nasir  ud  Been  in 
his  private  life  and  habits  was  a dervish.  His  personal  expenses 

* The  following  extract  from  Ferislita  will  give  some  idea  of  the  court  of 
Delhi  at  that  time:  — “ Tlie  vizier  went  out  to  meet  the  ambassador  with 
50,000  horse  of  Arabs,  Agims,  Turks,  Khiljccs,  and  Afghans;  200,000  infantry 
in  arms ; 2,000  choice  elephants  of  war,  and  3,000  carriages  of  fire-works, 
lie  drew  up  in  order  of  battle,  formed  in  columns  of  20  deep,  with  the  artillery 
and  cavalry  i)roperly  disposed.  Having  then  exhibited  some  feats  of  horseman- 
ship in  mock  battles  and  i’ully  displayed  his  pomp,  he  conducted  him  into  the 
royal  palace.  'I'liere  the  court  was  very  splendid,  every  thing  being  set  out  in 
the  most  gorgeous  and  magnificent  manner.  All  the  oinras,  oflieers  of  state, 
judges,  jn’icsts,  and  great  men  of  the  city  were  j)resent,  besides  five  princes  of 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


67 


he  defrayed  by  making  copies  of  the  Koran  and  selling  them. 
He  had  only  one  wife  and  no  concubines.  His  food  was  of  the 
simplest  and  plainest  kind,  and  was  all  prepared  by  his  wife. 
When  she  one  day  complained  that  she  had  burned  her  hand  in 
baking  the  bread,  and  recjnested  a female  servant  to  assist  her, 
he  refused,  saying  that  “ he  was  only  a trustee  for  the  State,  and 
that  he  was  determined  not  to  burden  it  with  needless  expenses.” 
lie  was  learned,  and  supported  several  learned  men  at  his  court. 
His  government  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  was  popular, 
and  appears  to  deserve  a high  place  among  the  early  Moham- 
medan emperors  in  India.  He  left  no  children. 

Ghias  ud  Deen  Bulbun,  commonly  called  by  European  histo- 
rians Balin,  succeeded  to  the  vacant  throne.  He  was  vizier  and 
had  the  chief  administration  of  government  in  the  preceding 
reign.  There  are  different  accounts  of  his  origin.  Ferishta 
says  that  his  father  was  a Turkish  chief,  and  had  the  command 
of  10,000  horse  in  the  war  in  which  his  son  w’as  taken  prisoner, 
and  that  the  merchant  who  bought  him  on  learnmg  that  he  was 
a relation  of  the  emperor,  Altumsh,  brought  him  to  Delhi  and 
presented  him  to  the  emperor,  who  in  return  gave  the  merchant 
a liberal  reward.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  intrigues  and 
revolutions  in  Delhi  till  he  obtained  the  office  of  vizier.  He 
then  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  government  in  such  a way  that 
Nasir  ud  Deen  for  many  years  had  little  besides  the  name  and 
title  of  royalty.  In  the  reign  of  Altumsh  he  was  one  of  a 
society  of  40  Turkish  slaves,  who  engaged  to  support  one 
another,  and  on  the  emperor’s  death  to  divide  the  empire  among 
themselves.  But  jealousies  and  dissensions  prevented  them 
from  attempting  it.  Several  of  them  however  rose  to  fill  high 
situations,  and  when  Bulbun  became  emperor  he  began  from 
feelings  of  jealousy  or  some  unknown  cause  to  remove  them, 
and  continued  to  do  so  till  aU  perished  by  the  sword  or  by 
poison.  Having  removed  aU  who  were  members  of  this  asso- 
ciation, he  was  careful  to  appoint  only  men  of  respectable  fam- 
ily connections  to  situations  in  his  government.  He  excluded 

Ajrae,  Khorassan,  and  Maverulneer  vith  their  retinues  who  had  taken  protee-' 
tion  at  Delhi  from  the  arms  of  Ghengis  Khan,  who  a little  before  that  time  had 
overran  the  most  part  of  Asia.  Many  Rajas  of  Hindustan,  suhjeet  to  the 
empire,  were  there  and  stood  next  to  the  throne.” 


68 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Hindus  from  all  situations  of  honor  and  responsibility.  His 
proceedings  appear  to  have  had  much  of  that  capricious  char- 
acter so  common  in  the  despotic  sovereigns  of  Asia. 

He  washed  to  acquire  a character  for  liberahty,  and  to  have  a 
splendid  court.  In  this  respect  circumstances  favored  him.  Of 
the  sovereigns  and  princes  who  were  expelled  from  their  domin- 
ions by  Ghengis  Khan  and  his  successors,  or  wdio  fled  from  their 
ravages,  more  than  20  were  living  at  one  time  in  Delhi,  The 
emperor  gave  them  palaces  for  their  residence,  and  pensions  for 
their  support.  On  all  pubhc  occasions  they  all  stood  to  the 
right  and  left  of  his  throne,  ranged  in  order  according  to  their 
dignity.  These  sovereigns  and  princes  brought  with  them  from 
their  respective  countries  many  men  distinguished  for  their 
learning  and  their  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  These 
pliilosophers,  poets,  and  other  learned  men  assembled  every 
night  in  the  palace  of  Khan  Shedid,  the  heir  apparent,  where 
they  had  Ameer  Chuseru  a celebrated  poet,  for  their  president. 
When  Bulbun  went  abroad,  his  body-guards  consisted  of  1,000 
noble  Turks  in  splendid  armor  and  mounted  on  the  finest 
Persian  horses.  The  great  nobles  of  the  empire  imitated  the 
emperor  as  far  as  they  could  in  pomp  and  display,  and  his 
court  was  then  probably  the  most  splendid  in  the  world.* 


* The  following  extract  from  Ferishta  will  give  some  idea  of  the  court  of 
Delhi  at  this  time,  or  in  a.d.  12G5: — “In  the  retinue  of  these  princes  were 
the  most  famous  men  for  learning,  war,  arts,  and  sciences  that  Asia  at  that  time 
produced.  The  court  of  Hindustan  was  therefore  in  the  days  of  lUilbuu  reck- 
oned the  most  polite  and  magnificent  in  the  world.  All  the  philosojihers,  poets, 
and  divines  formed  a society  every  night  at  the  house  of  Khan  Shedid,  the  heir 
apparent  of  the  empire,  and  Ameer  Chuseru,  the  poet,  presided  at  these  meetings. 
Another  society  of  musicians,  dancers,  mimics,  players,  bulfoons,  and  story-tellers 
was  constantly  at  the  house  of  the  emperor’s  second  son,  Kcra  Khan,  who  was 
given  to  pleasure  and  levity.  The  omras  followed  the  example  of  their  superi- 
ors, so  that  various  societies  and  clubs  were  formed  in  every  tpiarter  of  the 
city.  The  Sultan  having  a great  passion  for  splendor  and  magnificence  in  his 
palaces,  equipages,  and  liveries,  he  was  imitated  by  the  court. 

“ Such  was  the  pomp  and  grandeur  of  the  royal  jirescnce,  that  none  could 
approach  the  throne  without  terror.  Tlie  ceremonies  of  introduction  were  con- 
ducted with  so  much  reverence  and  solemnity,  and  every  thing  disjioscd  so  as  to 
strike  awe  and  astonishment  into  the  beholders.  Nor  w.as  Dulbun  less  mag- 
nificent in  his  cavalcades.  Ills  stall  elephants  were  caiiarisoned  in  purple  and 
gold.  Ilis  horseguards,  consisting  of  1,000  noble  Turks  in  splendid  armor, 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


69 


Insurrections  were  made  in  several  provinces  in  the  early  part 
of  Bulbun’s  reign.  In  suppressing  these,  he  acted  with  great 
vigor  and  energy.  But  he  at  the  same  time  exhibited  great  and 
apparently  unnecessary  severity  and  cruelty.  In  Mewat  he  is 
said  to  have  caused  more  than  100,000  persons  to  be  put  to 
death.  In  suppressing  some  disorders  in  Juanpore  and  Benares 
he  caused  many  thousands  of  men,  women,  and  ehildren  to  be 
killed  in  one  common  massacre.  The  governor  of  Bengal  hav- 
ing refused  to  send  to  the  emperor  any  part  of  the  plunder  he 
had  acquired  in  some  war,  and  soon  afterwards  assuming  the 
title  of  king,  the  emperor  proceeded  against  him  at  the  head  of 
a large  army.  He  was  occupied  in  this  expedition  three  years, 
and  was  successful  in  suppressing  the  rebellion.  The  army  of 
the  governor,  or  king  as  he  called  himself,  was  defeated, 
and  the  governor  was  himself  killed  as  he  was  endeavoring  to 
swim  his  horse  over  the  river.  The  emperor’s  cruelty  towards 
those  who  had  taken  any  part,  or  who  were  taken  prisoners  in 
this  rebellion,  excited  great  displeasure  at  the  court,  and  in  the 
circle  of  his  friends.  They  resolved  to  remonstrate  against  such 
unnecessary  severity.  But  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the 
Cazees,  the  Mufties  and  the  great  and  learned  men  of  the  court 
uniting  in  one  petition,  were  able  to  induce  the  emperor  to 
change  his  eonduct.  If  this  fact  shows  the  cruel  disposition  of 
the  emperor,  it  also  shows  the  character  of  the  court  in  a very 
favorable  light,  that  should  dare  openly  and  publicly  to  express 
to  an  absolute  and  tyrannical  despot,  their  views  and  feelings 
of  his  actions  in  a matter  of  this  nature,  and  that  they  should 
sueceed  in  inducing  him  to  change  his  purpose. 

Near  the  close  of  his  reign  the  Moguls  invaded  the  Punjab. 
The  emperor’s  oldest  son  Mohammed  defeated  them  in  battle, 
but  was  himself  killed  in  the  pursuit.  The  emperor  grieved 
much  for  the  loss  of  this  son,  as  he  was  much  attached  to  him 

were  mounted  upon  the  finest  Persian  steeds,  with  bridles  of  silver  and  saddles 
of  rich  embroidery ; 500  chosen  men  in  rich  liver)-,  with  their  drawn  swords 
upon  upon  their  shoulders,  ran  proclaiming  his  approach,  and  clearing  the 
way  before  him.  All  the  omras  followed  according  to  their  rank  with  their 
various  equipages  and  attendants.  The  monarch,  in  short,  seldom  went  with 
less  than  100,000  anned  men,  which  he  used  to  say  was  not  to  gratify  any  van- 
ity in  himself,  but  to  exalt  him  in  the  eyes  of  the  people.” 


70 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


and  intended  he  should  be  his  successor.  lie  was  now  in  his 
80th  year  and  soon  sank  under  his  afflictions  and  infirmities. 
His  reign  continued  for  22  years. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Bulbun  his  grandson  Kei  Kobad 
was  raised  to  the  throne.  His  father  Bokarra  Khan  was  yet 
living  and  was  the  governor  of  Bengal.  In  his  personal  appear- 
ance Kei  Kobad  was  remarkably  handsome,  in  his  manners  he 
was  affable  and  agreeable,  and  in  his  disposition  mild  and 
amiable.  His  education  had  been  conducted  by  able  masters, 
and  he  excelled  in  a taste  for  literature ; he  had  also  much  gen- 
eral knowledge  and  great  expectations  were  formed  of  him.  But 
their  hopes  were  soon  disappointed.  When  declared  emperor 
he  was  only  18  years  old,  an  age  httle  suited  to  the  temptations, 
trials,  and  intrigues  of  an  eastern  court.  He  soon  yielded  to 
temptation  and  gave  himself  up  to  pleasure.  The  vizier, 
Nizam  ud  Been,  with  a view  to  secure  the  throne  for  himself, 
encouraged  the  young  emperor  in  his  vicious  course.  Nor  was 
he  in  any  way  scrupiilous  in  respect  to  the  means  he  used. 
He  managed  to  remove  by  death  or  disgrace  all  the  ministers 
and  servants  of  the  emperor,  who  would  not  be  subservient  to 
his  own  promotion.  As  he  had  reason  to  beheve  that  the  Mo- 
gul and  Persian  chiefs  in  the  employment  of  the  emperor  would 
continue  to  be  faithful  to  their  royal  master,  he  endeavored  by 
intrigue  and  treachery  to  procure  their  assassination,  and  he 
accomplished  his  purpose.  This  course  of  villainy  for  raising 
himself  to  the  throne  was  inten-upted  by  the  approach  of  Bo- 
kaiTa  Khan,  the  emperor’s  father,  who  had  come  from  Bengal 
to  visit  his  son.  The  vizier  representing  to  the  emperor  that  his 
father  had  come  to  deprive  him  of  all  his  power,  induced  him 
to  go  out  with  a force  to  oppose  his  father.  But  as  the  two 
armies  drew  near  each  other,  Bokarra  Khan  appealed  so 
strongly  to  his  son’s  feelings  that  the  vizier  was  compelled  to 
make  arrangements  for  an  interview  between  them.  The  vizier 
still  endeavored  to  prevent  the  interview  by  requiring  some  hu- 
miliating ceremonies  to  be  performed  by  the  fatlier.  But 
Bokarra  Khan  submitted  to  them  all.  After  performing  all  that 
was  required  of  him,  and  bowing  several  times  to  his  son  who 
took  no  notice  of  him,  the  aged  father  burst  into  tears.  The 
emperor  seeing  this,  could  no  longer  suppress  his  emotions,  but 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


71 


leaving  his  throne  hastened  to  meet  his  father,  and  the  latter 
seeing  his  son  approacliing,  rushed  to  meet  him.  They  remained 
in  each  other’s  embraces,  both  weeping  for  some  time.  This 
sight  produced  a deep  impression  on  the  court,  and  all  thoughts 
of  war  between  the  father  and  son  were  at  end.  Bokarra  Khan 
remained  at  Delhi  for  some  time.  He  was  much  afl’ected  in 
view  of  the  habits,  circumstances,  and  prospects  of  his  son,  but 
finding  he  could  do  nothing  of  any  importance  in  reforming 
him  or  delivering  him  from  the  power  of  the  vizier,  and  learning 
that  the  state  of  aflairs  m his  own  province  required  his  pres- 
ence, he  returned  to  Bengal. 

Kei  Kobad  continued  his  course  of  debauchery  till  his  consti- 
tution becoming  impaired  he  had  an  attack  of  palsy.  Tliis  un- 
expected iUness  aroused  him  to  reflection,  and  on  review- 
ing his  course  of  profligacy  he  saw  reason  for  being  much  dis- 
pleased with  the  vizier.  lie  soon  began  to  look  upon  the  vizier 
as  his  greatest  enemy,  and  he  determined  if  possible  to  get 
rid  of  him.  With  this  view  he  ordered  him  to  proceed  to  the 
government  of  Multan.  But  the  vizier,  under  various  pretences, 
deferred  leaving  Delhi,  and  in  the  mean  time  he  began  to  ply  all 
his  art  at  intrigue  and  treachery  to  remove  Kei  Kobad,  and 
assume  the  supreme  power  himself.  Some  of  the  nobles,  to 
whom  he  had  become  very  odious,  becoming  acquainted  with 
his  plans,  found  means  to  remove  him  by  poison,  the  not  un- 
fiequent  end  of  an  odious  minister  in  oriental  courts. 

As  Kei  Kobad,  from  the  bad  state  of  his  health,  could  not 
be  expected  to  survive  long,  several  parties  began  to  form  plans 
for  assuming  the  supreme  power,  and  then  dividing  the  offices 
of  government  among  themselves.  After  awhile  the  part}'  com- 
monly called  the  Khiljees  gained  the  ascendency,  not  without 
much  intrigue,  treachery,  and  murder.  Fearing  they  might  lose 
the  advantages  they  had  thus  secured,  they  resolved  to  put  their 
chief  upon  the  tlirone  while  they  had  the  power  to  do  it. 
So  an  assassin  was  employed  to  despatch  Kei  Kobad,  and  Je- 
lal  ud  Deen,  the  head  chief  of  the  Khiljee  tribe,  ascended  the 
throne  and  commenced  a new  dynasty,  called  the  House  of 
Klidjee ; Kei  Kobad  was  the  last  of  the  series  of  sovereigns 
called  the  Slave  Emperors.  They  were  ten  in  number  and  their 
average  reign  was  a little  more  than  8 years  each.  Six  of 


72 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


them  were  put  to  death,  or  were  deposed  and  died  in  confine' 
ment. 


THE  HOUSE  OF  KHILJEE,  A.D.  1288-1421. 

Jelal  ud  Deen,  of  the  tribe  of  Khiljee,  was  70  years  old  when 
he  assumed  the  imperial  power.  He  had  taken  the  leadhig  part 
in  the  revolution  which  raised  him  to  the  supreme  power.  The 
late  emperor  was  assassinated  by  his  orders,  and  yet  he  affected 
great  reluctance  to  fill  the  throne.  The  courtiers  and  people 
gave  him  but  little  credit  for  sincerity  in  these  pretensions,  as  he 
kept  the  son  of  the  late  emperor  in  prison  and  put  him  to  death 
as  soon  as  he  dared  to  do  it.  Some  historians,  however,  deny 
his  agency  in  this  murder.  Be  this  as  it  may,  when  he  felt  that 
his  power  was  well  established  he  became  lenient  in  his  proceed- 
ings, not  only  pardoning  offences  against  himself  but  transgres- 
sions of  the  laws  of  the  empire.  He  exhibited  this  disposition 
so  far  that  people  lost  their  respect  for  the  laws,  and  all  fear  of 
his  displeasure.  Governors  refused  to  pay  their  tribute,  and 
neglected  to  enforce  his  laws  in  their  provinces.  When  some 
of  his  ministers  remonstrated  with  him  for  showing  so  much  for- 
bearance and  advised  him  to  follow  the  example  of  Bulbun,  he 
replied  that  he  could  not  live  long  and  wished  to  die  in  peace. 
Yet  when  a large  Mogul  army  * invaded  his  dominions  he  acted 
with  great  vigor,  proceeding  against  them  with  his  army  and 
defeating  them  in  a severe  battle. 

The  most  remarkable  event  in  this  reign  was  the  execution 
of  a celebrated  dervish  called  Syud  Molah.  He  had  travelled 
over  several  countries  and  acquired  a high  reputation  for  piety 
before  coming  to  India.  He  soon  acquired  great  respect  at 
Delhi,  and  expended  so  much  money  in  charity  that  people  all 
believed  he  had  the  power  of  transmuting  other  metals  into  gold. 
He  gathered  around  him  a great  number  of  dLsciples  by  whom 
he  was  held  in  the  highest  estimation.  Among  these  was  Cazee 
Jelal  ud  Deen,  an  intriguing  and  ambitious  man,  who  acejuired 
much  intluence  with  Syud  Molah.  The  Cazee  persuaded  the 
dervish  that  his  disciples  all  believed  God  had  sent  him  to  Delhi 

* Ferislita  says  that  this  army  contained  “ten  tomans;”  a toman  consisted 
of  10,000  men. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PEUIOD. 


73 


to  reform  the  people,  to  restore  order  in  the  kingdom,  and  propa- 
gate the  religion  of  Mohammed,  and  that  they  were  prepared  to 
support  him  in  any  measures  to  accomj)lish  the  great  ends  of 
his  mission.  Whether  the  dervish  was  fanatieal  and  ambitious 
enough  to  believe  this  or  not,  yet  two  men  were  hired  to  join 
the  emperor’s  retinue  as  he  was  going  to  the  mosque  on  Friday, 
and  to  assassinate  him.  The  diseiples  were  then  to  proclaim 
the  dervdsh  to  be  emperor.  But  one  of  the  diseiples  not  satis- 
fied with  the  olfiee  assigned  to  him  in  the  contemplated  govern- 
ment, went  to  the  emperor  and  disclosed  the  whole  plan.  The 
emperor  ordered  the  dervish  Syud  Molah  and  Cazee  .Telal  ud 
Been  to  be  seized  and  brought  before  him.  As  they  denied  all 
knowdedge  of  any  such  plan,  he  ordered  a great  fire  to  be  pre- 
pared that  they  might  be  put  to  the  trial  of  ordeal.  The  emper- 
or and  all  his  court  went  to  see  the  trial.  The  dervish,  the 
cazee,  and  the  two  assassins  were  then  brought  that  they  might 
walk  through  the  fire  and  prove  their  innocence  by  coming  out 
unhurt.  When  they  had  said  their  prayers  and  were  just  ready 
to  go  into  the  fire,  the  emperor  ordered  them  to  stop,  and  turn- 
ing to  his  court  he  said,  “the  nature  of  fire  is  to  burn,  paying 
no  respect  to  the  righteous  more  than  to  the  \\’icked.  Besides, 
it  is  contrary  to  the  Mohammedan  law  to  practise  this  heathen- 
ish superstition.”  The  emperor  then  ordered  the  cazee  to  Bu- 
dayoon,  the  dervish  to  be  kept  in  chains  in  a vault  under  the 
throne,  and  the  two  assassins  to  be  put  to  death.  As  the  dervdsh 
was  being  carried  through  the  court,  the  emperor  said  to  the 
Calenders,  a class  of  religious  mendicants,  “ behold  the  man 
who  devised  such  evil  against  us.  I leave  him  to  you  to  be 
judged  according  to  his  deserts,”  and  then  proceeded  to  his  pal- 
ace. The  court  and  aU  the  multitude  understood  that  the 
dervish  was  delivered  up  to  them  to  do  with  him  as  they 
pleased.  Neither  the  court  nor  the  multitude  were  in  a state  of 
mind  to  show  him  mercy,  and  he  was  soon  trampled  to  death 
by  an  elephant,  a mode  of  execution  often  practised  by  the 
former  governments  in  India.  Many  believed  the  dervish  to  be 
innocent,  and  that  the  accusation  against  him  originated  in  envy. 
He  protested  his  innocence  to  the  last,  and  his  last  words  to  the 
emperor  were,  “ be  assured  that  my  curse  will  lie  heavy  upon 
you  and  your  posterity.”  Just  as  the  dervish  was  put  to  death, 

7 


74 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


“ a black  whirlwmd  arose  which  for  the  space  of  half  an  hour, 
changed  day  into  night.  No  rain  fell  at  Delhi  that  year,  and  a 
dreadful  famuie  followed  in  which  thousands  perished  of  star\"a- 
tion.  The  emperor’s  oldest  son  became  insane,  the  emperor 
himself  died  by  the  hands  of  assassins,  and  his  family  were 
excluded  from  the  throne.”  These  phenomena  and  calamities 
were  regarded  by  the  superstitious  as  evidence  of  the  innocency 
of  the  dervish,  and  of  the  guilt  of  the  emperor  in  putting  him 
to  death. 

Li  the  latter  part  of  this  reign,  Alla  ud  Deen,  a nephew  of  the 
emperor  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  in  the  history  of 
India,  began  to  acquire  notoriety.  When  governor  of  Kurrah 
he  undertook  to  suppress  some  insurrections  in  the  provinces 
south  of  Delhi.  In  this  expedition  he  defeated  the  insmgents, 
took  several  forts,  plundered  the  country,  and  obtained  so  much 
booty  that  he  was  able  to  send  some  of  it  to  the  emperor,  and 
to  increase  his  own  army.  The  emperor  was  so  much  pleased 
with  Alla  ud  Deen’s  success  in  this  enterprise  that  he  gave  him 
large  presents,  and  increased  his  government  by  annexing  the 
province  of  Oude  to  Kurrah.  AUa  ud  Deen  having  concdiated 
the  good-wiU  of  the  emperor  and  brought  his  own  army  into  an 
efficient  state,  informed  him  that  there  were  some  Hindu  princes 
of  great  .wealth  in  the  country  south  of  Delhi,  and  if  he  could 
have  permission  he  would  reduce  them  to  obedience,  add  their 
dominions  to  the  empire,  and  send  the  wealth  he  might  obtain 
from  them  to  the  royal  treasury.  The  emperor  was  pleased 
with  the  proposal  and  assented  to  Alla  ud  Deen’s  undertaldng 
the  expedition,  not  expecting  he  would  go  beyond  the  valley  of 
the  Nerbudda.  Alla  ud  Deen  had  a force  of  8,000  chosen  horse, 
and  he  resolved  to  invade  the  Deckan,  which  had  hitherto 
remained  undisturbed  by  the  Mohammedans.  He  proceeded 
on  his  way  by  raj)id  marches  to  EUichpoor,  where  he  made  a 
short  stop  to  refresh  his  army.  The  better  to  conceal  his  pur- 
pose he  gave  out  that  he  had  left  his  uncle,  the  emperor,  in  dis- 
gust, and  was  going  to  offer  his  services  to  the  Raja  of  Telingana. 
He  left  Elhchpoor  in  the  night,  and  changing  his  course  in  two 
days  reached  Deoghur,  the  object  of  his  expedition.  This  city 
(the  modern  Dowlutabad)  was  the  capital  of  Ramdev,  who  was 
generally  regarded  by  the  Mohammedans  as  the  sovereign  of  all 


HISTORY THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


75 


the  Peckan,  though  he  was  only  the  Raja  of  Maharashtra  or  of 
the  Mahrattas.  The  arrival  of  Alla  nd  Been  was  quite  unex- 
pected. The  Raja  was  in  the  city  but  his  wife  and  son  had 
gone  to  a temple  in  the  neighborhood.  lie  collected  what  force 
he  could  and  resisted  AUa  ud  Deen’s  entrance  into  the  city,  but 
was  defeated  and  compelled  to  retreat  into  the  citadel.  Alla  ud 
Been  took  possession  of  the  city,  plundered  the  inhabitants  and 
tortured  the  merchants  and  bankers  to  make  them  disclose 
their  treasures.  He  then  gave  out  that  he  was  only  the  vanguard 
of  the  imperial  grand  army,  which  would  arrive  soon.  This 
declaration  produced  great  consternation  among  all  the  Hindu 
princes  of  the  Beckan.  The  Raja  expecting  a greater  force 
would  arrive,  and  having  only  a small  quantity  of  provisions, 
was  anxious  to  come  to  some  terms.  Negotiations  were  com- 
menced and  an  agreement  was  nearly  completed  when  the 
Raja’s  son  arrived  with  a large  army.  Contrary  to  the  advice 
of  his  father,  he  attacked  Alla  ud  Been  but  was  defeated.  Alla 
ud  Been  now  raised  his  demands.  As  the  Raja  was  expecting 
large  reinforcements  would  soon  come  to  his  relief,  he  hesitated 
awhile,  but  on  learning  that  the  provisions  in  the  fort  were 
nearly  exhausted  he  agreed  to  pay  a great  sum  of  money,* 
jewels,  etc.,  and  also  to  cede  the  province  of  EUichpoor  to  the 
empire  of  Belhi.  Alla  ud  Been  having  received  the  money, 
etc.,  raised  the  siege  and  commenced  his  return  to  Belhi,  on  the 
25th  day  after  taking  the  city.  This  expedition  of  Alla  ud 
Been,  in  which  he  marched  700  miles,  the  greater  part  of  it 
through  an  unknown  and  unexplored  country,  attacked  a pov/- 
erful  monarch,  defeated  his  army,  plundered  his  capital,  obtained 
by  treaty  an  immense  amount  of  treasure  and  a cession  of  ter- 
ritory, and  then  returned  in  safety,  evinced  military  talents  of  the 
highest  order,  though,  in  the  language  of  the  historian,  “ we 
can  not  but  lament  that  a man  formed  for  such  great  exploits, 
should  not  be  actuated  by  better  motives  than  rapine,  violence, 
and  a thirst  of  gain.” 

Alla  ud  Been  went  on  this  expedition  into  the  Beckan,  with- 
out obtaining  the  consent  of  the  emperor,  and  as  nothing  was 

* This  amount  is  thus  stated  by  Ferishta: — “ 15,000  lbs.  of  pure  gold,  175 
lbs.  of  pearls,  50  lbs.  of  diamonds,  rubies,  emeralds,  and  sapphires  ; 25,000  lbs. 
of  silver,  4,000  pieces  of  silk,  and  a long  list  of  other  precious  commodities.” 


76 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


heard  from  him  for  considerable  time,  the  emperor  became  very 
anxious.  But  when  he  heard  that  his  nephew  had  conquered 
Deoghur  and  was  on  his  return  with  a vast  amount  of  treasure, 
he  was  much  pleased  and  appeared  to  think  only  of  seeing  it 
all  soon  in  the  royal  treasury.  But  some  of  his  friends,  who 
were  well  acquainted  with  Alla  ud  Been,  intimated  that  this 
daring  and  unauthorized  invasion  of  the  Deckan  and  the  re- 
nown and  plunder  there  acquired,  might  be  only  part  of  a plan, 
not  yet  fully  revealed.  The  emperor  was  at  this  time  near 
Gwahor  with  his  retinue.  Not  fuUy  satisfied  in  respect  to  Alla 
ud  Been,  the  emperor  assembled  his  council  and  inquired  of 
them  whether  it  was  best  to  march  to  meet  him,  or  to  wait  his 
arrival  where  they  were,  or  return  to  Belhi.  There  was  much 
difference  of  opinion  in  the  council  in  respect  to  the  best  course 
to  be  pursued,  and  it  was  finally  resolved  to  return  to  Belhi. 
Soon  after  the  emperor  reached  Belhi  a messenger  brought  him 
a letter  from  Alla  ud  Been  in  which  he  acknowledged  himself 
to  be  the  servant  of  the  emperor,  that  all  the  wealth  he  had 
acquued  in  his  expedition  into  the  Beckan  was  intended  for  the 
royal  treasury,  that  wearied  by  their  long  journey,  he  wished  to 
rest  a few  days  at  Kurrah,  that  he  intended  then  to  come  and 
kiss  the  footstool  of  the  royal  throne,  but  as  some  enemies  had 
made  insinuations  against  him  and  his  chiefs  in  their  absence, 
they  therefore  requested  a letter  of  grace  from  the  emperor, 
assuring  them  of  the  royal  favor  and  protection.  The  emperor 
was  much  rejoiced  on  receiving  this  letter.  Ills  suspicions 
were  at  once  removed,  and  he  ordered  a letter  full  of  assurances 
of  Idndness  and  good-will  to  be  returned.  In  the  mean  time  .'Ula 
ud  Been  caused  reports  to  be  spread  by  emissaries  in  different 
places  that  the  emperor  was  intending  to  put  liim  to  death  for 
going  on  his  expedition  into  the  Beckan  without  the  royal  sanc- 
tion, that  he  was  extremely  sorry  for  having  incurred  his  majesty’s 
displeasure,  and  that  his  grief  had  been  insupportable.  Letters 
to  this  efi'ect  were  sent  to  his  brother  who  was  at  court  and 
showed  them  to  the  emperor,  and  all  possible  means  were  used 
to  induce  him  to  proceed  to  Kurrah  to  meet  his  humbled,  peni- 
tent, affectionate,  and  half-distracted  nephew.  At  length  the 
emperor,  anxious  to  secure  the  treasure  brought  from  the  Beckan 
as  well  as  to  sec  his  nephew,  left  Belhi  with  a small  retinue 


niSTORT  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


77 


to  meet  him.  On  arriving  at  Kurrah,  Alla  ud  Deen  received  the 
emperor  with  the  greatest  respect  and  affection,  in  the  midst  of 
which  some  assassins  whom  he  had  hired  and  placed  near,  upon 
a concerted  signal  mshing  upon  the  emperor  instantly  killed 
him  and  then  put  to  death  all  his  attendants.  His  head  was 
stuck  upon  a spear,  and  carried  through  the  city  and  the  camp. 
His  reign  had  somewhat  exceeded  7 years.  He  acted  a leading 
part  in  the  insurrection  and  revolution  which  raised  him  to  the 
throne,  and  the  then  reigning  emperor  was  assassinated  by  his 
orders.  And  after  a reign  of  a few  years  he  was  removed  in  a 
similar  manner,  to  make  way  for  his  ungrateful,  cruel,  and  per- 
fidious nephew. 

Alla  ud  Deen  at  once  assumed  the  imperial  dignity,  invested 
himself  with  all  the  insignia  of  royalty,  and  caused  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  emperor.  He  increased  his  army,  conferred  titles 
and  rewards  upon  his  friends,  and  liberally  distributed  the 
treasure  he  had  acquired  in  the  Deckan.  Wherever  he  en- 
camped he  used  to  scatter  among  the  multitude  or  throw  to  a 
distance  pieces  of  gold  to  be  scrambled  for.  By  such  means  he 
endeavored  to  acquirq  notoriety  and  popularity. 

The  late  emperor’s  widow  at  Delhi  on  hearing  of  his  death 
caused  her  youngest  son  Ruckun  ud  Deen  to  be  placed  upon 
the  throne,  and  endeavored  to  unite  the  family  interest  in  his 
support.  Alla  ud  Deen  felt  it  was  important  to  establish  his 
power  in  the  capital,  and  hastened  to  Delhi.  Ruckun  ud 
Deen,  unable  to  meet  his  enemies  in  the  field,  fled  with  his 
friends  and  what  treasures  they  could  carry  to  Multan,  where 
his  older  brother  was  governor.  The  inhabitants  of  Delhi, 
after  their  departure,  regarding  the  cause  of  Alla  ud  Deen 
as  now  triumphant,  joined  him.  He  entered  the  city  in  triumph, 
ascended  the  throne,  and  ordered  the  current  money  to  be 
struck  in  his  name.  He  exhibited  shows,  made  grand  festivals, 
and  by  such  means  acquired  popularity  and  praise  among  the 
fickle  and  inconsiderate  multitude.  The  people  of  Delhi  appear 
to  have  cared  little  who  was  emperor  or  by  what  means  the 
power  and  dignity  were  acquired.*  One  of  Alla  ud  Deen’s  first 

♦ Ferishta  says : — “He  [the  emperor]  -who  ought  to  have  been  hooted  with 
detestation,  became  the  object  of  admiration  to  those  who  could  not  see  the' 
darkness  of  his  deeds  through  the  splendor  of  his  magnificence.” 

7* 


78 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


measures  was  to  get  rid  of  all  who  could  prefer  any  claim  to 
the  throne,  and  so  to  prevent  any  future  disturbance  from  the 
late  emperor’s  family.  With  this  view  he  despatched  a large 
army  to  Multan  where  two  of  the  sons  and  many  friends  had 
taken  refuge.  After  a siege  of  two  months  Multan  surrendered, 
the  sons  and  friends  of  the  late  emperor  were  taken  prisoners, 
their  eyes  were  put  out,  and  soon  afterwards  they  were  put  to 
death.  All  the  ladies  in  the  late  emperor’s  harem  and  all  his 
other  children  were  also  killed.  But  the  emperor  soon  found 
there  was  danger  from  another  source.  News  reached  him  that 
a large  Mogul  army  had  invaded  his  dominions,  and  “were 
carrying  every  thing  before  them  with  fire  and  sword.”  Alif 
Khan,  the  emperor’s  brother,  and  Zafar  Khan  were  ordered  to 
proceed  against  them  with  a large  force.  The  armies  encoun- 
tered each  other  near  Lahore,  and  the  Moguls  were  defeated  with 
the  loss  of  12,000  men  and  many  of  their  chiefs.  The  Raja  of 
Gujerat  not  having  sent  any  tribute  to  Delhi  for  several  years, 
the  emperor  sent  his  army  to  chastise  him  and  enforce  payment. 
“ They  laid  waste  the  country  with  fire  and  sword,  and  having 
appointed  rulers  over  the  provinces,  they  returned  to  Delhi  with 
prodigious  treasure.” 

The  Moguls  though  defeated  and  driven  back,  yet  after  two 
years  again  invaded  India  in  greater  force  than  ever.  “ Their 
army  consisted  of  200,000  horse,  and  they  promised  to  them- 
selves the  entire  conquest  of  Hindustan.”  There  was  no  force 
in  the  provinces  they  invaded  which  was  able  to  meet  them  in 
the  field,  and  so  they  proceeded  towards  Delhi  without  opposi- 
tion. On  their  approach  the  people  of  the  country  rushed  into 
the  city,  and  as  no  supplies  could  be  procured,  a dreadful  fam- 
ine soon  commenced  its  ravages.  In  these  circumstances  the 
emy)eror  called  a council  of  his  generals,  and  prepared  his  plan 
for  attacking  the  Moguls.  Ferishta  says  “ the  army  which  the 
emperor  brought  into  the  field  consisted  of  300,000  horse,  2,700 
elephants,  and  foot  without  number,”  and  that  in  the  history  of 
India  no  battle  had  taken  place  behveen  Lvo  such  armies,  both 
commanded  by  generals  of  great  ability  and  experience.  The 
battle  was  very  severe  and  the  victory  ol)stinatcly  contested. 
But  the  Moguls  were  defeated,  and  their  Prince,  Kidugh  Khan, 
collecting  his  shattered  army,  retreated  till  he  crossed  the  Indus. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


79 


In  A.D.  1306,  ^VJla  ud  Decn  sent  a large  force  into  the  Dcckan 
under  Cafoor,  to  chastise  Ramdev,  who  had  neglected  to  send 
the  annual  tribute,  and  to  extend  his  conquests.  Ramdev 
submitted  in  time  to  preserve  his  kingdom.  Cafoor  then 
proceeded  into  Telingana,  where  he  committed  great  ravages, 
' took  and  plundered  Warangole,  the  capital,  and  then  compelled 
the  Raja  to  pay  a great  sum  of  money  and  an  annual  tribute. 
The  expeditions  into  the  Deckan  were  found  to  be  so  successful 
and  profitable  that  in  a few  years  Cafoor  was  again  sent  there 
with  a large  army.  At  this  time  he  penetrated  into  the  king- 
dom of  Canara,  defeated  Raja  Bullal  Dev  and  took  him  pris- 
oner. Cafoor  then  plundered  the  capital  and  all  the  towns  and 
temples  he  could  find.  K we  are  to  believe  the  Mohammedan 
historians  (and  there  are  no  others)  who  give  the  weight  of  the 
gold,  the  value  of  the  plunder  obtained  in  this  expedition 
amounted  to  nearly  $500,000,000.  Even  the  common  soldiers 
were  so  burdened  with  spoils  that  they  could  only  carry  the 
gold,  leaving  the  silver  behind  them. 

Alla  ud  Deen  died  in  a.d.  1316,  having  reigned  somewhat 
more  than  20  years.  lie  possessed  great  military  talents,  and  the 
empire  was  greatly  enlarged  by  his  conquests.  He  acquired  the 
throne  by  a course  of  intrigue,  treachery,  and  violence,  and  his 
whole  reign  was  a continuation  of  actions  of  a similar  charac- 
ter. The  Moguls  invaded  the  empire  several  times  during  his 
reign.  Some  of  these  invasions  were  for  plunder,  but  others 
were  made  with  an  intention  to  conquer  the  country,  and  then 
to  keep  possession  of  it.  In  two  or  three  instances  they  reached 
Delhi,  but  Alla  ud  Deen  sueeeeded  in  frustrating  their  purpose 
and  driving  them  out  of  the  country.  Insurrections  occasioned 
by  his  cruelty  or  the  oppression  of  his  governors,  were  fre- 
quently made  in  different  parts  of  the  empire.  His  first  expedi- 
tion into  the  Deckan  and  those  subsequently  made  by  his 
generals,  appear  to  have  been  made  more  for  the  sake  of  ac- 
quiring plunder  than  for  conquest.  All  his  wars,  whether  repel- 
ling invasions,  or  suppressing  insurrections,  or  for  acquiring  plun- 
der, or  for  enlarging  his  dominions,  were  conducted  with  great 
barbarity  and  shocldng  cruelty.  At  one  time  and  for  no  ob\-ious 
cause,  he  ordered  that  all  the  Moguls  or  Persians  in  his  employ- 
ment should  be  dismissed.  They  were  soon  reduced  to  great 


80 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


distress,  and  some  of  them  being  detected  in  a conspiracy,  he 
ordered  them  all,  amounting  to  15,000,  to  be  massacred,  and 
their  families  to  be  sold  into  slavery.  He  cared  little  or  nothing 
about  the  Mohammedan  religion,  and  it  does  not  appear  that 
he  or  liis  generals  ever  exhibited  any  zeal  for  its  propagation,  as 
a reason  or  motive  for  their  conquests.  Among  the  strange  pro- 
jects he  at  different  times  had  in  view,  one  was  the  formation 
and  propagation  of  a new  system  of  religion.  He  consulted 
his  learned  men  on  the  subject  and  told  them  he  would  form  a 
better  system  than  Mohammedanism  or  any  religion  in  the 
world.  xVt  one  time  he  proposed  to  appoint  a viceroy  over  the 
empire,  and  taking  his  army  avow  his  purpose  to  conquer  the 
whole  world.  He  was  so  illiterate  when  he  began  his  reign  that 
he  could  neither  write  nor  read,  but  he  applied  himself  so  assid- 
uously to  study  that  he  was  soon  able  to  read  and  answer  all 
communications  addressed  to  him.  From  this  time  he  encour- 
aged learning,  and  several  learned  men  were  supported  at  his 
court.  A conspiracy  was  once  formed  to  dethrone  him.  He 
was  attacked,  cut  down,  and  left  for  dead  on  the  ground.  The 
usurper  proclaimed  the  emperor’s  death,  ascended  the  throne, 
and  ordered  the  usual  ceremonies  of  inauguration  to  be  per- 
formed. In  the  mean  time  Alla  ud  Deen  revived,  hastened  to 
his  army,  and  assuming  the  command,  caused  the  usurper  to  be 
arrested  and  put  to  death.  Having  assembled  his  council,  he 
requested  them  to  give  their  opinions  freely  in  respect  to  the 
causes  of  the  unhappy  state  of  the  empire.  One  of  the  causes 
they  mentioned,  was  intemperance.  The  emperor,  who  was 
intemperate  himself,  said  he  was  satisfied  this  was  one  of  the 
causes,  and  there  should  be  a reform.  “ He  published  an  edict 
against  the  use  of  wine  and  strong  liquors  upon  pain -of  death. 
He  himself  set  the  example  to  his  subjects,  and  emptied  all  the 
wine  in  Iris  cellars  into  the  street.  In  this  course  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  all  ranks  of  people,  so  that  for  some  days  the  common 
sewers  in  Delhi  flowed  with  wine.”  To  prevent  property  and 
power  from  being  accumulated  in  a few  families,  he  issued 
orders  that  no  marriage  should  take  place  among  the  nobility 
without  a license  from  him.  He  also  limited  by  law  the  quan- 
tity of  land  which  any  farmer  could  own,  and  the  number  of 
cattle  which  graziers  could  keep.  He  also  attempted  to  enforce 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


81 


other  impracticable  laws,  as  fixed  prices  of  grain  and  other 
commodities,  the  hours  of  labor  for  servants,  etc. 

The  great  amount  of  booty  and  treasure  brought  from 
plundered  kingdoms  and  oppressed  provinces  to  Delhi  and 
there  distributed  and  expended,  gave  to  the  city  the  appearance 
of  great  wealth  and  prosperity.  “ Palaces,  mosques,  universities, 
baths,  forts,  and  all  manner  of  public  and  private  buildings 
seemed  to  rise  as  by  the  power  of  enchantment,  neither  did 
there  in  any  age  appear  a greater  concourse  of  learned  men 
from  all  parts  of  the  world ; 45  men  skilled  in  the  sciences  were 
professors  in  the  University.  There  were  distinguished  profes- 
sors and  teachers  in  poetry,  philosophy,  medicine,  divuiity, 
astrology,  music,  morality,  languages,  and  in  all  the  fine  arts 
then  known  in  the  world.”  * 

• So  says  Ferishta.  One  •would  think  it  must  have  been  as  difficult  to  teach 
the  precepts  and  principles  of  some  of  these  sciences  under  the  laws  of  the  empire, 
and  under  the  patronage  of  Alla  ud  Been,  as  it  now  is  to  be  a professor  or  teacher 
in  some  of  the  universities  under  the  present  despotic  governments  of  Europe. 

The  following  extract  shows  the  character  of  the  Sultan  and  of  his  learned 
men.  It  also  shows  the  Mohammedan  principles  of  government  and  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Sultan : — 

“ The  Sultan  one  day  said  to  Cazee  Mogees  ud  Decn  that  he  wished  to  know 
the  law  in  some  matters  concerning  the  duty  of  sovereigns.  As  the  Sultan  had 
always  shown  a contempt  for  the  cazees,  and  called  them  hypocrites  and  vil- 
lains, i-eady  to  give  any  opinions  to  please  those  who  would  reward  them,  the 
cazee  was  much  alarmed  and  replied,  ‘ I fear  from  what  your  hlajesty  has 
requested  that  my  last  hour  is  come ; if  so  and  it  be  your  hlajesty’s  •will,  I am 
ready  to  die ; and  it  will  only  be  unnecessarily  increasing  my  crime,  if  I must  be 
punished  for  speaking  the  truth  according  to  the  word  of  God ! ’ The  Sultan 
inquired  why  he  was  so  much  agitated,  and  he  replied,  ‘ If  I speak  the  truth 
and  your  Majesty  is  offended,  it  may  cost  me  my  life,  and  if  I speak  what  is 
false  and  your  Majesty  should  ascertain  the  truth,  I may  then  be  put  to  death 
for  decei^■ing  you.’  The  Sultan  replied  that  he  need  not  fear  to  answer  his  in- 
quiries according  to  the  clear  and  strict  laws  of  the  Koran.  The  Sultan  then 
proposed  several  Inquiries,  of  which  the  first  was : — 

“ ‘From  what  clsiss  of  Hindus  is  it  la'wtul  to  exact  obedience  and  tribute  ?’ 
To  which  the  cazee  replied : — ‘It  is  lawful  to  exact  obedience  and  tribute 
from  all  infidels,  and  they  can  only  be  considered  as  obedient  who  pay  the  poll- 
tax  without  demurring  even  should  it  be  obtained  by  force ; for  according  to  the 
law  of  the  Prophet  it  is  written  regarding  infidels,  “ tax  them  to  the  extent  they 
can  pay,  or  utterly  destroy  them.”  The  learned  of  the  faith  have  also  enjoined 
the  followers  of  Islam  to  slay  them  or  to  convert  them  to  the  faith,  a' maxim 
conveyed  in  the  words  of  the  Prophet  himself.  The  Imam  Huncef,  however. 


82 


INDIA,  Ancient  and  modern. 


In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  Alla  ud  Deen  was  in  feeble 
health,  and  excessively  irritable  and  jealous.  He  was  chiefly 
under  the  influence  of  Malik  Cafoor,  a talented  but  very 
depraved  man.  Cafoor’s  plan  was  to  remove  as  fast  as  possible 
every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  ascending  the  throne  himself.  By 
exciting  the  suspicions  of  the  emperor  he  succeeded  ,in  persuad- 
ing him  to  throw  his  two  eldest  sons  and  their  mother  into 
prison.  He  caused  several  men  who  were  high  in  authority, 
and  whose  power  and  influence  he  had  reason  to  dread,  to  be 
put  to  death.  And  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  emperor’s 
death  was  hastened  by  poison  given  him  by  the  same  treacher- 
ous hand. 

The  day  after  the  death  of  Alla  ud  Deen,  Malik  Cafoor 
assembled  the  nobles  and  produced  a pretended  will  of  the  late 
emperor,  by  which  his  youngest  son,  only  7 years  of  age, 
was  appointed  his  successor,  and  Cafoor  was  to  be  regent  till  the 
son  should  be  of  age.  This  son  was  then  put  upon  the  throne 
and  Cafoor  commenced  his  regency.  One  of  his  first  acts  was 
to  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  late  emperor’s  two  oldest  sons.  He 
then  caused  the  tliird  son  to  be  seized,  and  issued  orders  to  put 
him  to  death.  His  conduct  in  these  matters  greatly  shocked 
some  of  the  nobles,  and  he  soon  met  the  fate  he  was  so  assidu- 
ously preparing  for  others.  Mubarick,  the  third  son,  was  then 
set  at  liberty  and  assumed  the  government  for  his  brother,  the 
young  emperor.  In  a few  months  he  found  means  to  seize  his 
brother,  and  having  put  out  his  eyes  and  sent  him  to  Gwalior  to 
be  confined  for  life,  he  ascended  the  throne  himself.  One  of  his 
first  acts  after  assuming  the  supreme  power  was  to  put  those  to 
death  who  had  saved  his  life  and  elevated  him  to  the  throne. 
He  invested  some  of  his  slaves  with  the  highest  offices  in  the 
government.  He  ordered  all  the  prisoners  in  the  jails  and  forts 


subsc(iucntly  considers,  that  the  poll-tax  or  as  heavy  a tribute  imposed  upon 
them  as  they  can  bear,  may  be  substituted  for  death,  and  he  has  accordingly 
forbidden  that  their  blood  be  unnecessarily  shed.  So  that  it  is  commanded 
that  the  poll-tax  and  tribute  should  be  exacted  to  the  utmost  farthing  from  them 
in  order  that  the  punishment  may  appro.ximate  as  nearly  as  possible  to  death.’ 
The  Sultan  smiling,  remarked,  ‘ You  may  perceive  that  without  any  aid  from 
your  learned  books  or  consulting  any  cazee,  I have  always  been  pr.actising  ot 
my  own  accord  the  principles  of  the  rrophet.’” — Glcig,  Vol.  I.p.  128-131. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


83 


without  any  inquiry  into  their  guilt  or  innocence,  amounting 
to  17,000,  to  be  set  at  liberty.  His  reign  was  little  else  than 
one  continued  series  of  outrages  upon  decency,  justice,  and 
morality.  Much  of  the  time  he  was  in  a state  of  intoxication, 
and  his  delight  was  in  low  and  disgusting  revelry  and  debauch- 
ery. In  suppressing  insurrections  the  most  monstrous  barbarity 
and  cmelty  were  used  in  massacres  and  tortmes.  Ilis  brothers 
who  had  been  previously  blinded,  were  put  to  death  without 
having  given,  so  far  as  was  known,  any  occasion  for  suspicion. 
All  respectable  people  withdrew  from  the  emperor  and  his  court 
for  their  own  preservation,  as  well  as  from  disgust  of  the  vices 
there  practised.  At  length  Khusru,  one  of  the  emperor’s 
favorites,  more  depraved  if  possible  than  his  master,  formed  a 
conspiracy  to  assassinate  him  and  assume  the  government.  In 
this  plan  he  was  successful,  but  soon  after  he  ascended  the 
throne  another  conspiracy  was  formed  among  the  nobles,  who 
associated  to  save  the  throne  from  further  disgrace  and  the  em- 
pire from  total  ruin.  The  usurper  Khusru  was  defeated  and  put 
to  death.  On  inquiry  it  was  found  that  no  member  of  the  royal 
family  was  living  — aU  had  been  put  to  death.  The  House  of 
Khiljee  had  become  extinct.  In  33  years,  5 emperors  had  ascended 
the  throne,  and  aU  had  perished  by  assassination  or  poison. 


THE  HOUSE  OF  TOGHLUCK,  A.D.  1321-1412. 

Ghazi  Khan  was  head  of  the  conspiracy  which  deposed 
^ Khusru.  When  he  entered  Delhi  he  made  a proclamation  that 
he  had  engaged  in  the  revolution  for  the  good  of  the  empire; 
that  if  any  of  the  royal  family  remained,  they  should  be  brought 
foru'ard  and  put  upon  the  throne  ; and  that  if  none  remained,  the 
people  might  elect  any  emperor  they  pleased,  and  he  would 
abide  by  their  choice.  As  none  of  the  royal  family  remained, 
the  nobles  and  magistrates  presented  him  the  keys  of  the  city, 
and  proclaimed  him  to  be  emperor.  He  assumed  the  name  of 
Ghias  ud  Deen,  though  he  i§  probably  better  known  by  the 
name  pf  Toghluck  and  Toghluck  Shah.  The  state  of  the  empire 
required  an  able  and  energetic  emperor,  and  such  Ghias  ud 
Deen  soon  showed  he  was.  He  reformed  the  internal  adminis- 
tration, and  placed  a strong  force  on  the  north-western  frontier. 


84 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

where  the  empire  was  threatened  by  an  invasion  from  the 
Moguls.  The  affairs  of  the  Deckan  having  fallen  into  disorder, 
he  sent  his  son,  Jonah  Khan,  there  with  a large  force.  Jonah 
Khan  laid  siege  to  Warangole,  the  capital  of  TeUngana.  The 
siege  was  protracted,  and  the  hot  season  having  commeneed, 
gi’eat  sickness  prevailed  in  the  Mohammedan  army.  In  the 
mean  time  reports  being  circulated  of  a revolution  at  Delhi,  the 
army  became  discouraged  and  it  became  necessary  to  raise  the 
siege.  When  retreating  towards  Deoghur,  Jonah  Khan  was 
pursued  with  great  slaughter  by  the  Hindus,  and  when  he 
reached  Delhi  only  3,000  of  his  whole  army  remained.  He 
again  assembled  a large  foree  and  proceeded  into  the  Deckan. 
On  his  way  to  Warangole  he  besieged  and  took  Beder.  He 
then  laid  siege  to  Warangole  and  soon  got  possession  of  the 
city.  The  Raja  and  his  family  were  made  prisoners  and  car- 
ried to  Delhi.  The  emperor  having  received  many  complaints 
of  disturbance  and  oppression  in  the  provinces  of  Bengal, 
appointed  Jonah  Khan  his  deputy  in  Delhi,  and  proceeded 
himself  with  a large  army  to  Luclmow  and  Tirhoot,  where  he 
was  occupied  for  some  time  in  restoring  order.  On  his  return 
to  Delhi,  his  son  entertained  him  in  a large  pavilion  built  of 
wood  and  hastily  erected  for  the  purpose.  When  the  entertain- 
ment was  over  and  just  as  the  emperor  was  leaving  the  place, 
the  roof  over  him  fell  and  Idlled  him.  By  some  persons  his 
death  was  believed  to  be  accidental,  but  the  more  general  and 
probable  opinion  was  that  the  pavilion  had  been  erected  and 
every  part  of  it  prepared  to  fall  upon  the  emperor  in  the  manner 
his  death  took  place.  His  reign  somewhat  exceeded  four 
years.  The  expectations  formed  concerning  him  when  he 
ascended  the  throne  were  fuUy  realized.  He  was  among  the 
best  sovereigns  of  Delhi. 

Jonah  Khan  immediately  after  his  father’s  death  assumed  the 
supreme  power  and  took  the  name  of  Mohammed,  sometimes 
called  Mohammed  Toghluck.  He  commenced  his  reign  with 
great  liberality  and  magnificence.  The  streets  were  strewed 
with  flowers,  the  houses  were  all  ornamented,  music  was  every- 
where played,  large  jiresents  were  given  to  the  nobles,  and  hand- 
fuls of  gold  and  silver  were  scattered  among  the  multitude, 
lie  was  careful  in  observing  the  hours  for  worship,  and  ordered 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


85 


prayers  to  be  read  in  all  the  mosques  five  times  every  day. 
Unlike  his  predecessors  generally,  he  abstained  from  wine.  He 
had  been  well  educated  in  Persian  and  Arabic  literature.  He 
encouraged  learning  and  gave  salaries  to  learned  men  at  his 
court.  His  actions,  acquirements,  and  personal  qualities  were 
such  as  secured  great  respect,  and  gave  his  subjects  the  hope 
of  a long  and  happy  reign. 

But  it  was  not  long  before  he  began  to  exhibit  a different 
character,  and  the  prospect  of  his  reign  became  dark  and 
gloomy.  A large  IMogul  force  invaded  the  empire,  and  instead 
of  repelling  them,  he  gave  them  an  enormous  sum  of  money  to 
leave  the  country,  thus  inviting  them  to  return  soon  for  the 
same  purpose.  He  collected  a vast  army  (Ferishta  says  370,- 
000)  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  conquering  Persia.  As  he 
had  not  means  to  support  them,  they  soon  scattered  over  the 
empire,  seizing  whatever  they  required.  Having  heard  of  the 
wealth  of  China,  he  sent  his  nephew  with  an  army  of  100,000 
men  to  conquer  and  plunder  that  country.  The  army  was  urged 
forward  over  mountains,  rivers,  and  forests,  suffering  much  from 
disease  and  want  till  they  met  a Chinese  army.  Here  they 
encountered  so  many  difficulties  that  nearly  all  the  army  per- 
ished, only  a few  returning  to  relate  their  disasters  and  their 
sufferings.  He  next  resolved  upon  another  way  for  relieving  his 
wants.  He  caused  some  copper  coins  to  be  struck  with  his 
name  upon  them,  and  issued  a decree  that  aU  such  should  pass 
for  silver.  In  this  way  his  debts  were  easily  paid,  but  as  these 
same  coins  were  taken  in  payment  for  revenue,  his  financial 
difficulties  were  not  diminished,  while  such  measures  destroyed 
aU  coiffidence  in  the  credit  of  the  government  and  caused  con- 
fusion and  bankruptcy  among  aU  classes,  so  that  he  was  com- 
pelled to  annul  his  decree  and  restore  the  former  currency.  At 
one  time  when  his  army  had  surrounded  a large  district  in  the 
manner  of  a grand  hunt  in  India,  he  gave  orders  that  the  circle 
should  close  towards  the  centre,  and  that  they  should  Idll  every 
human  being  found  in  it.  This  horrid  barbarity  was  more  than 
once  repeated,  and  in  one  such  instance,  “ there  was  a general 
massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  great  city  of  Kanouj.”  No 
wonder  “ the  miseries  of  the  country  exceeded  aU  power  of 
description.” 


8 


86 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEEN. 


Among  all  this  emperor’s  mad  projects  none  probably  caused 
more  misery  than  his  attempt  to  change  the  capital  of  his  em- 
pire from  Delhi  to  Deoghur,  which  he  called  Dowlutabad,*  the 
name  by  which  it  is  still  known.  When  he  proposed  in  his  coun- 
cil that  the  capital  of  his  empire  should  be  changed  to  Deoghur, 
they  recommended  Oujein,  as  more  centrally  situated,  but  he 
was  inflexible.  So  he  issued  orders  that  the  inhabitants,  men, 
women,  and  children,  with  aU  their  effects  and  living  creatures, 
should  migrate  to  Dowlutabad,  a distance  of  more  than  700 
miles.  Delhi  was  left  almost  desolate.  He  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Dowlutabad  for  2 or  3 years,  and  then  returned  to 
Delhi,  giving  permission  to  the  inhabitants  to  do  the  same.  But 
so  many  perished  from  suffering,  sickness,  and  famine,  that  but 
few  of  those  who  had  removed  from  Delhi  reached  the  city  on 
their  return. 

In  such  a reign,  insurrections,  conspiracies,  and  revolts  might 
naturally  be  expected.  And  such  there  were.  Insurrections 
were  suppressed,  but  not  without  much  destruction  of  life,  the 
plundering  of  cities,  and  the  desolation  of  provinces.  Conspfra- 
cies  were  detected  and  their  object  defeated,  but  not  without  the 
ruin  of  many  individuals  and  their  families.  The  governor  of 
Bengal  revolted  and  asserted  his  independence.  The  country 
on  the  Coromandel  Coast  followed  the  same  example.  The 
Rajas  of  Telingana  and  Carnata  combmed  to  recover  their  inde- 
pendence, and  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Mohammedan  armies 
and  garrisons  from  their  dominions.  The  emperor  died  at 

* Tliis  city,  now  in  ruins,  is  8 miles  from  Aurungabad.  The  writer  visited  the 
ruins  in  1834.  Tlic  following  is  an  extract  from  his  private  journal : — “The 
fort  consists  of  an  isolated  mountain  of  a semi-oval  shape,  about  500  feet  high. 
One  third  of  the  way  from  the  base  to  the  top  the  hill  is  scarped  all  around, 
and  presents  on  every  side  a perpendicular  cliff  of  about  150  feet  high.  At  the 
base  of  this  cliff,  is  a wide  and  deep  ditch,  excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  and  ex- 
tending round  all  the  circuit  of  the  hill,  which  is  not  included  in  the  walls  of 
the  city.  The  only  way  of  ascending  the  hill  is  by  a long,  dark,  and  wind- 
ing way  from  the  city,  and  excavated  through  the  rock.  Tlie  entrance  of 
this  way  is  near  the  base  of  the  mountain,  and  is  surrounded  by  towers  and 
walls  for  its  defence.  The  fort,  or  mountain  above  the  cliff,  has  cisterns  for 
water,  magazines  for  provisions,  military  stores,  cannon,  etc.  The  mountain  is 
a mass  of  natural  rock,  and  the  labor  of  reducing  it  to  its  present  shaj)c  must 
have  been  incalculable.  This  fort  was  formerly  regarded  as  impregnable.” 


niSTORT  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD.  87 

Tatta  in  Scinde,  where  he  had  proceeded  to  suppress  an  insur- 
rection, in  A.D.  1351,  having  reigned  for  27  years.  Of  his  charac- 
ter, one  historian  says,  “ he  left  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  princes  and  most  furious  tyrants  that  ever 
adorned  or  disgraced  human  nature.”  Another  says,  “ he  ap- 
pears to  have  labored  with  no  contemptible  abilities  to  be 
detested  by  God,  and  to  be  feared  and  abhorred  by  all  men.” 
Another  speaks  of  his  death  as  “delivering  India  from  the 
dreadful  scourge  of  his  government.”  And  another  says,  “ he 
left  a reputation  as  little  to  be  envied  as  that  of  any  sovereign 
who  ever  reigned  in  India.” 

Mohammed  Toghluck  having  no  son,  recommended  his 
nephew,  Feroze  Toghluck  (sometimes  called  Feroze  Shah),  to 
his  nobles  to  be  made  his  successor.  The  army,  soon  after  the 
death  of  the  emperor,  fell  into  much  disorder.  A plan  was 
formed  to  seize  the  treasure,  and  a part  of  it  was  carried  away 
by  the  Mogul  mercenaries.  In  this  perilous  state  of  affairs  the 
nobles  united  in  requesting  Feroze  Toghluck  immediately  to  as- 
sume the  supreme  power.  To  this  request  he  assented,  and 
was  proclaimed  emperor.  He  was  then  at  Tatta  in  Scinde. 
Having  settled  the  affairs  of  that  province,  he  proceeded  to  Uch, 
where  he  heard  that  another  person  had  been  set  up  for  emperor 
at  Delhi.  He  entered  into  amicable  negotiation  with  the  party, 
and  they  submitted  to  Mohammed  Toghluck,  when  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Delhi  and  ascended  the  throne  without  any  further 
opposition.  The  empire  was  in  a state  of  great  disorder,  and 
the  people  were  groaning  under  injustice  and  oppression. 

To  these  evils  he  applied  a steady  and  vigorous  hand.  “ He 
limited  the  number  of  capital  punishments,  and  put  a stop  to 
the  use  of  torture  and  the  practice  of  mutilation,  which  last 
prohibition  was  the  more  meritorious,  as  it  was  at  variance  with 
the  Mohammedan  laws.  He  abolished  a great  number  of  vex- 
atious taxes  and  fees,  put  an  end  to  aU  fluctuating  and  precari- 
ous imposts,  and  fixed  the  revenues  in  such  a manner  as  to 
leave  as  little  discretion  as  possible  to  the  collectors,  and  to 
give  precision  and  publicity  to  the  demands  of  the  State.”  * 
Such  reforms  display  great  energy  and  judgment.  They  were 
received  with  gratitude,  and  gave  great  satisfaction. 


* Elphinstone,  p.  357. 


88 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Scinde,  Gujerat,  and  some  other  provinces  were  in  a state  of 
insurrection  when  he  ascended  the  throne.  In  such  places  the 
authority  of  the  emperor  was  soon  established,  and  with  less 
cruelty  and  barbarity  than  in  previous  reigns.  Bengal,  which 
revolted  under  a Mohammedan  governor,  and  the  Deckan,  in 
which  the  Rajas  of  Telingana  and  Carnata  united  and  expelled 
the  Mohammedan  garrisons  in  the  preceding  reign,  continued 
to  be  nearly  independent.  They  sent  embassies  with  tribute  or 
presents,  thus  acknowledging  the  superiority  of  the  emperor, 
and  were  then  permitted  to  manage  their  own  affairs  as  they 
pleased.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  the  emperor  made  an 
expedition  into  Bengal.  The  reasons  for  this  do  not  appear,  as 
he  did  not  subdue  the  country.  Ferishta  says,  “ About  this 
time  an  embassy  arrived  with  presents  and  new  conditions  of 
peace  from  Bengal,  which  the  Sultan  accepted,  and  soon  after 
ratified  the  treaty.  Bengal  now  became  in  a great  measure  in- 
dependent of  the  empire,  paying  only  a small  acknowledgment 
annually  by  way  of  presents.*  He  exacted  no  other  terms  of 
the  Deckan,  so  that  these  two  great  members  were  now  kept 
from  the  government  of  Delhi.” 

The  government  of  Mohammed  Toghluck  exhibited  a striking 
contrast  with  that  of  his  predecessors  in  some  other  respects. 
Instead  of  lavishing  the  revenues  of  the  empire  upon  depraved 
and  worthless  favorites,  he  expended  them  upon  public  works 
of  various  kinds.  Of  these  the  following  are  enumerated:  — 
50  canals  to  promote  agriculture  by  irrigation  ; 40  mosques  ; 30 
colleges ; 100  caravansarais ; 30  reservoirs  for  irrigation ; 100 
hospitals;  100  public  baths,  and  150  bridges.  For  the  perma- 
nent support  of  these  he  made  assignments  of  land.  If  some  of 
these  should  be  the  estimated  number  of  the  works  of  his  reign, 
yet  the  ruins  of  the  works,  which  were  executed  by  this  emperor 
and  remain  to  the  present  time,  show  a zeal  for  the  public  good, 
a spirit  of  enterprise  and  an  expenditure  of  revenue,  which  few 
sovereigns  of  any  age  or  country  ever  exhibited.  And  these 
public  works  were  made  by  a Mohammedan  emperor  in  India 
nearly  five  centuries  ago. 

* “In  the  year  759,  (a.d.  1353,)  the  Sultan  of  Bengal  sent  a number  of  ele- 
phants and  other  rich  presents  to  Delhi,  which  were  amply  reiiaid  in  Arabian 
and  Persian  horses,  jewels,  and  other  rich  curiosities.” 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


89 


Having  reached  the  age  of  87,  Mohammed  Toghluck’s  infirm- 
ities made  him  incapable  of  the  requisite  attention  to  tlie  affairs 
of  government,  and  the  administration  gradually  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  vizier.  This  depraved  man  resolved  to  use  his 
influence  with  the  emperor  and  the  power  of  his  office  with  the 
army,  in  removing  the  oldest  son,  the  heir  apparent,  so  as  to 
succeed  the  emperor  at  his  death.  The  emperor  and  his  son  on 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  conspiracy,  made  an  attempt  to 
seize  the  vizier,  but  he  escaped  from  Delhi.  Mohammed  Togh- 
luck  immediately  resigned  the  government  in  favor  of  his  son, 
who  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  title  of  Mohammed  Shah. 
The  new  emperor  soon  showed  himself  to  be  unfit  for  admin- 
istering the  government.  He  dismissed  some  of  the  most 
approved  public  servants,  and  filled  their  places  with  depraved 
and  wortliless  favorites.  He  neglected  public  affairs,  and  spent 
his  time  in  revelry  and  debauchery.  A conspiracy  was  formed 
for  deposing  him,  and  an  insurrection  ensued.  In  the  struggle 
between  the  insurgents  and  the  emperor  and  his  party,  “ the  city 
of  Delhi  became  a horrid  scene  of  slaughter  and  confusion. 
During  the  space  of  two  days  and  tw^o  nights  there  was  nothing 
but  death  in  every  street;  friends  and  foes,  victors  and  van- 
quished were  jumbled  together  without  any  possibility  of  dis- 
tinction.” On  the  third  day  the  insurgents  carried  out  the  old 
emperor  and  set  him  down  in  the  streets.  The  young  emperor’s 
party,  supposing  this  was  done  by  the  order  of  the  old  emperor, 
flocked  to  him  and  the  insurgents,  when  the  young  emperor 
seeing  himself  almost  deserted,  fled  from  the  city  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Simone.  Both  parties  while  surrounding  the  old  emper- 
or and  in  his  presence,  made  peace  with  each  other.  A grand- 
son named  Toghluck  Shah  was  then  put  upon  the  throne,  soon 
after  which  IMohammed  Toghluck  died  at  the  age  of  90  years. 
He  had  reigned  38  years,  which  was  a longer  time  than  the 
reign  of  any  previous  Mohammedan  emperor  of  Delhi. 

Toghluck  Shah  was  soon  involved  in  quarrels  with  those  who 
had  raised  him  to  the  throne.  He  intrusted  the  affairs  of  the 
government  to  his  ministers  and  sers’^ants,  and  spent  his  time 
in  frivolity  and  revelry.  A conspiracy  was  formed  against  him 
and  he  was  assassinated  when  he  had  reigned  only  five  months. 

Abu  Beckur  Toghluck,  another  grandson  of  Mohammed 

8* 


90 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Toghluck,  next  succeeded  to  the  throne.  The  man  •whom  he 
appointed  to  be  his  vizier,  was  soon  detected  in  a conspiracy  to 
cut  off  the  emperor  and  assume  the  supreme  power.  The 
emperor  caused  the  vizier  and  many  others  connected  with  the 
conspiracy  to  be  put  to  death.  But  though  reheved  from  this 
enemy,  he  had  to  encounter  another,  hlohammed  Shah  who 
had  fled  from  Delhi  to  the  mountains  of  Simone,  collected  a 
large  force,  and  proclaiming  himself  to  be  the  emperor,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Delhi.  Abu  Beckur  defended  his  own  claims  to  this 
dignity  as  well  as  he  could,  and  the  conflict  was  protracted  for 
some  time.  At  length  the  good  fortune  of  Mohammed  Shah 
prevailed.  He  ascended  the  throne.  Abu  Beckur  fled  and  after- 
wards surrendered  himself  and  was  kept  a prisoner  for  life.  But 
Mohammed  Shah  survived  this  triumph  but  a short  time.  After 
his  decease  his  son,  Humayoon  Khan,  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  the  title  of  Secunder  Shah,  but  he  died  in  45  days  after 
ascending  the  throne. 

On  the  death  of  Secunder  Shah  there  was  much  dissension 
among  the  nobles  concerning  the  succession  to  the  throne.  At 
length  it  was  determined  that  Mahmoud,  a son  of  Mohammed 
Shah,  should  succeed,  and  though  he  was  a child  yet  he  w^as 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  title  of  Mahmoud  Shah.  Some 
important  changes  were  also  made  at  the  same  time  among 
the  principal  nobles.  The  youth  of  the  emperor  and  the  dis- 
sensions existing  in  the  court  encouraged  revolt  in  the  prov- 
inces. Muzzuffer  Khan,  the  governor  of  Gujerat,  began  to 
assert  his  independence.  The  governors  of  Malwa  and  Can- 
desh  did  the  same.  The  vizier  took  up  his  residence  at  Juan- 
poor,  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the  East,  and  began  to  act 
as  an  independent  prince.  A faction  at  Delhi  set  up  another 
claimant  to  the  throne,  and  civil  war  raged  in  the  capital.  It 
was  when  the  empire  presented  this  scene  of  anarchy  and  dis- 
traction, some  provinces  already  independent,  others  in  a state 
of  insurrection,  the  central  parts  rent  by  faction,  and  the  capital 
sufl'ering  all  the  miseries  of  a civil  war,  that  reports  came  from 
the  west,  which  were  fitted  to  excite  more  alarm  and  anxiety 
than  any  thing  wliich  had  occurred  to  India  for  several  centuries. 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


91 


TAMERLANE,  A.D.  1398. 

Tamerlane  was  the  son  of  a Mogul  or  Tartar  chief  in  a vil- 
lage near  Samarcand.  From  the  death  of  Ghengis  Khan  the 
central  parts  of  Asia  had  been  the  scene  of  frequent  insurrec- 
tions and  revolutions.  In  these  scenes  Tamerlane  early  en- 
gaged, and  soon  acquired  a liigh  character  for  military  talents. 
Having  become  the  generally  acknowledged  sovereign  of  his 
native  country,  he  made  an  attack  upon  Persia,  which  was  soon 
added  to  his  dominions.  He  extended  his  power  over  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  drove  the  Caliph  from  his  throne  in  Bagdad.  He 
returned  to  Samarcand,  and  then  with  an  immense  army 
directed  his  course  towards  India.  He  overcame  all  difficulties, 
whether  the  natural  obstacles  of  the  road,  or  the  resistance  of 
the  inhabitants,  or  the  want  of  provisions  for  his  immense  army. 
He  crossed  the  Indus  near  Attock,  and  directed  his  course  to- 
wards Delhi,  plundering  the  cities  and  massacring  the  people, 
or  taking  them  prisoners  on  the  way.  When  he  was  near  Delhi 
he  ordered  that  all  the  prisoners  in  the  camp,  who  had  been  takc« 
since  crossing  the  Indus  and  were  over  15  years  of  age,  should 
be  put  to  death.  Mohammedan  historians  say  that  the  number 
massacred  in  obedience  to  this  inhuman  order  amounted  to 
100,000.  If  we  allow  this  number  to  be  somewhat  exaggerated, 
still  the  number  was  no  doubt  very  great,  and  the  barbarity  and 
cruelty  thus  manifested  are  shocking.  Mahmoud  Shah  marched 
out  of  the  city  with  aU  the  force  he  could  command,  and  offered 
battle.  But  they  fled  on  the  first  attack  from  the  troops  of 
Tamerlane,  who  for  many  years  had  closed  every  battle  with  a 
victory.  The  conqueror  pursued  them  tiU  they  entered  the  gates 
of  Delhi.  The  emperor  made  no  further  effort  at  defence,  but 
fled  to  Gujerat.  The  nobles  and  distinguished  men  of  the  city 
then  proffered  submission  to  Tamerlane,  and  he  promised  them 
that  if  they  would  pay  him  a certain  specified  contribution,  he 
would  spare  the  city  and  protect  the  inhabitants.  He  then 
ordered  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  of  Lidia  in  aU  the 
mosques  of  the  city.  He  placed  guards  at  aU  the  gates  that 
none  might  escape,  and  gave  orders  that  the  sum  of  money  to 
be  paid  him,  should  be  contributed  according  to  the  wealth  and 


92 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

rank  of  the  citizens.  Complaints  were  soon  made  that  some  of 
the  nobles  and  bankers  refused  to  pay  their  portion,  and  he  sent 
some  troops  into  the  city  to  assist  the  magistrates  in  making 
the  collection.  Tamerlane’s  troops  had  been  accustomed  to 
seize  aU  they  could  get,  and  were  unwilling  to  take  only  a 
part  of  the  wealth  of  a city  which  they  had  been  so  long  ex- 
pecting to  plunder.  Plundering,  confusion,  and  uproar  soon 
commenced,  and  no  authority  either  of  the  Mogul  officers  then 
in  the  city,  or  of  the  magistrates,  could  restrain  it.  Tamerlane 
was  then  in  his  camp,  engaged  in  celebrating  a grand  festival 
for  his  success  in  having  taken  the  city  and  been  proclaimed 
emperor  of  India.  And  he  continued  this  celebration  for  five 
days,  while  plundering  and  massacring  raged  in  the  city.  Very 
many  of  the  higher  classes  seeing  how  the  women  were  ravished, 
and  the  men  tortured  to  disclose  their  wealth  which  was  all 
then  seized,  collected  their  families,  killed  their  wives  and  daugh- 
ters, set  their  houses  on  fire,  and  then  seizing  their  weapons, 
and  rushing  into  the  streets  in  the  spirit  of  desperation,  fought 
tUl  they  were  IdUed.  The  streets  are  said  to  have  been  filled 
with  the  slain,  and  a large  part  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes. 

Tamerlane  remained  at  Delhi  15  days,  and  then  unexpectedly 
to  aU,  he  began  his  return  towards  Persia.  The  day  before  his 
departure,  “ he  offered  up  praises  to  God  in  the  mosques  for  his 
success.”  The  money,  jewels,  and  other  valuable  things  which 
he  and  his  army  obtained  in  India  and  carried  away  with  them, 
were  very  great.  Great  numbers  of  men  and  women  were 
dragged  into  slavery.  He  greatly  admired  the  mosques  and 
palaces  of  Delhi,  and  he  carried  away  with  him  many  architects, 
masons,  and  sculptors,  with  the  intention  of  erecting  similar  ed- 
ifices in  Samarcand,  his  capital.  On  arriving  at  Panniput,  he 
sent  one  of  his  generals  to  take  Merut,  but  the  force  was  not 
sufficient.  Tamerlane  then  proceeded  to  Merut  with  aU  his 
army.  The  city  and  fort  were  defended  with  great  obstinacy. 
But  the  Moguls  having  filled  the  ditch,  scaled  the  walls  and 
“ put  every  soul  within  to  the  sword.”  Tamerlane  then  contin- 
ued on  his  course  towards  his  own  country,  “ marking  his  way 
with  fire  and  sword,  and  leaving  anarchy,  famine,  and  pesti- 
lence behind  him.”  There  is  nothing  said  of  his  investing  any 
one  with  authority,  or  making  arrangements  for  any  rcgultir 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


93 


government  in  Delhi.  He  confirmed  the  governors  who  submit- 
ted to  him  in  their  respective  provinces,  and  they  engaged  to 
govern  in  his  name.  These  circumstances  appear  to  indicate 
that  he  intended  to  return  and  assume  the  government,  or  send 
some  one  to  govern  in  his  name,  but  something  unexpected  j)rc- 
vented  his  doing  so.* 

The  city  of  Delhi  remained  in  a state  of  anarchy  for  some 
months  after  Tamerlane’s  departure.  When  it  was  seen  that 
he  had  left  India,  several  diftbrent  parties  endeavored  to  assume 
and  exercise  the  supreme  government.  Some  of  these  at- 
tempted to  govern  in  the  name  of  Tamerlane,  and  others  in 
their  own  name.  The  governors  of  the  different  provinces 
asserted  their  independence  and  called  themselves  kings,  so  that 
only  a small  district  around  Delhi  continued  attached  to  the  city 
and  subject  to  its  power.  In  the  course  of  half  a century  there 
were  7 different  emperors  or  men  who  assumed  the  title  in 
Delhi.  There  was  nothing  in  their  character  or  actions,  or  in 
the  state  of  the  districts  acknowledging  their  authority,  which 
appears  to  be  deserving  of  consideration  or  being  mentioned. 

Among  the  military  chiefs  at  Delhi,  who  became  conspicuous 
in  this  period  of  anarchy  and  misrule,  was  Beylol  Lodi.  The 
family  had  been  military  leaders  of  distinction  for  several 
generations.  After  long-continued  intrigue  and  effort  he  be- 
came emperor  in  a.d.  1450.  He  was  assisted  in  acquiring  this 
dignity  by  the  vizier  of  the  preceding  emperor,  and  as  has  often 
happened  in  oriental  courts,  his  first  exercise  of  this  power  was 
to  remove  him  by  whose  aid  he  had  acquired  it.  The  early 
part  of  his  reign  was  spent  in  struggling  with  factions  and 
suppressing  insurrections  at  Delhi.  He  was  then  engaged  for 
many  years  in  endeavoring  to  extend  his  pow^er  over  some 
provinces,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  empire,  but  had 
become  independent.  In  these  wars  he  was  generally  success- 
ful, and  at  the  close  of  his  reign  the  kingdom  of  Delhi  had 
become  the  most  powerful  of  any  in  the  northern  part  of  India. 
His  reign  somewhat  exceeded  38  years. 

Secunder  Lodi,  a son  of  the  late  emperor,  succeeded  him  at 
Delhi.  His  brothers,  who  were  governors  of  different  provinces 
for  some  years  before  their  father’s  death,  refused  to  acknowd- 


* Elphinstone,  p.  362. 


94 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


edge  his  superiority.  Secunder’s  claim  to  be  acknowledged 
emperor  over  all  the  dominions  of  his  father  and  his  brothers’ 
resistance  to  this  claim,  were  the  occasion  of  frequent  conflicts 
and  wars  between  them.  In  these  wars  Secunder  was  gener- 
ally successful,  and  the  provinces  which  were  subject  to  his 
father  acknowledged  his  authority.  He  then  extended  the 
empire  by  annexing  some  provinces  in  Bahar  and  Bundelcund. 
He  was  very  bigoted  in  his  attachment  to  Mohammedanism, 
and  destroyed  many  temples  and  idols  in  the  cities  and  prov- 
inces recovered  from  the  Hindus.  He  even  forbid  them  to 
resort  to  some  of  their  sacred  places  on  pilgrimage.  A brahmin, 
in  reply  to  a Mohammedan  who  had  abused  him  for  his  wor- 
shipping idols,  said,  “ All  religions,  if  practised  with  equal  sin- 
cerity, are  equally  acceptable  to  God.”  For  this  opinion  the 
brahmin  was  called  before  a council  of  the  Moolahs,  who  decided 
that  he  must  either  become  a Mohammedan  or  be  put  to  death. 
The  brahmin  showed  that  he  was  sincere  in  his  religion  by 
suflering  death  rather  than  change  his  faith.  This  emperor  for 
some  reason  removed  his  court  to  Agra,  which  in  the  latter  part 
of  his  reign  became  the  capital  of  the  empire.  He  was  much 
esteemed  by  the  Mohammedan  part  of  his  subjects,  and  is 
reckoned  among  their  best  emperors.  His  reign  somewhat 
exceeded  28  years. 


BABER,  A.D.  1526. 

Ibrahim  Lodi  succeeded  the  late  emperor  his  father.  His 
haughty  manners  and  imperious  temper  made  him  unpopular. 
Some  insurrections  soon  occurred,  and  the  parties  concerned  in 
them  were  treated  with  great  barbarity.  The  governor  of 
Lahore  revolted,  and  fearing  the  fate  of  some  who  had  been  put 
to  death,  applied  to  Baber,  the  Sultan  of  Cabul,  for  assistance. 
Baber,  who  had  for  some  time  been  meditating  the  conquest 
of  India,  was  glad  to  receive  such  an  invitation.  He  soon 
appeared  in  India  with  his  army,  and  as  the  conquest  of  the 
country  was  his  object  ha  proceeded  towards  Delhi.  On  arriv- 
ing at  Panniput  he  was  informed  that  the  emperor  was  ap- 
proaching with  an  army  of  100,000  men  and  1,000  elephants. 
Baber’s  force,  though  much  inferior  in  numbers,  was  yet  greatly 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


95 


superior  in  discipline  and  valor.  He  had  also  himself  great 
military  talents  and  experience,  and  he  possessed  the  entire  con- 
fidence of  his  army.  In  the  battle  which  decided  the  empire 
of  India,  the  emperor’s  want  of  judgment  was  as  conspicuous 
in  his  preparatory  arrangements,  as  the  want  of  discipline  was 
in  his  army  during  the  conflict  and  in  the  retreat.  In  this  battle 
the  emperor  Ibrahim  Lodi  was  killed,  and  his  army  was  routed 
with  great  slaughter.  Baber  then  proceeded  forthwith  to  Delhi 
and  Agra,  and  both  cities  surrendered  without  making  any 
resistance.  Though  in  possession  of  these  imperial  cities  and 
proclaimed  emperor,  he  was  yet  acknowledged  by  only  a small 
part  of  what  had  formerly  constituted  the  empire.  The  gover- 
nors of  the  provinces  were  in  no  haste  to  acknowledge  their 
allegiance  to  the  new  emperor.  Many  in  his  army  dislildng  the 
oppressive  and  enervating  heat  of  the  Indian  climate,  became 
anxious  to  return  to  Cabul.  As  the  dissatisfaction  and  mur- 
muring on  the  subject  increased,  Baber  assembled  liis  officers  in 
council  and  told  them  that  having  become  the  emperor  of  India, 
an  object  he  had  long  had  in  view,  he  was  determined  to  remain 
in  the  country,  that  all  who  wished  to  return  to  Cabul  had  his 
permission  to  do  so,  but  m future  he  would  tolerate  no  more 
murmuring  on  the  subject.  A few  of  his  officers  returned  to 
Cabul,  but  the  greater  part,  seeing  the  emperor’s  determination, 
resolved  to  unite  their  fortunes  with  his,  and  so  remained  in 
Lidia.  When  this  determination  became  known,  the  governors 
of  some  of  the  provinces  who  had  been  expecting  that  Baber, 
like  Tamerlane,  would  soon  leave  India,  took  the  prudent 
course  of  acknowledging  allegiance  to  him.  His  son  Huma- 
yoon,  was  also  successful  in  reducing  some  provinces  to  obedi- 
ence, so  that  in  the  course  of  a few  months  the  empire  included 
all  the  provinces  which  acknowledged  allegiance  to  his  prede- 
cessor. 

But  Baber  soon  found  himself  surrounded  with  new  difficul- 
ties. The  Rajpoot  prnices  uniting  with  some  IMohammedan 
nobles  of  the  same  family  or  clan  with  the  late  emperor,  formed 
a powerful  combination  against  him.  In  the  first  conflict  with 
this  confederated  army  a part  of  Baber’s  force  w’as  defeated 
with  heavy  loss.  His  army  and  his  officers  were  much  affected 
with  this  unexpected  result.  A celebrated  astrologer  arriving 


96 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


at  this  time  from  Cabul,  predicted  from  the  position  of  the 
planet  Mars  the  certain  defeat  of  the  army  in  the  approaching 
campaign.  Many  of  Baber’s  army  now  began  to  desert,  the 
force  of  his  enemies  increased,  and  his  officers  and  friends 
became  disheartened.  He  contemplated  his  circumstances  and 
prospects  with  much  anxiety.  He  tells  us  in  his  Memoirs  that 
he  repented  of  aU  his  sins  and  implored  pardon  of  God ; he  sol- 
emnly resolved  that  he  would  drink  no  more  wine,  which  he 
acknowledges  he  had  sometimes  used  to  excess,  and  he  caused 
his  drinking  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  to  be  melted  up  and  dis- 
tributed in  alms  to  the  poor.  He  also  made  a vow  to  let  his 
beard  grow  and  remit  the  stamp-tax  on  all  Mohammedans,  if  it 
should  please  God  to  give  him  the  victory  over  his  enemies. 
He  then  assembled  his  officers  in  council,  and  described  their 
past  exploits,  their  present  dangers,  and  the  glory  which  it  was 
yet  in  their  power  to  obtain.  The  assembly  was  greatly  excited 
by  this  address  ; * aU  proclaimed  their  determination  to  support 
him,  and  swore  on  the  Koran  to  conquer  or  die.  Seeing  the 
army  in  this  state,  Baber  resolved  to  prosecute  the  war  with 
vigor.  His  arrangement  of  his  forces  showed  his  great  military 
talent  and  experience  in  war,  and  he  soon  obtained  a decided 
victory  in  which  several  of  the  princes  confederated  against  him 
were  slain. 

Soon  after  this  victory  Baber,  in  extending  his  conquests,  laid 
siege  to  Chanderi,  a strong  fort  belonging  to  the  Rajpoots. 
When  the  garrison  saw  they  could  defend  the  place  no  longer, 
“ they,  according  to  their  dreadful  custom,  murdered  their  wives 
and  children  in  the  following  manner.  They  placed  a sword  in 
the  hand  of  one  of  their  chiefs,  and  he  slew  the  unhappy  victims, 
who  one  after  another  bent  of  their  own  accord  before  him ; 
they  even  contended  among  themselves  for  the  honor  of  being 
the  first  slain.  The  soldiers  then  threw  turmeric  powder  over 

Baber  closed  his  address  to  the  council  of  his  officers  thus : — “ The  voice 
of  gloiy  is  loud  in  my  ear,  and  forbids  me  to  disgrace  my  name  by  giving  up 
what  iny  arms  have  with  so  much  difficulty  acquired.  But  as  death  is  at  last 
unavoidable,  let  us  rather  meet  him  with  honor  face  to  ftiee  than  shrink  back  to 
gain  a few  years  of  a miserable  and  ignominious  existence,  for  what  can  wc 
inherit  but  fame  beyond  the  limits  of  the  grave  ? ” Tlie  whole  assembly,  as  if 
inspired  by  one  soul,  cried  at  once,  “ War!  war!  ” — Ferishta,  vol.  ii.  p.  119. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


97 


their  garments  as  on  a clay  of  festivity,  and  thro-wing  loose  their 
hair,  issued  forth  with  their  swords  and  shields  and  sought  that 
death  which  they  all  obtained.  Not  one  was  found  alive  in  the 
fort  when  it  was  taken.” 

Baber  survived  the  conquest  of  India  only  5 years.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  50.  His  body  was  carried  to  Cabul  to  be  buried 
as  he  had  directed.  His  tomb  is  still  preserved,  and  the  ceme- 
tery is  “ the  great  holiday  resort  of  the  people  of  the  city.” 
Few  Asiatic  sovereigns  ever  had  so  many  good  personal  quali- 
ties and  performed  so  many  splendid  actions  to  commend  them 
while  they  lived,  and  to  be  held  in  esteem  after  they  were  dead. 
He  was  descended  on  the  side  of  his  father  from  Tamerlane,  and 
on  the  part  of  his  mother  from  Ghengis  Khan,  the  two  great 
Tartar  conquerors  of  the  middle  ages.  At  an  early  age  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  who  was  the  king  of  Indija  and  Ferghana, 
and  he  was  soon  involved  in  war  with  his  uncles,  who  endeav- 
ored, by  taking  advantage  of  his  youth,  to  deprive  him  of  his 
paternal  possessions.  After  many  successes  and  reverses  he 
was  ejected  from  his  hereditary  dominions,  but  in  his  23d  year 
he  became  the  sovereign  of  Cabul,  where  he  reigned  22  years 
before  he  made  his  great  invasion  of  India.  He  possessed  the 
rare  qualities  for  an  Asiatic  sovereign  of  living  on  familiar  terms 
of  social  intercourse  with  his  officers  and  friends,  and  yet  of 
retaining  great  influence  over  them.  He  was  incessantly  occu- 
pied in  wars  and  revolutions,  and  yet  he  found  time  to  cultivate 
a taste  for  the  fine  arts,  and  Ferishta  says,  “ he  was  a master  in 
the  arts  of  poetry,  writing,  and  music.”  In  Hindustan,  while 
apparently  occupied  in  suppressing  insurrections  and  extending 
his  power  over  provinces  which  for  awhile  refused  allegiance 
to  him,  he  was  also  forming  plans  for  making  aqueducts,  reser- 
voirs, canals,  and  caravanserais,  and  for  introducing  foreign 
fruits  and  other  edibles,  for  the  improvement  of  the  country. 
His  Memoirs,*  in  the  Turki  language,  written  by  himself,  are 
exceeded  by  very  few  works,  ancient  or  modern.  He  also  wrote 
many  elegant  poems  in  Persian,  and  a collection  of  compositions 

* There  is  an  English  translation  of  this  ■work,  commenced  by  Dr.  Leyden, 
and  completed  by  Mr.  W.  Erskine.  It  gives  a graphic  and  interesting  account 
of  the  rebgion,  customs,  manners,  etc.,  of  the  Mohammedans  and  Hindus  of  that 
age. 


9 


98 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


in  Turki,  which  have  always  been  regarded  as  works  of  uncom- 
mon merit  in  those  languages. 

In  the  last  year  of  his  life  his  conduct  in  one  instance  exhib- 
ited some  peculiar  traits  of  character,  as  well  as  the  superstitious 
prejudices  of  the  age.  Ilis  oldest  son  Humayoon  was  for  some 
time  very  sick,  and  when  his  physicians  all  gave  over  further 
efforts,  saying  he  must  die,  Baber,  in  accordance  with  a gener- 
ally received  opinion  among  his  people  that  it  was  possible  to 
save  the  life  of  the  sick  man  in  such  cases  by  devoting  another 
life  for  him,  resolved  to  devote  his  own  life  for  his  son.  On 
declaring  his  purpose,  his  nobles  and  friends  who  had  entire  con- 
fidence in  the  efficacy  of  the  means,  endeavored  to  dissuade 
him  by  representing  how  important  his  own  life  was  to  his  fam- 
ily and  to  the  interests  of  the  empire.  But  Baber  had  formed 
his  purpose  and  continued  unmoved,  saying,  that  he  was  him- 
self becoming  old,  his  constitution  was  already  broken  and  he 
could  not  live  long,  but  his  son  was  young,  and  if  restored  to 
health  might  rule  over  the  empire  for  many  years.  When  all 
the  circumstances  for  the  ceremony  of  devoting  himself  to  save 
the  life  of  his  son  had  been  performed,  Baber  walked  three  times 
round  the  bed  of  the  dying  man  in  the  manner  required.  He 
then  retired  for  prayer,  and  soon  experienced  such  assurance  that 
the  substitution  he  had  made  had  been  accepted,  that  he 
exclaimed  aloud,  “ I have  borne  it  away,  I have  borne  it  away.” 
These  proceedings  were  deeply  affecting  to  the  father  and  the 
son,  and  to  all  who  witnessed  them  or  then  heard  of  them,  and 
the  Mohammedan  historians  agree  in  saying  that  Humayoon 
began  from  that  time  to  recover,  and  that  Baber,  who  had  been 
previously  iU,  became  more  unwell,  and  continued  to  fail  till  he 
died. 


HUMAYOON,  A.D.  1531. 

Humayoon,  Baber’s  oldest  son,  succeeded  him  in  the  empire 
of  India.  He  had  three  other  sons,  Kamran,  Hindal,  and  Mirza 
Askari.  Kamran  was  governor  of  Cabul  for  some  years  before 
Baber’s  death,  and  Humayoon  allowed  him  to  continue  in 
undisturbed  possession.  He  even  added  Lahore  to  the  territory 
of  Cabul.  The  empire  of  Baber  became  thus  practically 
divided  into  two  governments.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


99 


Hnmayoon  had  great  confidence  in  astrology,  and  he  fitted  up 
halls  for  reception  and  business  according  to  the  supposed 
influence  of  the  different  planets  on  human  affairs.  Thus  he 
had  the  hall  of  Mars  for  general  and  military  matters,  the  hall 
of  Mercury  for  his  judges  and  matters  of  justice,  etc.  But  the 
affairs  of  the  empire  soon  became  too  urgent  for  him  to  pursue 
this  course.  The  governors  of  several  provinces  were  deter- 
mined not  to  yield  obedience  until  they  were  compelled  to  do 
it,  and  so  he  was  soon  involved  in  war  with  them.  Among 
these  Bahadur  of  Gujerat  was  conspicuous  for  his  power  and 
enterprise.  Humayoon  proceeded  with  a large  force  into  Gu- 
jerat, but  he  had  scarcely  time  to  establish  his  power  there 
before  he  had  to  hasten  back  to  his  own  capital.  Shere  Khan, 
who  had  for  some  time  been  in  possession  of  Bengal,  proved  a 
yet  more  formidable  enemy.  Tliis  prince  had  great  military 
talents  as  weU  as  unscrupulous  ambition.  Humayoon  pro- 
ceeded into  Bengal  with  a large  force,  but  a series  of  reverses 
compelled  liim  to  retreat  and  return  to  Agra.  Again  he  assem- 
bled a large  army  and  proceeded  against  the  rebellious  gover- 
nor, who  had  now  assumed  the  title  of  king.  In  this  war  the 
emperor  suffered  several  defeats,  and  was  twice  near  being 
drownied  in  the  Ganges.  Shere  Khan  improved  the  advantages 
he  had  gained,  and  pursuing  Humayoon  in  his  retreat  to- 
wards Agra,  at  length  compelled  him  to  abandon  his  capital. 
Humayoon,  seeing  his  affairs  thus  apparently  desperate,  fled 
with  his  family  and  what  treasure  he  could  carry  to  Scinde. 
MTiile  crossing  the  desert  he  and  his  followers  suffered  exceed- 
ingly, and  in  these  distressed  circumstances,  in  the  desert,  his 
son  Acber,  afterwards  so  celebrated  in  the  history  of  India,  was 
born.  Humayoon  continued  in  Scinde  for  thi-ee  years,  and 
seeing  no  prospect  of  retrieving  his  affairs,  and  becoming  appre- 
hensive for  his  own  safety,  he  escaped  to  Persia. 

Lr  the  mean  time  Shere  Khan  ascended  the  throne  of  Delhi, 
and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  title  of  Shere  Shah.  The 
governors  of  some  provinces  refused  allegiance,  and  a combina- 
tion of  the  Rajpoot  chiefs  against  him  became  so  powerful  that 
he  had  to  proceed  into  their  territories  with  an  army  of  80,000 
men  before  he  could  enforce  submission.  When  superintending 
the  batteries  at  the  siege  of  KaUinger  he  was  so  much  injured  by 


100 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  explosion  of  a magazine  that  he  survived  only  a few  hours. 
He  continued,  though  in  a state  of  intense  suffering,  to  direct 
the  operations  of  the  siege,  and  when  intelligence  was  brought 
to  him  that  the  fort  was  taken,  he  exclaimed,  “ Thanks  be  to 
Almighty  God,”  and  these  were  his  last  words.  He  had  been 
emperor  for  5 years,  and  notwithstanding  he  w^as  much  occu- 
pied in  reducing  refractory  governors  to  submission,  he  intro- 
duced many  improvements,  and  left  the  empire  in  a flourishing 
state.  One  historian  of  India  says  that  “ Shere  Shah  made  a 
high  road  extending  for  four  months’  journey  from  Bengal  to 
the  western  Rohtas  near  the  Indus,  with  caravanserais  at  every 
stage,  and  wells  at  every  mile  and  a half;  there  was  an  imam 
and  muezzin  at  every  mosque,  and  provisions  for  the  poor  at 
every  caravanserai,  with  attendants  of  proper  castes  for  the 
Hindus  as  well  as  Mohammedans.  This  road  was  planted 
with  rows  of  trees  for  shade,  and  in  many  places  was  in  tliis 
state  when  the  historian  saw  it,  fifty  two  years  after  it  w’^as 
made.”  Shere  Shah  is  generally  described  as  a usurper  by  the 
Mahommedan  historians,  who  were  in  the  interest  of  the  house 
of  Tamerlane  or  Baber.  But  he  was  born  in  India,  he  w'as 
high  in  power  when  Baber  crossed  the  Indus,  and  he  united  the 
forces  of  the  country  and  expelled  a foreign  family  who  had 
been  only  fourteen  years  in  power.  He  always  sustained  a 
good  character  when  a provincial  governor ; he  displayed  great 
miUtary  talents  in  his  wars  with  Humayoon,  and  w’^hen  at  the 
head  of  the  empire  he  managed  its  affairs  with  wisdom,  modera- 
tion, and  success.  He  w'^as  buried  at  Sahseram  in  a mausoleum 
which  he  had  prepared  for  himself.  It  is  still  a substantial 
stone  structure,  and  “ stands  in  the  centre  of  an  artificial  piece 
of  water  a irule  in  circumference,  which  is  faced  by  walls  of 
stone  with  flights  of  steps  descending  to  the  w^ater.” 

Shere  Shah’s  eldest  son,  Add  Khan,  was  designed  by  his 
father  to  be  his  successor.  But  he  had  never  exhibited  abilities 
suitable  for  such  a difficult  situation,  while  Jelal  Khan,  his 
brother,  had  displayed  good  talents  for  government,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  army  in  his  father’s  wars.  For  these 
reasons  the  chiefs  combined  to  promote  Jelal  Khan  to  the 
throne,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Selim  Shah  Soor.  In  this 
reign  Shekh  iUlai,  a man  of  great  learning,  zeal,  and  eloquence. 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


101 


attempted  to  introduce  a new  form  of  religion,  which  occa- 
sioned much  trouble.  Many  soon  embraced  his  sentiments. 
“ They  threw  their  property  into  a common  stock  and  some 
even  left  their  families  and  devoted  themselves  to  the  Shekh. 
Khowas  Khan,  a distinguished  officer,  was  among  his  followers. 
At  first  the  Shekh’s  fanaticism  was  inoffensive,  but  some  of 
his  followers  went  beyond  aU  tolerable  bounds.  They  thought 
it  was  their  duty  to  interfere  whenever  they  saw  a man  in  any 
act  of  sin,  and  if  he  did  not  attend  to  their  remonstrance,  to  put 
him  to  death.  The  civil  government  as  well  as  the  Moolahs 
thought  it  was  high  time  to  interpose.  The  Shekh  was  tried 
and  condemned  to  death,  but  the  emperor  remitted  his  sentence 
and  banished  him  to  Hindia  on  the  river  Nerbudda.  This  only 
spread  the  infection  of  his  doctrines ; for  he  soon  converted  the 
governor  and  the  garrison,  and  was  making  greater  progress 
than  ever  when  he  was  recalled  to  the  capital.  The  emperor 
was  importuned  by  the  IMoolahs  to  put  him  to  death,  and  after 
many  delays  he  ordered  him  to  be  whipped  and  then  to  be  left 
to  consider  for  a while  whether  he  would  recant  his  errors.  The 
Shekh  was  suffering  from  an  epidemic  then  prevailing,  and  was 
so  reduced  that  he  expired  at  the  third  lash.”  The  Moham- 
medan religion  has  had  far  more  reformers  than  is  generally 
supposed,  and  its  history  furnishes,  among  these  reformers, 
numerous  instances  of  zeal,  self-denial,  sufferings,  and  even 
death  for  their  faith. 

On  Selim’s  death,  his  son,  Feroze  Khan,  then  only  12  years  of 
age,  was  proclaimed  emperor,  but  in  a few  days  he  was  assas- 
sinated by  his  uncle  Mubariz,  who  assumed  the  office  of  em- 
peror by  the  title  of  Mohammed  Shah.  He  spent  his  time  in 
revelry,  and  squandered  the  royal  treasures  in  folly  and  dissipa- 
tion. The  emperor  and  his  court  were  soon  despised  by  aU 
respectable  people  at  the  capital.  The  governors  of  the  prov- 
inces treated  the  royal  commands  x\dth  neglect,  and  the  empire 
was  fast  verging  to  a state  of  anarchy,  when  Humayoon,  who 
had  become  ruler  of  Cabul,  being  aware  of  the  distracted  state 
of  India,  and  invited  by  many  of  his  former  friends  to  return, 
resolved  on  an  effort  to  recover  his  former  throne. 

Humayoon  had  been  9 years  emperor  of  India  when  he 
was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Persia.  Shah  Tahmasp,  who 

9* 


102 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


was  then  king  of  Persia,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  arrival  of 
Humayoon  in  his  dominions,  issued  orders  for  him  to  be  treated 
with  all  due  respect.  The  governors  of  the  provinces  received 
him  with  great  honor  ; aU  the  wants  of  himself  and  his  follow- 
ers were  supplied,  and  they  were  lodged  in  the  royal  palaces. 
But  there  were  some  circumstances  of  a painful  and  humiliating 
character.  Humayoon  was  not  allowed  to  approach  the  capital 
for  some  time,  and  several  months  passed  before  he  was  admit- 
ted to  an  interview  with  the  Persian  monarch.  Soon  after  per- 
sonal Intercourse  between  them  commenced,  Humayoon  was 
informed  that  if  he  continued  in  the  kingdom  and  to  enjoy  the 
protection  of  a sovereign,  he  was  expected  to  profess  the  Shiah 
principles  of  the  Mohammedan  faith.  Humayoon  at  first  de- 
clined, and  insisted  on  having  liberty  of  conscience,  but  Shah 
Tahmasp  was  inexorable,  and  Humayoon  pubhcly  professed  to 
embrace  the  faith  of  the  Shiahs,  and  united  with  them  in 
religious  worship.  Several  circumstances  combined  to  make  the 
situation  of  the  exiled  monarch  painful  and  humiliating,  and  he 
resolved  on  making  an  attempt  to  obtain  possession  of  Cabul, 
which  had  been  a part  of  the  dominions  of  his  father,  and  was 
now  nearly  in  a state  of  anarchy  on  account  of  the  tyranny  and 
unpopularity  of  his  brothers.  Shah  Tahmasp  furnished  Huma- 
yoon with  a large  body  of  cavalry,  and  the  latter  was  glad  to 
leave  Persia  for  a country  of  better  hopes  and  prospects.  Hu- 
mayoon succeeded  in  obtaining  possession  of  Cabul,  and  was 
its  acltnowledged  ruler  for  several  years  before  he  resolved  on 
recovering  his  former  throne  in  India.  His  success  in  this  last 
enterprise  was  in  a great  degree  to  be  ascribed  to  the  heroic 
conduct  of  his  son  Acber,  who  at  that  early  age  began  to  ex- 
hibit those  talents,  which  subsequently  distinguished  him  above 
aU  the  Mohammedan  sovereigns  of  India. 

Humayoon  did  not  live  long  to  enjoy  his  restoration  to  power. 
In  a few  months  after  his  return  to  Delhi,  he  met  with  an  acci- 
dent which  soon  caused  his  death.  As  he  was  descending  the 
stairs  from  the  terrace  of  his  palace  one  evening,  he  heard  the 
muezzin’s  caU  for  prayers  from  the  minaret.  He  sat  down  and 
repeated  the  creed.  As  he  was  rising,  his  staff  slipped  on  the 
smooth  marble  stairs,  and  losing  his  balance  he  fell  over  the  par- 
apet to  the  ground.  He  was  insensible  when  taken  uj),  though 


niSTOEY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PEEIOD. 


103 


he  soon  recovered  his  senses,  yet  he  was  so  much  injured  that  he 
died  on  the  fourth  day.  Ilis  life  consisted  of  a series  of  remark- 
able adventures,  fortunate  and  unfortunate.  His  death  occurred 
in  the  50th  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  26th  year  from  the  time 
he  commenced  his  reign.  He  was  an  exile  from  his  capital  for 
16  years.  Ferishta  ascribes  his  misfortunes  to  his  virtues.,  and 
says,  “ had  he  been  less  nuld  and  religious,  he  would  have  been 
a more  successful  prince.  Had  he  been  a worse  man,  he  would 
have  been  a greater  monarch.”  His  son  Acber  erected  a noble 
mausoleum  over  his  tomb.* 

ACBER,  A.D.  1556. 

Acber  was  in  his  14th  year  when  he  succeeded  his  father, 
and  though  uncommonly  manly,  vigorous,  and  mteUigent  for 
his  age,  yet  he  was  not  capable  of  administering  a government 
which  required  great  energy,  prudence,  and  self-reliance  in  all 
its  departments.  Happily  there  was  one  man,  who  from  his 
long  connection  with  the  late  emperor,  his  experience  in  the 
affairs  of  government,  and  his  having  the  confidence  of  the 
army  and  the  nobles,  was  well  quahfied  to  become  regent. 
This  was  Byram  Khan,  who  was  distinguished  in  the  army 
before  the  expulsion  of  Humayoon  from  India,  who  was  his 
companion  in  his  exile  in  Persia,  and  who  rendered  important 
assistance  in  procuring  his  restoration  to  the  empire.  This 
man  was  now  invested  with  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  there  was  soon  occasion  for  all  his  prudence,  experi- 
ence, and  energy.  Encouraged  by  the  youth  of  Acber  and  the 
unsettled  state  of  the  empire,  several  parties  soon  appeared  in 
arms.  But  Byram  Khan  was  everywhere  victorious,  and  the 

* This  tomb  or  mausoleum  is  thus  described  by  Bishop  Ileber : — “ Huma- 
Toon’s  tomb  is  a noble  building  of  granite  inlaid  with  marble,  and  in  a very 
chaste  and  simple  style  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  is  surrounded  by  a large 
ganlen  with  terraces  and  fountains,  all  now  gone  to  decay  except  one  of  the 
latter.  The  garden  itself  is  surrounded  by  an  embattled  wall  with  towers,  four 
gateways  and  a cloister  within  all  the  way  round.  In  the  centre  of  the  square 
is  a platform,  about  20  feet  high,  and  I should  apprehend  200  feet  square,  sup- 
ported also  by  cloisters,  and  ascended  by  four  great  flights  of  granite  steps. 
Above  rises  the  tomb,  also  a square,  with  a great  dome  of  white  marble  in  its 
centre.” 


104 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


government  under  his  vigorous  hand  acquired  respect,  order, 
and  stability.  But  though  the  regent’s  administration  of  public 
affau's  was  generally  satisfactory,  yet  his  haughty  and  overbear- 
ing manners  and  his  abuse  of  power  to  gratify  personal  feelings, 
raised  up  many  enemies  in  the  court,  who  wished  to  see  him 
removed  or  restrained.  Acber,  who  was  now  becoming  a man, 
was  displeased  mth  the  arbitrary  and  irresponsible  manner  in 
which  the  regent  had  exercised  his  authority,  and  also  with  the 
spiiit  he  had  manifested  towards  him.  He  resolved  to  extricate 
himself  if  possible  from  the  regent’s  control,  and  to  assume  the 
administration  of  the  empire.  His  plan  was  wisely  formed  and 
successfully  executed.  When  engaged  on  a hunting  expedi- 
tion, he  suddenly  left  the  regent  and  proceeded  to  Delhi,  upon 
the  pretended  intelligence  of  the  illness  of  his  mother.  On 
arriving  in  Delhi  he  issued  a proclamation,  informing  aU  the  gov- 
ernment functionaries  that  he  had  assumed  the  administration 
of  public  affairs,  and  forbidding  obedience  to  any  orders  not 
sanctioned  by  himself.  The  regent  was  taken  with  surprise, 
and  aware  that  his  own  situation  would  soon  be  critical,  he  sent 
two  of  his  most  trusty  friends  to  Delhi  to  effect  a reconciliation 
with  the  emperor.  But  Acber  refused  to  see  them,  and  for  some 
unexplained  reason  he  soon  put  them  in  prison.  Byram  Khan 
now  saw  how  ready  all  appeared  to  turn  from  the  falling  min- 
ister to  the  rising  emperor.  He  devised  various  plans  for 
retrieving  his  affairs,  but  pride,  suspicion,  and  the  unexpected 
popularity  of  the  emperor  prevented  his  carrying  them  into 
effect.  He  was  eventually  reconciled  to  the  emperor,  who 
treated  him  with  respect,  and  allowed  him  a liberal  pension  for 
life.  But  when  preparing  to  embark  on  a pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
he  was  assassinated  by  an  Afghan,  whose  father  he  had  many 
years  before  killed  in  battle. 

Acber  was  only  18  years  old  when  he  assumed  the  responsi- 
ble administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  empire.  But  in  his 
personal  appearance,  in  his  manners,  and  in  his  mind,  he  was 
uncommonly  mature  for  his  age.  He  had  also  much  experience 
in  the  wars  of  his  father’s  reign,  and  under  the  regency  of 
Byram  Khan  he  had  enjoyed  opportunities  for  becoming  well 
acquainted  with  the  state  of  the  empire  and  the  character  of  his 
subjects.  He  saw  that  the  great  body  of  his  subjects  were 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


105 


Hindus,  who  notwdthstanding  all  the  means  used  for  their  con- 
version by  their  conquerors,  still  adhered  to  the  religion  of  their 
forefathers,  and  if  permitted  to  follow  their  own  superstitions, 
they  were  disposed  to  live  quietly  and  peacefully  under  the 
government  of  foreigners.  Their  conduct  in  this  respect  pre- 
sented a striking  contrast  to  the  Mohammedans,  who  were  con- 
stantly engaged  in  intrigues,  insurrections,  and  attempts  at 
revolution.  This  view  of  the  character  of  the  people  comprising 
the  great  body  of  the  empire,  appears  to  have  induced  Acber  to 
resolve  upon  a uniform  mode  of  proceeding  towards  all  classes 
of  his  subjects,  and  to  promote  persons  to  situations  of  honor 
and  responsibility  without  regard  to  their  nation  or  religious 
creed.  This  was  a noble  purpose,  but  the  pride  and  jealousy 
of  the  Mohammedans  and  their  contempt  for  the  idolatrous 
Hindus  made  it  expedient  for  the  emperor  to  proceed  cautiously 
in  carrying  his  intention  into  effect. 

Acber  was  occupied  for  several  years  in  reducing  some  pro- 
vincial governors  to  submission,  who  had  maintained  more  or 
less  independence  from  the  invasion  of  Tamerlane.  In  these 
military  expeditions  he  exhibited  great  ability  and  energy.  His 
proceedings  often  evinced  more  daring  than  discretion,  but  he 
gradually  succeeded  in  recovering  to  the  empire  the  revolted 
provinces. 

But  Acber’s  reputation  as  a wise  and  poKtic  prince,  rests  more 
upon  the  changes  and  improvements  he  made  in  the  civil  ad- 
ministration of  the  empire,  than  upon  his  military  talents  and 
success,  great  as  these  confessedly  were.  The  revenues  had 
been  derived  from  a variety  of  taxes  very  unequally  propor- 
tioned, oppressive  to  the  people,  and  embarrassing  the  operations 
of  the  government.  IMost  of  these  he  annulled,  and  determined 
to  substitute  for  them  a larger  and  fixed  tax  on  the  land.  For 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  productive  land,  he 
caused  all  the  cultivated  lands  to  be  measured.  Then  he  en- 
deavored to  ascertain  from  the  quality  of  the  soil  the  amount  of 
produce  from  each  bega^  (a  measure  of  about  three  fourths  of 
an  acre),  and  what  proportion  of  this  amount  ought  to  be  paid 
to  the  government ; and  then  to  determine  the  value  of  this  pro- 
portion in  money.  This  scheme  was  carried  into  effect  under 
the  care  of  able  men,  and  produced  a great  change  in  the  state 


106 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


of  the  country.  When  completed,  this  scheme  exhibited  an 
amount  of  general  and  particular  information  concerning  the 
empire  which  was  probably  never  before  collected  concerning 
any  country  in  the  world.  The  nominal  revenue  of  the  em- 
pire to  be  collected  according  to  this  scheme  was  diminished, 
but  the  amount  actually  realized  was  generally  increased.  The 
papers,  comprehending  the  whole  system  of  revenue  with  the 
emperor’s  instructions  for  carrying  it  into  effect,  have  been  pre- 
served and  translated  into  English.*  They  show  the  state  of 
India  as  it  was  under  one  of  its  most  enlightened  sovereigns 
nearly  three  centuries  ago. 

The  changes  Acber  introduced  into  the  army,  were  also  great 
and  important.  The  Mohammedan  armies  in  India  consisted 
of  a class  of  nobles  called  Omras,  with  a specified  number  of 
men  under  each  class.  For  the  support  of  these  troops,  the  rev- 
enues of  a certain  district  were  assigned  to  each  chief,  which  he 
generally  leased  for  an  annual  sum  to  some  Hindu  banker. 
Each  omra  was  required  to  support  in  a state  ready  for  service 
the  specified  number  of  troops,  who  were  aU  paid  by  him,  as 
well  as  under  his  command.  These  omras  were  the  nobles  of  the 
empire,  and  having  the  army  so  much  under  their  command, 
they  often  stirred  up  insurrections  and  revolutions,  and  some- 
times deposed  and  set  up  emperors.  Acber  changed  the  man- 
ner of  their  support,  making  them  dependent  directly  upon  the 
royal  treasury.  The  pay  of  a trooper,  if  a Persian,  or  from  any 
country  west  of  the  Indus,  including  his  horse,  was  25  rupees 
per  month ; if  he  was  a native  of  India,  20  rupees  per  month. 
The  pay  of  common  soldiers  varied  from  3 to  6 rupees  per 
month.  A rupee  is  about  47  cents. 

It  was  the  custom  of  the  emperors  to  leave  their  capital  as 
soon  as  the  rainy  season  had  closed,  and  spend  7 or  8 months  in 
their  travelling  cantonments.  These  were  fitted  up  with  regal 
splendor  and  resembled  a large  city  more  than  a camp.  They 
moved  about  from  one  province  to  another,  as  pleasure,  or  busi- 
ness, or  health  inclined  them.  They  often  went  to  Cashmere 
and  spent  the  hot  months  in  the  delightful  climate  and  beautiful 
scenery  of  that  celebrated  valley.  The  following  is  a description 
of  Acber’s  cantonment : — “ His  camp  equipage  consisted  of 

* “ Ayeeni  Acberi,”  or  Institutes  of  Acber,  translated  by  Mr.  W.  Gladwin. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


107 


tents  and  portable  houses  in  an  inclosure  formed  by  a high  wall 
of  canvas  screens,  and  containing  great  halls  for  public  recep- 
tions, apartments  for  feasting,  galleries  for  exercise,  and  chambers 
for  retirement;  all  framed  of  tlie  most  costly  materials,  and 
adapted  to  the  most  luxurious  enjoyment.  The  inclosure  was 
1530  yards  square.  The  tents  and  walls  were  of  various  colors 
and  pattern  within,  but  all  red  on  the  outside  and  covered  with 
gilded  globes  and  pinnacles,  forming  a sort  of  castle  in  the  midst 
of  the  camp.  The  camp  itself  showed  like  a beautiful  city  of 
tents  of  many  colors,  disposed  in  streets  without  the  least  dis- 
order, covering  a space  about  5 miles  across,  and  affording  a 
glorious  spectacle  when  seen  at  once  from  a height.”  * 

The  following  extract  from  the  same  author  gives  a view  of 
Acber’s  splendor  on  particular  occasions  : — “ The  greatest  dis- 
plays of  Acber’s  grandeur  were  at  the  vernal  equinox  and  on 
his  birthday.  They  lasted  for  several  days,  dming  which  there 
was  a general  fair  and  many  processions  and  other  pompous 
shows.  The  emperor’s  usual  place  was  in  a rich  tent  in  the 
midst  of  awnings  to  keep  off  the  sun.  At  least  2 acres  were 
thus  spread  with  silk  and  gold  carpets  and  hangings,  as  rich  as 
velvet  embroidered  with  gold,  pearls,  and  precious  stones  could 
make  them.  The  nobility  had  similar  pavilions  where  they 
received  visits  from  each  other,  and  sometimes  from  the  emperor. 
Dresses,  jewels,  horses,  and  elephants  were  bestowed  upon  the 
nobles.  The  emperor  was  weighed  in  golden  scales  against 
gold,  silver,  perfumes,  and  other  substances  in  succession,  which 
were  distributed  among  the  spectators.  Almonds  and  other 
fruits  of  gold  and  silver,  were  scattered  by  the  emperor’s  own 
hand,  and  eagerly  caught  by  the  courtiers.  On  the  great  day  of 
each  festival  the  emperor  was  seated  on  his  throne  in  a noble 
palace,  siurounded  by  his  nobles  wearing  high  heron  plumes,  and 
sparkling  wdth  diamonds  like  the  firmament.  INIany  hundred 
elephants  passed  before  him  in  companies,  all  most  richly 
adorned,  and  the  leading  elephant  of  each  company  with  gold 
plates  on  his  head  and  breast  set  mth  rubies  and  emeralds. 
Trains  of  caparisoned  horses  followed,  and  after  them  rhinoce- 
roses, lions,  tigers,  panthers,  hunting  leopards,  hounds,  and 


* Elphinstone,  p.  481. 


108 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


hawks,  the  whole  concluding  with  an  innumerable  host  of  cav- 
alry glittering  with  cloth  of  gold.” 

One  of  Acber’s  favorite  residences  was  Futtypoor,  which  was 
abandoned  soon  after  his  death,  250  years  ago.  Bishop  Hcber 
visited  it  in  1826,  and  says  that  “ the  approach  to  the  city  is  strik- 
ing, being  surrounded  with  a high  stone  waU  with  battlements, 
and  round  towers,  that  within  he  found  marble  palaces,  serais, 
mosques,  mausoleums,  etc.,  some  of  them  in  ruins,  some  par- 
tially dilapidated,  and  some  in  a state  of  good  preservation.” 
The  Bishop  closes  saying,  “ Futtypoor  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting places  I have  seen  in  India.” 

These  accounts  give  us  a view  of  oriental  courts  and  camps, 
and  of  the  state  of  civilization  in  India  at  that  time.  Acber 
was  yet  more  remarkable  for  his  religious  opinions  and  prac- 
tices. In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  showed  the  sincerity  of  his 
religious  profession  by  going  on  pilgrimage  to  the  tombs  of 
reputed  saints,  and  at  one  time  he  avowed  his  intention  of  going 
on  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  But  he  afterwards  became  sceptical 
in  respect  to  the  Koran  and  avowed  deistical  sentiments.  He 
had  also  several  learned  men  at  his  court,  who  were  originally 
Mohammedans,  but  became  sceptical  in  their  principles.  Some 
of  these  learned  men  became  well  versed  in  Sanscrit  literature, 
and  translated  some  of  the  Hindu  sacred  books  into  the  Persian 
language.  Acber  though  he  became  sceptical  in  respect  to  the 
Koran,  did  not  at  once  become  indifferent  to  aU  religion.  He 
showed  a great  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  the  different 
systems  of  faith  in  the  world,  and  he  sent  letters  to  Goa  for 
Roman  Catholic  priests  to  come  to  Agra.  Accordingly  3 priests 
proceeded  to  Agra  and  remained  there  for  considerable  time. 
These  missionaries  held  several  public  discussions  with  the 
muftis  and  brahmins  before  the  emperor,  each  party  stating  and 
vindicating  his  own  system.  The  Romish  missionaries  were 
much  pleased  with  the  emperor’s  apparent  sincerity,  and  in  their 
letters  and  journals  expressed  the  hope  that  he  would  soon  pro- 
fess his  faith  in  Christianity.  But  when  his  curiosity  had  been 
gratified,  he  became  more  indifferent  to  the  subject,  and  becom- 
ing discouraged  they  returned  to  Goa. 

Some  years  afterwards,  Acber  again  wrote  to  Goa  for  mis- 
sionaries and  another  deputation  proceeded  to  Agra.  Their 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


109 


reception  and  treatment  were  at  first  very  gratifying.  They  had 
several  conferences  with  the  emperor,  and  also  public  discussions 
with  the  muftis  and  brahmins.  But  it  was  not  long  before  they 
thought  they  saw  reasons  for  believing  that  he  had  no  sincere 
desire  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  no  higher  motives  than  curi- 
osity and  amusement  in  the  inquiries  he  made  concerning  its 
history,  doctrines,  rites,  etc.  So  the  missionaries  returned  to 
Goa.  About  four  years  after  their  return,  Acber  again  wrote  to 
Goa,  “ with  so  many  promises  and  kind  expressions  that  the 
governor  coidd  not  refuse  to  gratify  him  a third  time.”  This 
mission  proceeded  to  Lahore  where  the  emperor  with  his  eourt 
was  then  residing.  He  received  them  with  great  respeet  and 
manifested  so  much  sincerity  in  his  inquiries,  and  gave  such  ear- 
nest attention  to  their  statements  and  instructions,  that  they  were 
encouraged  to  hope  for  his  conversion  to  their  church.  But  on 
further  acquaintance  with  his  principles  and  practices,  especially 
when  they  saw  the  homage  he  paid  to  the  sun,  and  the  rever- 
ence which  he  encouraged  the  people  to  pay  to  himself,  and 
which  appeared  to  them  to  partake  of  religious  homage,  they 
became  discouraged  and  requested  permission  to  rettun  to  Goa. 

The  religion  of  Acber  appears  to  have  been  deism,  and  such 
was  the  religion  of  his  most  intimate  friends.  He  was  fond  of 
the  society  of  learned  men,  and  had  many  such  from  different 
countries  and  of  different  systems  of  religious  faith  residing  at 
his  court.  It  was  his  custom  to  assemble  them  all  every  Friday 
to  discuss  subjects  of  religion  and  philosophy.  In  these  discus- 
sions he  took  great  delight,  and  often  took  an  active  part  in 
them.  The  Dabistan,  a Persian  work  on  the  different  systems 
of  religion  in  Asia,  contains  specimens  of  the  discussions  in 
these  assemblies.  One  of  them  (probably  only  an  imaginary  or 
pretended  one,  but  showung  what  they  generally  were,)  is  a Dia- 
logue befr\’’een  a brahmin,  a Mohammedan,  a Zoroastrian,  a 
Jew,  a Christian,  and  a philosopher,  in  which  the  professor  and 
advocate  of  each  religion  states  his  system  and  the  arguments 
for  it.  These  dialogues  or  discussions  were  generally  closed  by 
some  one,  who  in  the  character  of  a philosopher,  avowed  deisti- 
cal  sentiments,  who  recommended  a system  of  religion  founded 
on  the  light  of  nature,  on  reason  and  virtue,  and  whose  opinions 
and  arguments  were  supposed  to  have  the  approbation  of  the 

10 


110 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

emperor.  The  Acber  Nameh  contains  an  account  of  a discus- 
sion of  this  nature.  The  parties  were  a Romish  priest  by  the 
name  of  Redif,  and  a munber  of  Mohammedan  moolahs,  and  it 
was  carried  on  before  the  emperor  and  a large  assembly  of 
learned  men  of  dilferent  religions.  In  this  debate  the  priest  has 
the  advantage  in  temper  and  argument.  The  debate  or  discus- 
sion was  closed  by  the  emperor,  who  reproved  the  moolahs  for 
their  angry  temper  and  bigotry,  and  declared  his  own  behef  to 
be  that  God  could  be  most  acceptably  worshipped  by  following 
our  own  reason  and  what  we  can  learn  concerning  liim  from 
liis  works,  and  not  by  taking  our  creed  horn  any  of  the  pre- 
tended revelations.  Such  discussions  show  the  sentiments  of 
Acber,  and  also  the  state  of  religious  parties  at  his  court 
The  toleration  and  protection  which  all  religious  denominations 
enjoyed  in  Acber’s  reign  mcreased  his  general  popularity  and 
the  prosperity  of  the  empire,  though  by  pursuing  this  course,  he 
gave  great  offence  to  devout  and  bigoted  Mohammedans.  But 
of  the  mfluence  of  this  class  he  had  no  fear,  and  for  their  opin- 
ions he  had  no  respect.  Acber  died  in  1605.  His  reign  was 
the  longest,  and  he  must  be  reckoned  the  greatest  of  all  the  Mo- 
hammedan sovereigns  of  India ; and  he  was  probably  the  most 
powerful  monarch  at  that  time  in  the  world.* 


JEHANGHEER,  A.D.  1605. 

Acber  reigned  for  51  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 

* Acber  was  buried  at  Secundra,  and  bis  tomb  or  mausoleum  is  among  the 
most  remarkable  structures  in  India.  Bishop  Ileber  calls  it  “ magnihcent,” 
and  says,  “ it  is  the  most  splendid  building  in  its  way  which  I had  yet  seen  in 
India.  It  stands  in  an  area  of  about  40  English  acres,  inclosed  by  an  embattled 
wall  with  octagonal  towers  at  the  angles,  sunuounted  by  open  pavilions,  and  4 
very  noble  gateways  of  red  granite,  the  principal  of  which  is  inlaid  with  wliite 
marble,  and  has  4 high  marble  minarets.  The  space  within  is  planted  witli  trees, 
and  divided  into  green  alleys,  leading  to  the  central  building,  which  is  a sort  of 
solid  pyramid,  surrounded  externally  with  cloisters,  galleries,  and  domes,  dimin- 
ishing gradually  on  ascending  it,  till  it  ends  in  a square  platform  of  white  mar- 
ble, carved  with  a delicacy  and  beauty  which  do  full  justice  to  the  material,  and 
to  the  graceful  form  of  Arabic  characters  which  form  its  chief  ornament.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  building,  in  a small  but  very  lofty  vault,  is  the  real  tomb  of  tliis 
great  monarch,  plain  and  unadorned,  but  also  of  white  marble.”  — Ileher's  Jour- 
nal, Vol.  I.  p.  473. 


IIISTORT  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


Ill 


Selim,  who  took  the  title  of  Jehangheer,  ( Conqueror  or  Agent  of 
the  World,)  by  which  he  is  known  as  the  emperor  of  India.  He 
had  been  intemperate  in  the  use  of  wine  and  opium  in  the  reign 
of  his  father,  and  much  apprehension  was  felt  in  view  of  what 
migrht  be  his  conduct  and  character  when  he  shovrld  become  em- 
peror.  Though  he  did  not  wholly  reform  himself,  yet  he  pro- 
hibited the  use  of  wine,  and  made  laws  to  regulate  the  use  of 
opium ; all  transgressions  of  these  rules  were  to  be  severely 
punished.  He  publicly  professed  his  faith  in  the  Koran,  and 
complied  with  the  usual  forms  of  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
though  he  manifested  no  particular  zeal  in  this  cause.  His  old- 
est son,  Khusru,  had  long  been  alienated  in  feeling  from  lus 
father,  and  each  looked  upon  the  other  with  suspicion.  A few 
months  after  his  father’s  accession,  Kliusru  secretly  fled  with  a 
few  of  his  friends  to  Delhi,  and  collecting  what  force  he  could, 
he  proceeded  to  Lahore.  He  easily  obtained  possession  of  the 
city,  but  before  he  could  take  the  fort,  the  force  sent  in  pursuit 
of  him  by  his  father  arrived.  He  arranged  his  own  force,  now 
consisting  of  10,000  men,  in  order  and  attacked  the  royal  army. 
He  was  defeated  and  fled  in  the  direction  of  Cabul,  but  he  was 
pursued,  overtaken,  and  brought  back  to  his  father  a prisoner. 
The  emperor  treated  the  partisans  of  Khusru  at  Lahore  with 
great  barbarity,  causing  700  of  them  to  *be  impaled  in  one  row 
near  the  gate,  and  his  son  Khusru  to  be  borne  along  the  line 
on  an  elephant  to  witness  their  sufferings.  Khusru  was  so 
much  affected  that  he  passed  three  days  in  tears,  and  groans, 
and  fasting.  He  was  kept  in  prison  for  some  time,  and  was 
finally  assassinated. 

The  most  remarkable  part  of  Jehangheer’s  life  was  his  ac- 
quaintance and  marriage  with  Noor  Jehan,  or  Noor  Mahal,  as 
^le  called  herself.  This  remarkable  woman  was  descended 
firom  Persian  parents,  of  a noble  family,  but  in  reduced  circum- 
stances. She  was  remarkable  for  her  beauty,  her  accomplish- 
ments, and  her  abilities.  Her  life,  previous  to  her  marriage  wdth 
Jehangheer,  was  such  a series  of  actions,  adventures,  and  events, 
as  could  only  occur  in  oriental  history.  Her  influence  over  the 
emperor  must  have  been  as  great  as  the  most  ambitious  of  her 
sex  could  desire.  “ He  took  no  step  without  consulting  her,  and 
on  every  affair  in  which  she  took  an  interest,  her  wiU  was  law.” 


112 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Her  father  was  made  prime  minister,  and  filled  the  place  ably 
and  honorably.  Her  two  brothers  were  raised  to  high  situa- 
tions, and  on  the  death  of  her  father,  one  of  them  sueceeded 
him.  They  were  both  men  of  distinguished  talents,  and  “ their 
modesty  and  their  virtues  reconciled  all  men  to  their  sudden 
elevation.”  Previous  to  his  mamage,  the  emperor  had  been  in- 
temperate, capricious,  and  cruel.  Through  her  influence  his 
habits  and  conduct  were  greatly  improved,  if  not  entirely  re- 
formed. “ The  ceremonies,  manners,  and  usages  of  the  court 
were  remodelled  by  her ; its  splendor  was  increased  by  her 
arrangements,  while  its  expenses  were  diminished  by  her  man- 
agement. The  furniture  of  the  palaces  was  greatly  improved 
by  her  taste,  and  she  introduced  female  dresses  more  becoming 
than  any  in  previous  use  in  India.”  “ One  of  the  accomplish- 
ments by  which  she  captivated  Jehangheer,  is  said  to  have 
been  her  facility  in  composing  extemporary  verses.”  Li  the  civil 
war,  in  the  latter  part  of  Jehangheer’s  reign,  on  one  occasion  she 
put  herself  at  the  head  of  the  army,  “ appearing  in  the  howdah 
of  a high  elephant  with  a bow  and  quivers  full  of  arrows  in  her 
hands.”  She  was  among  the  foremost  in  the  battle,  and  the 
most  furious  assault  was  made  upon  her.  Her  elephant  was 
surrounded  with  a crowd  of  Rajpoots,  upon  whom  “ she  dis- 
charged four  quivers  of  arrows  with  her  own  hand.”  But  her 
guards  were  overpowered  and  cut  down ; balls  and  arrows  fell 
thick  round  her  howdah ; three  of  her  elephant-drivers  were 
kflled,  and  the  noble  animal  having  received  a sabre-cut  on  his 
proboscis,  rushing  into  the  river,  was  carried  a long  way  down 
the  stream  by  the  current,  and  with  great  difficulty  reached  the 
opposite  shore,  the  empress  continuing  aU  the  time  upon  him  in 
her  howdah. 

This  remarkable  woman  was  concerned  in  all  the  affairs  of 
government  till  the  close  of  Jehangheer’s  reign,  and  she  showed 
as  much  capacity  for  the  intrigues  of  the  court  as  she  had  cour- 
age in  the  dangers  of  the  camp  and  the  perils  of  the  battle  field. 
She  survived  the  emperor  nearly  twenty  years.  She  was  treated 
with  great  respect,  and  had  a princely  allowance,  living  retired 
from  the  world,  refraining  from  all  scenes  of  amusement  and 
gaiety,  and  wearing  a dress  of  deep  mourning.  She  was  buried 
at  Lahore,  by  the  side  of  the  emperor,  in  a tomb  whicli  she  had 
prepared  for  herself. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


113 


The  last  years  of  Jehangheer’s  reign  were  extremely  unhappy. 
His  sons  Khusra,  Parviz,  Khumim,  and  Sheriar  aimed  at  differ- 
ent times  to  secure  the  succession  each  for  himself.  The 
empress  Noor  .Tehan  exerted  all  her  influence  with  the  emperor, 
and  engaged,  with  her  characteristic  ardor  and  ability,  in  all  the 
intrigues  of  the  court  in  these  matters.  Khurrum,  who  had 
been  declared  to  be  heir  apparent  and  invested  with  the  title  of 
Shah  Jehan,  felt  compelled  afterwards  to  take  extreme  measures 
to  secure  his  promised  rights,  and  was  for  some  time  in  a state 
of  rebellion  against  his  father.  The  emperor  was  himself,  at 
one  time,  for  several  months  a prisoner  of  Muhabut  Khan,  a 
distinguished  military  leader,  who  was  compelled  to  use  these 
measures  to  secure  his  own  safety  from  a party  excited  against 
him  by  Noor  Jehan.  For  several  years  the  emperor  had 
scarcely  any  fixed  residence,  living  in  his  travelling  palace, 
and  continuing  only  a short  time  in  one  place.  He  died  on  a 
march  from  Cashmere  to  Lahore,  a.d.  1627,  in  the  60th  year  of 
his  age,  and  after  a reign  of  22  years. 

.Tehangheer’s  reign  was  distinguished  by  two  English  missions 
to  his  court.  William  Hawkins,  captain  of  the  ship  Hector^ 
was  furnished  with  letters  from  James  I.  for  the  Emperor 
Jehangheer,  to  be  used  if  the  state  of  matters  at  Surat  should 
make  it  expedient  for  him  to  proceed  to  the  court.  He  experi- 
enced so  many  difficulties  at  Surat  from  the  Mohammedan 
governor  and  the  Portuguese,  that  he  resolved  to  proceed  to 
Agra.  The  governor  of  Surat  was  averse  to  this  course,  and 
Hawkins  narrowly  escaped  assassination  on  the  road.  The 
emperor  received  him  courteously,  and  having  learned  that 
Hawkins  could  speak  the  Turkish  language,  and  that  he 
could  have  direct  communication  uffth  him,  he  invited  him  to 
come  daily  to  the  palace,  where  “ his  majesty  held  long  dis- 
courses with  him  respecting  different  countries  and  various  mat- 
ters.” The  emperor  made  promises  to  redress  the  grievances  of 
which  Hawkins  complained,  and  he  instituted  such  measures 
to  remove  them  that  for  a while  the  objects  of  the  mission 
appeared  likely  to  be  soon  accomplished.  But  after  a while, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Portuguese,  the  opposition  of 
the  prime  minister,  Abdul  Hassan,  and  the  prejudices  and 
intrigues  excited  by  the  governor  of  Surat,  matters  began  to 

10* 


114 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


resume  their  former  course.  Hawkins  endeavored  for  a while  to 
oppose  this  combined  current  against  him,  but  at  length  seeing 
no  prospect  of  accomplishing  any  thing  further,  he  left  Agra, 
after  residing  there  two  years  and  a half,  and  returned  to  Surat. 

Sir  Thomas  Roe  was  at  the  head  of  the  next  mission.  He 
arrived  at  Surat  in  September  of  1615,  and  “ landed  in  great 
pomp,  with  80  men  at  arms.”  The  emperor  was  then  at 
Ajmere.  Sir  Thomas  proceeded  first  to  Burhanpoor,  where  he 
had  a public  interview  with  Prince  Parviz,  the  emperor’s  second 
son,  who  was  surrounded  with  oriental  splendor,  as  the  em- 
peror’s viceroy.  The  prince  promised  a private  interview,  but 
unluckily  among  the  presents  Sir  Thomas  gave  the  pruice,  were 
some  bottles  of  wine,  which  the  latter  used  so  freely  that  he 
was  not  in  a fit  state  for  an  interview  tUl  the  time  arrived  for 
the  ambassador  to  take  his  departure.  On  the  way  to  Ajmere, 
Sir  Thomas  passed  Chittore,  concerning  which  he  says,  “ above 
100  temples,  many  lofty  towers,  and  houses  innumerable,  were 
seen  crowning  the  lofty  rock  on  which  it  stands,  but  it  was  at 
this  time  entirely  deserted.”  At  Ajmere,  the  emperor  received  Sir 
Thomas  at  the  dm'bur,  or  the  place  of  public  audience  with  gi’eat 
respect.  Indeed,  “ he  was  assured  that  no  other  ambassador, 
either  Turk  or  Persian,  had  ever  obtained  the  like,  and  at  the  next 
interview  he  was  allowed  and  ever  after  retained  a place  higher 
than  that  of  aU  the  other  courtiers.”  He  had  several  conferences 
with  the  emperor,  and  though  opposed  by  aU  the  influence  of  the  . 
governor  of  Sumt  as  well  as  of  the  prime-minister  and  Prince 
Khurrum,  (then  Jehangheer’s  favorite  son,  and  afterwards  Shah 
Jehan,)  yet  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  a firman  which,  though 
not  all  that  was  desired,  yet  greatly  facilitated  the  English  trade 
with  the  sea-ports  in  the  dominions  of  the  empire.  Sir  Thomas 
Roe  resided  in  India  for  some  years,  and  gave  so  great  satisfac- 
tion that  the  East  India  Company  gave  him  an  honorary  seat 
in  their  committee  of  management,  and  an  annuity  for  life. 


SHAH  JEHAN,  A.D.  1627. 

Of  Jehangheer’s  sons,  only  two,  Khurrum,  or  Shall  Jehan,  and 
Sheriar  survived  him.  Many  years  before  his  death  he  had  pub- 
licly acknowledged  Khurrum  to  be  heir  to  the  throne,  bestowing 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


115 


upon  him  at  the  same  time  the  title  of  Shah  Jchan,*  by  which 
he  was  afterwards  generally  known.  lie  had  also  exhibited  dis- 
tinguished abilities,  and  rendered  his  father  important  assistance 
in  suppressing  some  insurrections  and  administering  the  affairs 
of  the  empire.  In  the  last  years  of  his  life,  Jehanghecr  became 
somewhat  alienated  in  feelings  from  Shah  .lehan,  and  through  the 
influence  of  Noor  Jehan  he  appointed  by  his  will  Sheriar  to  be 
his  successor.  Asaph  Khan,  the  prime-minister,  had  long  been 
pledged  to  support  the  rights  of  Shah  Jehan,  and  he  took  vigorous 
measures  to  secure  his  succession.  Sheriar  seized  the  royal 
treasure  and  gained  over  part  of  the  army  to  his  interest,  but  he 
was  defeated  in  a battle  near  Lahore  and  taken  prisoner.  Shah 
Jehan,  who  was  in  the  Deckan  at  the  time  of  his  father’s  death, 
hastened  to  Delhi,  where  by  the  vigorous  cooperation  of  his 
friends  he  was  acknowledged  emperor  and  soon  took  formal 
possession  of  the  throne.  But  the  possession  of  present  power 
did  not  satisfy  him.  Ilis  brother  Sheriar,  in  accordance  with 
his  father’s  will  had  attempted  to  secure  the  throne  for  himself. 
In  these  attempts  the  other  members  of  the  family  had  united. 
But  they  had  failed  and  all  were  now  prisoners  of  State.  Shah 
Jehan  saw  that  the  easiest  way  to  secure  himself  and  his  family 
from  all  danger  and  anxiety  from  those  who  might  in  future 
prefer  any  natural  or  family  claim  to  the  throne,  would  be  to 
remove  all  such  persons  out  of  the  way.  So  he  caused  his 
brother  Sheriar  and  all  the  descendants  of  his  father  to  be  put 
to  death,  and  “ there  remained  not  a drop  of  the  blood  of 
Tamerlane  in  Lidia,  except  what  flowed  m his  own  and  liis 
children’s  veins,” 

All  fear  of  any  revolts  or  other  dangers  being  removed,  Shah 
Jehan  resolved  to  celebrate  the  commencement  of  his  reign  with 
great  UberaUty  and  splendor.  He  bestowed  great  honors  and 
rewards  on  the  men,  to  whose  influence  and  cooperation  he 
owed  his  accession  to  power.  He  had  always  been  fond  of 
pomp  and  show,  and  he  had  now  the  means  of  gratifying  his 
inclinations.  He  caused  palaces  to  be  erected  in  aU  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  the  empire.  He  had  an  establishment  of  tents  pre- 
pared for  himself  and  household,  which  included  as  much  space 


116 


IXDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


and  would  accommodate  as  many  people  as  a small  city.  It  was 
the  practice  for  oriental  sovereigns  to  cause  themselves  to  be 
weighed  against  gold  coins  and  jewels,  and  then  to  distribute 
such  articles  in  charity  or  appropriate  them  to  some  sacred  pxrr- 
pose  in  the  superstitious  belief  that  such  offerings  would  avert 
calamities  and  secure  success.  In  addition  to  such  ceremonies 
and  charities,  the  emperor  caused  vessels  to  be  filled  with  gold 
coins,  jewels,  and  precious  stones,  and  then  having  been  waved 
around  him  or  poured  over  him,  they  were  given  to  those  around, 
or  scattered  among  the  crowd,  or  sent  away  as  presents.  The 
entire  expense  of  this  festival,  including  gifts  of  money,  jewels, 
precious  stones,  rich  dresses,  arms,  elephants,  horses,  palanquins, 
etc.,  according  to  Khafi  Khan,  exceeded  §7,500,000. 

Shah  Jehan’s  jealousy  and  cruelty  in  putting  Ms  brother  and 
all  his  nephews  to  death,  did  not  annihilate  aU  aspirants  to  the 
throne.  Khan  Jehan  Lodi,  who  boasted  of  being  descended 
from  the  former  Afghan  emperors,  and  who  had  held  high  mili- 
tary command  under  the  late  emperor,  took  the  part  of  Sheriar, 
and  so  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Shah  Jehan.  A reconcilia- 
tion between  them  took  place,  but  Khan  Jehan  Lodi  saw  rea- 
sons for  believing  that  the  emperor  was  only  waiting  for  an 
opportunity  to  degrade  and  disgrace  him.  So  he  left  Agra  with 
what  force  he  could  collect  and  proceeded  into  the  Deckan, 
where  he  had  formerly  held  high  military  command.  The  state 
of  the  Deckan  soon  became  such  that  Shah  Jehan  found  it 
necessary  to  proceed  there  Muth  a large  army.  Khan  Jehan 
Lodi  was  killed  near  Kalinger,  but  the  war  was  continued  in 
the  Deckan  for  several  years.  The  kingdom  of  Ahmednuggur 
was  finally  annexed  to  the  empire,  and  the  kings  of  Beejapoor 
and  Golconda,  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  emperor  of 
Delhi,  and  engaged  to  pay  yearly  tribute. 

Having  settled  the  affairs  of  the  Deckan,  Shah  Jehan  returned 
to  Delhi  and  enjoyed  some  years  of  repose,  when  the  state  of 
Cabul  became  such  that  he  resolved  to  assert  the  ancient  claims 
of  liis  family  to  it.  This  was  the  commencement  of  a long  and 
arduous  war,  in  which  the  emperor  proceeded  himself  several 
several  times  to  Cabul.  But  it  was  chiefly  carried  on  by  his 
sons  Dara  and  Aurungxeb.  Balk,  Candahar,  and  Cabul  were 
besieged  and  taken.  But  war  with  the  Usbecks,  the  Persians, 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


117 


and  Afghans  was  found  to  be  very  different  work  from  what  it 
was  with  the  Hindus,  or  with  the  Mohammedans  of  India. 
And  after  8 or  10  years  spent  in  victories  and  defeats,  in  sieges 
and  surrenders,  the  emperor  withdrew  aU  his  force  from  that 
country,  and  no  further  attempts  were  made  by  the  emperors  of 
Delhi  to  extend  their  power  over  the  countries  west  of  the  Indus. 

Shah  Jehan  was  apparently  very  fortunate  in  his  family, 
which  consisted  of  4 sons  and  3 daughters.  His  sons  when 
young  all  gave  evidence  of  good  natural  abilities,  and  acquired 
the  education,  manners,  and  accomplishments  becoming  their 
birth  and  expected  stations  in  life.  As  good-wiU  and  harmony 
appeared  to  exist  among  them  while  under  the  care  of  their 
father  and  they  all  manifested  great  respect  towards  him,  he 
appointed  them  to  high  and  responsible  situations  in  the  govern- 
ment. Dara  Sheko,  who  was  the  oldest  and  designed  to  be  his 
successor  in  the  empire,  he  retained  with  him  to  assist  him  in 
administering  the  affairs  of  the  government.  Shuja,  his  second 
son,  was  appointed  viceroy  of  Bengal.  Aurungzeb,  the  third 
son,  was  appointed  viceroy  of  the  Deckan ; and  Morad,  the 
youngest  son,  was  viceroy  of  Gujerat.  These  situations  they 
filled  honorably  and  ably.  The  office  of  viceroy  in  Lidia  is  one  ^ 
of  great  honor,  the  man  filling  it  representing  the  sovereign,  and 
having  the  command  of  the  army  and  of  the  revenue  of  the 
provinces  under  his  government.  While  in  these  situations  it 
became  manifest  that  each  of  the  sons  had  some  intention  of 
maldng  an  effort  to  secure  the  throne  for  himself  on  the  death 
of  their  father.  This  intention  might  in  part  originate  in  a feel- 
ing of  self-preservation  as  well  as  in  a love  of  power.  In  the 
hlohammedan  governments  in  Lidia  the  oldest  son  was  regarded 
as  the  natural  heir  of  the  throne,  unless  set  aside  by  the  reign- 
ing sovereign  while  living,  or  by  his  wdll  at  his  decease.  But 
neither  the  rights  of  primogeniture,  nor  the  will  of  the  sovereign 
were  sufiicient  always  to  secure  the  succession.  Other  sons  and 
other  parties,  if  they  saw  any  prospect  of  success  by  the  use  of 
any  means,  or  power,  or  influence,  or  treachery,  would  not  un- 
frequently  make  an  effort  to  secure  the  throne,  and  then  it  be- 
came a struggle  for  life  as  well  as  power,  among  aU  engaged  in 
it.  Shah  Jehan  caused  his  own  brothers  and  their  sons  to  be 
put  to  death  that  he  might  thus  be  rid  of  all  danger  and  anxiety 


118 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


of  any  rival  or  family  claim  to  the  throne.  And  what  the  sons 
had  seen  their  father  do  to  secure  the  undisputed  succession  for 
himself  and  family,  each  of  them  had  reason  to  fear  might  be 
the  fate  of  himself  and  family.  So  the  choice  before  each  of 
them  was  to  secure  the  throne  for  himself,  or  to  be  put  to  death 
by  the  brother  who  should  succeed  in  obtaining  it ; a horrid, 
but  often  true  picture  of  the  royal  family  in  oriental  govern- 
ments. 

While  Shah  Jehan  was  vigorously  administering  the  affairs 
of  the  empire,  and  appeared  likely  so  to  continue  for  some 
years,  and  the  distance  of  his  sons,  who  w’ere  viceroys,  from 
their  father  and  also  from  each  other  was  so  great,  there  was  no 
call  or  occasion  for  declaring  or  divulging  their  purpose  in  the 
event  of  his  death,  and  so  the  affairs  of  government  proceeded 
quietly  at  the  capital  and  in  the  provinces.  In  a.d.  1657,  the 
emperor  was  taken  suddenly  very  ill,  and  for  some  time  was 
thought  by  all  to  be  near  his  end.  Dara  Sheko,  who  had  been 
acknowledged  to  be  heir  apparent,  and  had  been  for  some  years 
assisting  his  father,  at  once  assumed  the  administration  of 
affairs  in  his  father’s  name.  He  showed  a jealous  feeling 
towards  his  brothers,  expelled  their  agents  from  the  city,  or  put 
them  under  restraint,  and  endeavored  to  prevent  any  intelli- 
gence of  the  state  of  the  emperor  from  being  communicated  to 
them.  But  his  brothers  had  means  of  obtaining  information 
which  he  could  not  control,  and  as  soon  as  they  heard  of  the 
state  of  the  emperor,  and  how  Dara  was  managing  affairs  in 
Agra,  each  of  them  began  to  carry  into  effect  the  purpose  he 
had  long  cherished  of  securing  the  throne  for  himself  and  his 
family.  Shuja  in  Bengal  and  Morad  in  Gujerat,  each  assumed 
the  royal  title,  and  collecting  as  large  a force  as  they  could  com- 
mand, began  their  march  towards  Agra.  Aurungzeb  acted  wdth 
more  caution.  He  did  not  assume  the  royal  title,  but  collecting 
all  the  force  he  could,  he  proceeded  to  the  northern  frontier  of 
his  territory,  there  to  watch  the  course  of  events,  and  be  in 
circumstances  to  take  advantage  of  them.  In  the  mean  time 
the  emperor,  contrary  to  all  expectation,  recovered  his  health 
and  resumed  the  administration  of  the  government.  Shxija  and 
Morad  were  ordered  to  return  to  their  respective  governments. 
Shuja  affected  not  to  believe  the  intelligence,  treated  the  letters 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


119 


as  forgeries,  and  continued  his  inarch.  Suliman,  the  son  of 
Dara,  was  sent  against  him  with  a large  army,  defeated  him 
near  Benares,  and  compelled  him  to  return  to  Bengal. 

In  the  mean  time  Aurungzeb  wrote  to  Morad,  encouraging 
him  in  the  course  he  had  begun,  promising  to  aasist  him  in 
securing  the  throne,  and  that  as  soon  as  he  should  see  him 
established  in  the  government,  he  would  himself  resign  all 
power,  and  retiring  from  the  cares  of  the  world  devote  his 
remaining  days  to  religious  duties.  Morad  apparently  reposed 
entire  confidence  in  the  professions  of  Aurungzeb,  and  the  two 
princes  uniting  their  forces  near  Oujein,  defeated  the  imperial 
army  sent  against  them  under  Jeswunt  Sing.  On  the  union  of 
the  two  brothers,  Aurungzeb  took  an  oath  to  be  faithful  to  the 
interests  of  Morad,  and  before  and  after  the  victory  he  publicly 
professed  that  his  sole  object  was  to  aid  his  brother  to  secure 
the  throne.  His  superior  abilities  enabled  him  to  control  mat- 
ters according  to  his  own  views,  and  the  victory  over  the 
imperial  army  was  gained  by  his  superior  valor  and  experience 
in  war. 

This  defeat  of  the  royal  army  awakened  the  emperor  and  all 
the  court  to  the  formidable  nature  of  the  rebellion.  A large 
force  was  stationed  at  the  passes  of  the  Chumbul  to  prevent 
Aurungzeb  and  Morad  crossing  the  river.  But  Aurungzeb,  hav- 
ing discovered  an  unknown  and  unguarded  ford  at  some  dis- 
tance, left  his  camp  standing  to  deceive  his  enemies,  and  soon 
surprised  them  by  appearing  with  all  his  force  in  their  rear.  Shah 
Jehan  now  resolved  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army  and 
proceed  to  engage  wdth  his  rebeUious  sons.  But  he  was  dis- 
suaded from  this  course  by  the  members  of  his  family  and  other 
friends.  Dara  took  charge  of  the  royal  army,  containing  aU 
which  could  then  be  collected,  and  which  consisted,  according 
to  Khali  Khan  of  “70,000  horse  wdth  innumerable  elephants 
and  guns.”  Bernier  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  army  contained 
“ 100,000  horse,  20,000  infantry,  and  80  pieces  of  artfilery.” 
The  two  armies  met  at  Samaghur,  one  day’s  journey  from 
Agra.  In  this  battle  both  armies  fought  with  great  obstinacy. 
Aurungzeb  urged  his  elephant  to  places  of  the  greatest  danger, 
calling  aloud  to  his  troops,  “ God  is  wdth  us,  and  we  have  no 
other  refuge  or  retreat.”  The  battle  had  raged  long  and  was 


120 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

undecided,  when  a rocket  struck  Dara’s  elephant,  and  the 
animal  became  so  unmanageable  that  he  was  compelled  to  leap 
off  and  motmt  a horse.  His  disappearance  was  soon  observed 
by  his  army,  and  supposing  he  had  been  killed,  they  became 
alarmed,  feU  into  disorder,  and  soon  began  to  give  way.  Dara, 
finding  it  impossible  to  restore  order  or  to  rally  his  troops,  was 
compelled  to  seek  his  own  safety  by  flight.  As  soon  as  the 
battle  was  closed,  Aurungzeb  descended  from  his  elephant, 
kneeled  down  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  army,  and  praised 
the  Almighty  for  the  victory  he  had  granted  them.  He  then 
went  to  Morad  and  congratulated  him  upon  having  secured  the 
throne  and  empire. 

Dara,  on  arriving  at  Agra,  took  his  family  and  what  treasure 
he  could  carry  with  him,  and  proceeded  to  Delhi.  In  three  days 
after  the  battle,  Aurungzeb  and  Morad  proceeded  to  Agra,  and 
took  possession  of  the  city  without  any  resistance.  As  Morad 
was  suffering  fi-om  wounds  received  in  the  late  battle,  the  sole 
command  now  devolved  on  Aurungzeb,  who  knew  well  how 
to  turn  every  circumstance  to  his  own  advantage.  He  sent 
humble  messages  to  his  father,  trying  to  assure  him  of  his  con- 
tuiued  respect  and  affection,  and  justifying  himself  in  the  course 
he  had  pursued.  His  desire  probably  was  to  effect  a reconcilia- 
tion with  his  father,  and  then  to  carry  on  the  government  in  his 
father’s  name,  and  assume  the  throne  on  his  decease.  But 
Shah  Jehan  could  not  forgive  Aurungzeb  for  what  he  had 
done,  and  he  continued  inflexible  in  lus  attachment  to  Dara. 
When  fuUy  satisfied  that  he  could  make  no  arrangement  of  this 
nature  with  his  father,  Aurungzeb  sent  his  own  son  Moham- 
med to  take  possession  of  the  citadel,  with  strict  orders  to  pre- 
vent all  communication  between  the  emperor  and  any  one 
beyond  its  walls.  The  conduct  of  Aunmgzeb  and  the  other 
parties  is  thus  described  by  Murray  : — 

“ The  confederate  armies  proceeded  to  Agra,  where  Morad 
being  confined  with  his  wounds,  the  entire  command  devolved 
upon  Aurungzeb.  His  first  care  was  to  send  an  emissary 
to  corrupt  the  troops  of  Suliman,  in  which  he  easily  suc- 
ceeded, or  rather  they  corrupted  themselves  by  following  the 
usual  Asiatic  system  of  going  over  to  the  prosperous  party. 
His  next  anxiety  was  to  obtain  possession  of  his  father’s  person. 


niSTORT  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


121 


This  was  a measure  both  delicate  and  difficult,  for  the  fortified 
palace  in  which  Shah  Jehan  resided  was  capable  of  withstand- 
ing a long  siege ; which  pressed  by  a parent  against  a son,  a 
monarch  so  popular  and  highly  respected,  would  have  placed 
him  in  a very  odious  position.  It  was  most  desirable,  therefore, 
to  effect  his  purpose  by  stratagem  ; but  he  had  to  deal  with  one 
versant  in  all  the  wiles  of  policy  and  in  aU  the  forms  of  human 
deceit.  Determining,  however,  to  make  the  trial,  he  sent  a mes- 
senger to  the  emperor,  expressing  deep  regret  at  the  situation 
in  which  he  found  himself,  assuring  him  that  he  still  retained 
all  the  affection  of  a son,  and  aU  the  loyalty  of  a subject  Shah 
Jehan  gave  very  small  credit  to  these  professions,  yet  he  resolved 
to  temporize,  and  sent  his  favorite  daughter  Jehanara  to  visit 
her  brothers,  and  to  ascertain  how  affairs  really  stood.  She 
went  first  to  Morad,  who,  knowing  her  to  be  entirely  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  Dara,  received  her  with  very  slender  courtesy. 
The  offended  princess  returned  to  her  palanquin,  and  was 
hastening  out  of  the  camp,  when  she  met  Aurungzeb,  who 
saluted  her  with  the  utmost  kindness  and  respect,  complained 
of  her  having  held  so  little  communication  with  him,  and  pre- 
vailed upon  her  to  enter  his  tent.  He  then  professed  the  deep- 
est remorse  for  the  conduct  into  which  he  had  been  hurried,  and 
his  anxiety  by  any  means  to  make  reparation.  He  even  ex- 
pressed a willingness  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Dara,  were  it  not 
that  it  already  appeared  quite  desperate.  Jehanara  was  thus 
induced  to  lay  open  aU  the  resources  of  that  prince,  and  to 
name  the  chiefs  who  remained  stiU  attached  to  him,  disclosing 
to  her  brother  many  most  important  secrets  of  which  he  after- 
wards fuUy  availed  himself.  He  then  declared  that  he  was  en- 
tirely satisfied,  and  that  in  two  days  the  emperor  would  see  at 
his  feet  his  repentant  son. 

“Jehanara,  now  hastened  to  her  father  with  this  joyful  intelU- 
gence.  But  the  monarch  did  not  place  fuU  reUance  on  these 
professions,  yet  beUeving  that  Aurungzeb  reaUy  intended  to  pay 
him  a visit,  he  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity 
to  secure  his  person.  He  was  not  aware  that  he  was  playing 
the  game  with  one  who  possessed  skiU  superior  to  his  own. 
Aurungzeb  sent  a humble  message,  representing  that  the  guilty 
are  always  timid,  — that  being  scarcely  able  to  conceive  how 

11 


122 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


crimes  such  as  his  could  be  forgiven,  he  could  in  no  way  be 
reassmred,  unless  his  son  Mohammed  were  allowed  previously 
with  a small  guard  to  enter  the  palace.  Shah  Jehan  was  so 
bent  on  his  object  and  so  convinced  of  the  smcerity  with 
which  the  proposal  was  made,  that  he  hesitated  not  to  agree  to 
it.  The  youth  entered,  and  being  cordially  received,  he  sta- 
tioned his  party  in  a convenient  situation.  But  his  eager  eye 
soon  discovered  a large  body  of  troops  occupymg  a very  suspi- 
cious position.  He  went  to  the  emperor  and  stated  the  appre- 
hension to  which  this  circumstance  could  not  faU  to  give  rise, 
observing  that  unless  these  men  were  removed,  he  must  imme- 
diately inform  his  father,  who  would  then  probably  renounce 
his  intended  visit.  The  old  man,  still  credulous  and  detennined 
to  make  every  sacrifice  rather  than  fad  in  his  object,  consented 
that  the  soldiers  should  quit  the  palace,  thus  rendering  Moham- 
med and  his  party  the  real  masters.  Then  indeed  it  was 
announced  that  Aurungzeb  had  mounted  his  horse  and  was  ap- 
proaching with  his  retinue.  Shah  Jehan  seated  himself  on  his 
throne  in  the  highest  exultation,  expecting  to  see  the  complete 
accomplishment  of  his  schemes  and  hopes.  He  soon  learned, 
however,  that  Aurungzeb,  instead  of  entering  his  presence,  had 
gone  to  pay  his  devotions  at  the  tomb  of  Acber.  Considering 
this  as  a decided  slight  to  himself,  Shah  Jehan  indignantly  in- 
quired of  Mohammed,  “ What  means  Aurungzeb  by  this 
behavior  ? ” Mohammed  deliberately  rephed,  “ My  father  never 
intended  to  visit  the  emperor.”  “ Then  why  are  you  here  ? ” 
inquired  Shah  Jehan.  “ To  take  charge  of  the  citadel,”  replied 
Mohammed.  Shah  Jehan  saw  at  once  the  abyss  into  which  he 
had  plunged  himself,  and  burst  into  a torrent  of  invective  and 
self-reproach,  which  induced  his  grandson  to  withdraw.  On 
sober  reflection,  he  sent  again  for  the  youth,  and  painting  the 
miseries  of  his  condition,  he  urged  the  most  pressing  entreaties 
that  the  prince  would  restore  to  him  his  liberty,  promising  in 
reward  even  the  empire  of  India,  which  his  intluence  with  the 
army  and  the  people  would  be  sufficient  to  secure.  Mohammed 
appeared  to  hesitate  for  a moment,  but  then  hastening  oirt  of  the 
apartment,  turned  a deaf  ear  to  every  subsequent  soheitation.”  * 


•History  of  India,  p.  272,  273. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


123 


Shah  Jehan  lived  for  several  years,  but  here  his  reign  ended. 
From  this  time  he  was  a mere  pri'^oner  of  State.  He  had  a 
princely  allowance,  and  was  treated  with  great  respect,  but  he 
never  again  saw  either  of  his  sons,  nor  went  outside  of  the  walls 
of  the  citadel.  He  reigned  30  years.  He  was  67  years  old 
when  he  was  deposed,  and  74  years  old  when  he  died. 

The  reign  of  Shah  Jehan,  when  compared  with  his  predeces- 
sors, was  quiet,  and  the  people  generally  were  prosperous.  The 
wars  in  the  Deckan  and  Cabul,  did  not  much  disturb  the  gen- 
eral state  of  the  empire.  Previous  to  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  he  had  much  experience  in  war,  and  had  exhibited  great 
military  talents.  And  if  be  did  not  exhibit  equal  wisdom  and 
ability  in  administering  the  affairs  of  the  empire,  still  his  govern- 
ment was  generally  satisfactory  to  the  Hindus,  and  decidedly 
popular  with  the  Mohammedans.  The  historians  of  that  period 
describe  the  state  of  the  empire  as  very  flourishing,  while  some 
of  them  declare  him  to  be  the  greatest  and  best  of  all  the  Mo- 
hammedan sovereigns  of  Lidia.  Khafi  Khan,  who  is  generally 
considered  the  best  of  the  Mohammedan  historians,  is  of  the 
opinion  that  Acber  excelled  all  the  other  emperors  as  con- 
queror and  lawmaker,  yet  that  no  monarch  in  India  ever  ex- 
celled Shah  Jehan  in  the  general  administration  of  all  the 
departments  of  the  government.  Tavernier  and  Bernier,  who 
had  passed  several  years  in  India,  and  saw  the  state  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  inhabitants,  describe  the  government  as  good, 
the  country  as  prosperous,  and  the  people  as  generally  quiet  and 
contented.  In  pomp  and  display,  this  emperor  exceeded  all  his 
predecessors,  and  wherever  he  went,  into  the  Deckan,  or  to  Ca- 
bul, or  to  Cashmere,  he  appeared  in  the  same  splendor  and 
magnificence.  The  royal  pavilion,  udth  aU  its  different  parts 
and  appurtenances,  was  as  large  as  a small  city,  and  could  ac- 
commodate many  thousand  people.  Cashmere  was  his  sum- 
mer retreat.  Li  the  cool  and  delightful  climate  of  that  valley, 
the  time  was  spent  in  feasts,  dances,  illuminations,  excursions 
by  land  and  water,  hunting,  and  other  sports  and  pleasures 
congenial  udth  the  climate,  the  seasons,  and  the  scenery. 

The  public  works  of  this  reign  are  monuments  of  taste,  skill, 
and  enterprise.  The  royal  cities  of  Delhi  and  Agra  were 
greatly  enlarged,  and  acquired  their  highest  state  of  splendor. 


124 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


The  palaces,  mosques,  and  baths  were  on  a royal  scale.  The 
Jumma  Musjid,  or  royal  mosque,  was  a magnificent  edifice  and 
cost  half  a million  of  dollars.  The  gardens  of  Shalemar  with 
their  baths,  fountains,  statues,  etc.,  now  in  ruins,  were  a mile  in 
circumference,  and  are  said  to  have  cost  more  than  four  millions 
of  dollars.  The  imperial  palace,  in  which  the  emperor  was  con- 
fined for  the  last  7 years  of  his  life,  was  large  and  magnificent. 
When  the  Mahrattas,  in  1760,  obtained  possession  of  the  city, 
their  chief  Sudashew  Bhow  caused  the  silver  ceiling  and  orna- 
ments of  the  audience  hall  to  be  taken  and  coined  into  money, 
and  the  value  was  nearly  ^800,000.  No  one  of  the  emperor’s 
works  excited  so  much  curiosity  as  his  celebrated  peacock 
throne.  This  curious  work  took  its  name  from  a part  of  it 
resembling  the  expanded  tail  of  a peacock,  the  natural  colors  of 
which  were  imitated  by  sapphires,  emeralds,  rabies,  etc.,  all 
wrought  into  it,  and  forming  the  chief  ornament  of  a mass  of 
diamonds,  and  other  precious  stones  of  surpassing  brilliancy. 
Tavernier,  who  saw  it  and  was  himself  by  profession  a jeweller, 
and  so  a competent  judge  in  such  matters,  says  that  the  com- 
mon estimation  of  its  cost  exceeded  .£6,000,000,  or  nearly 
$30,000,000.  This  sum  included  the  precious  stones  in  it. 

The  mausoleum  called  Taj  Mahal,  erected  by  the  emperor 
over  the  tomb  of  his  favorite  wife,  exceeded  aU  his  btuldings.  It 
stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  in  a large  park,  which  is 
beautifully  situated  and  highly  ornamented.  Two  elegant 
mosques  stand,  one  on  each  side  of  the  mausoleum,  at  a mod- 
erate distance.  The  edifice  is  bruit  of  white  marble  with  a 
minaret  at  each  corner,  and  a high  dome,  70  feet  in  diameter, 
over  the  central  part.  In  the  middle,  under  the  dome,  is  the 
tomb,  which  is  inclosed  by  an  open  screen  of  marble  inlaid  by 
mosaics.  “ The  walls,”  says  Elphinstone,  “ are  of  white  mar- 
ble with  borders  of  a running  pattern  of  flowers  in  mosaics. 
The  graceful  flow,  the  harmonious  colors,  and  above  all  the 
sparing  use  of  the  rich  ornament  with  the  mild  lustre  of  the 
marble  on  which  it  is  displayed,  form  the  peculiar  charm  of  the 
building,  and  distinguish  it  from  any  other  in  the  world.  The 
materials  are  lapis  lazuli,  jasper,  heliotrope,  or  blood-stone,  a 
sort  of  golden  stone  (not  well  understood)  with  chalcedony,  and 
other  agates,  cornelians,  jade,  and  various  stones  of  the  same 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


125 


description.”  “ A single  flower  in  the  screen,”  says  Veysey, 
“ contains  a hundred  stones,  each  cut  to  the  exact  shape  neces- 
sary, and  highly  polished.”  Tavernier  (already  referred  to)  who 
lived  many  years  in  India  in  the  reign  of  Jehanghecr,  and 
who  saw  this  edifice  when  it  was  commenced,  and  when  it  was 
completed,  says  that  20,000  men  were  employed  upon  it  for  22 
years,  and  that  it  cost  31,748,000  rupees,  or  nearly  15,000,000 
dollars. 

The  construction  of  these  works  must  have  cost  Jehangheer 
immense  sums  of  money.  The  expenses  of  his  wars  in  the 
Deckan,  and  of  his  frequent  expeditions  to  Cabul,  Candahar,  and 
Balk  must  have  been  very  great.  His  regular  standing  army  of 
200,000  men  was  maintained  in  an  efficient  state,  and  at  the 
time  he  was  deposed  the  royal  treasury  contained  more  than 
§100,000,000  of  coined  money,  besides  a great  accumulation  of 
uncoined  gold  and  silver,  and  of  jewels  and  precious  stones. 

Shah  Jehan,  whose  reign  commenced  with  the  murder  of  all 
his  brothers  and  their  families,  that  he  might  obtain  the  throne 
and  then  be  rid  of  all  who  might  trouble  him,  passed  the  last  7 
years  of  his  life  a prisoner  in  his  own  palace,  deprived  of  all 
power  by  a son  who  had  usurped  the  throne,  and  who  to  secure 
it  for  himself  and  his  family  had  not  only  deposed  and  impris- 
oned his  father,  but  had  also  put  to  death  his  3 brothers  and 
their  families.  What  an  exhibition  of  the  lust  of  power  in  the 
conduct  of  this  emperor  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  and  again 
in  the  suflerings  and  circumstances  of  himself  and  his  family 
in  the  latter  years  of  his  life ! 


AURUNGZEB,  A.D.  1657. 

Aumngzeb,  having  thus  made  his  father  a prisoner  of  State 
in  his  own  palace,  had  next  to  dispose  of  his  brother  Morad. 
Tliis  unhappy  and  deluded  prince  was  confidently  expecting 
soon  to  be  acknoAvledged  emperor  of  India.  Aurungzeb  con- 
tinued for  awhile  to  deceive  him  with  this  expectation,  pretend- 
ing himself  at  the  same  time  to  be  making  preparations  to 
embark  on  a pilgrimage  to  Mecca  as  soon  as  Morad  should  be 
safely  seated  on  the  throne.  But  in  the  mean  time  he  was 
secretly  using  aU  the  means  in  his  power  to  prejudice  the  army 

11* 


126 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


and  the  public  against  his  brother,  and  to  attach  aU  parties  to  his 
own  interest.  His  proceedings  were  so  much  at  variance  with 
his  professed  intentions  that  the  suspicions  of  Morad  and  his 
friends  were  at  length  excited.  A plan  was  formed  to  assas- 
sinate Aurungzeb ; but  he  became  aware  of  his  danger  and 
escaped  the  snare  laid  for  him.  In  turn  he  formed  a scheme  for 
getting  Morad  into  his  possession.  This  plan  was  successful. 
Morad  was  soon  a prisoner  in  the  power  of  his  brother,  and  his 
friends  could  not  ascertain  in  what  place  he  was  confined. 
Aurungzeb  now  took  formal  possession  of  the  throne,  and  caused 
hunself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  name  or  title  of  Au- 
lumgheer,  the  Conqueror  or  Agent  of  the  "World.  Among 
Mohammedans  in  India  he  is  generally  called  and  known  by 
this  title,  but  among  all  other  classes  of  people  he  has  been 
chiefly  known  by  his  previous  name,  and  so  he  wfll  continue  to 
be  called  in  this  work. 

Aurungzeb  had  now  succeeded  thus  far  in  aU  his  plans.  He 
had  deposed  and  imprisoned  his  father.  He  had  deprived  his 
brother  Morad  of  aU  authority  and  power,  and  put  him  in  close 
confinement.  Dara  had  been  defeated  and  fled  to  Lahore,  and 
Shuja  had  been  defeated  and  returned  back  into  Bengal.  But 
Aurungzeb  had  still  much  cause  for  anxiety.  His  treatment  of 
his  father,  and  Iris  brother  Morad,  had  excited  much  indigna- 
tion against  him.  Shuja  was  in  possession  of  Bengal  and  all 
its  resources.  Dara  was  collecting  an  army  at  Lahore,  while 
his  son,  Suliman  was  at  the  head  of  a considerable  force,  on 
the  way  to  join  his  father.  Aurungzeb,  having  arranged  his 
affairs  at  Delhi  and  Agra  as  well  as  he  could,  began  to  pursue 
Dara,  who  finding  his  force  not  sufficient  to  meet  his  brother  in 
the  field,  fled  from  Lahore  to  Scinde.  Aurungzeb  pursued  him 
to  Multan,  where  on  hearing  that  Shuja  was  on  the  way  from 
Bengal  to  Agra  with  an  army  of  25,000  men,  he  abandoned  the 
pursuit  of  Dara,  and  returned  to  his  capital.  Here  he  stopped 
only  for  a few  days,  and  then  marched  to  meet  Shuja.  The 
two  brothers  met  near  Allahabad  and  a severe  battle  was 
fought,  in  which  Shuja  was  defeated  with  great  loss  of  troops 
and  all  his  cannon  and  his  baggage.  Aurungzeb,  having  de- 
spatched his  son  Mohammed,  and  hleer  Jumla  one  of  his  prin- 
cipal generals,  in  pursuit  of  Shuja,  returned  to  Agra. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


127 


But  there  was  much  to  be  done  before  Aurungzeb  could 
quietly  enjoy  tlie  throne  he  had  acquired  by  such  perfidy  and 
iniquity.  Dara  had  found  friends  in  Gujerat.  The  governor, 
Nawaz  Khan,  regarded  him  as  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne, 
and  believing  he  would  yet  be  able  to  obtain  it,  espoused  his 
cause,  and  joined  him  with  all  Ins  force.  Thus  Dara  soon 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  25,000  men,  and  at 
once  commenced  his  march  towards  Agra.  Aurungzeb,  who 
well  understood  how  much  in  his  circumstances  depended  upon 
despatch,  hastened  to  meet  Dara,  and  the  two  brothers,  with 
their  armies  in  hostile  array,  met  near  Jypoor.  When  the  battle 
had  raged  furiously  for  some  hours,  and  victory  was  yet  unde- 
cided, Nawaz  Khan  was  seen  to  fall,  and  this  produced  such  a 
panic  that  the  troops  soon  gave  way,  and  fled  in  all  directions. 
The  unhappy  Dara  fled  towards  Gujerat.  His  fortunes  now 
appeared  desperate,  and  nearly  all  his  pretended  friends  forsook 
him,  though  not  without  aggravating  his  distress  by  seizing  and 
carrying  away  with  them  nearly  all  his  treasure.  He  was  for 
some  time  a fugitive  in  Gujerat,  himself  and  family  reduced  to 
great  distress.  Finding  neither  sympathy  nor  safety  in  Gujerat, 
he  resolved  to  proceed  to  Candahar.  On  the  way  he  claimed 
the  hospitality  of  Jehan  Khan,  a petty  prince  who  had  formerly 
been  sentenced  to  death  by  Shah  Jehan,  and  been  pardoned  by 
Dara’s  intercession  for  him.  This  prince  at  first  received  and 
entertamed  Dara  in  a kind  and  friendly  manner,  but  instead  of 
assisting  him  to  proceed  on  the  way  to  Candahar,  he  made  him 
a prisoner,  and  delivered  him  into  the  hands  of  Aurungzeb’s 
general,  who  soon  arrived  in  pursuit  of  liim.  He  was  carried 
to  Delhi,  where  he  was  conducted  through  the  principal  streets, 
miserably  mounted,  and  meanly  clothed.  The  feelings  of  the 
inhabitants,  excited  by  this  wanton  cruelty,  was  compassion  for 
the  unfortunate  sufferer,  and  indignation  against  his  heartless 
brother.  So  strong  were  the  feelings  of  the  people  in  view  of 
the  sufferings  of  Dara  and  the  base  conduct  of  Jehan  Khan,  his 
ungrateful  betrayer,  that  the  latter  was  attacked  wdth  tiles  and 
stones,  and  would  have  been  killed  in  the  streets,  if  he  had  not 
been  rescued  by  the  soldiers.  Aurungzeb  seeing  the  state  of 
public  feeling,  resolved  at  once  to  remove  Dara,  and  he  was 
soon  assassinated  in  prison.  His  dead  body  was  publicly 


128 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


exhibited  on  an  elephant,  and  his  head  was  cut  off  and  carried 
to  the  emperor,  that  there  might  be  no  doubt  of  his  death  in  the 
city  or  in  the  army. 

Aurungzeb  was  now  apparently  rid  of  all  who  could  prefer 
any  natural  or  family  claim  to  the  throne,  except  his  brother 
Shuja,  who  was  in  possession  of  Bengal  and  Bahar.  Against 
him  the  emperor  soon  sent  his  eldest  son  and  acknowledged 
heir,  Mohammed,  and  his  most  experienced  general,  IMeer 
Jumla,  with  a large  force.  On  their  arriving  near  the  camp  of 
Shuja,  some  very  remarkable  occurrences  took  place.  Pre\'ious 
to  the  iUness  and  deposition  of  Shah  Jehan,  when  aU  his  sons 
were  on  friendly  terms  with  each  other,  this  prince  hlohammed 
had  been  betrothed  to  a daughter  of  Shuja,  to  whom  he  had 
formed  a strong  attachment.  This  lady,  in  concert  with  her 
father,  now  addressed  a letter  to  Mohammed ; and  their  refer- 
ence to  his  former  pledges  and  promises  and  their  appeal  to  his 
feelings,  produced  such  an  effect  upon  him,  that  he  resolved  to 
fulfil  his  marriage  engagement,  though  it  could  be  done  only  by 
forsaking  the  interest  of  his  father  and  joining  the  party  of 
Shuja.  Perhaps  he  hoped  in  this  way  to  effect  a reconciliation 
between  his  father  and  uncle ; or  that  the  army  would  foUow 
his  example,  and  then  the  united  force  would  enable  them  to 
restore  peace  to  the  empire.  He  embarked  upon  the  Ganges, 
professedly  on  an  excursion  of  pleasure,  and  proceeded  to  the 
camp  of  Shuja.  This  conduct  of  Mohammed  produced  a great 
sensation  in  the  army,  but  hleer  Jumla  by  his  great  energy  and 
influence  was  able  to  preserve  order,  and  the  excitement  soon 
subsided.  Mohammed  was  received  by  his  uncle  with  great 
honor,  and  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Shuja  was  cele- 
brated with  great  pomp  and  festivity.  As  soon  as  the  season 
would  admit,  Mohammed  put  himself  at  the  head  of  Shuja’s 
army,  and  marched  out  in  front  of  the  army  he  had  left,  exjiect- 
ing  some  great  movement  among  them  in  his  favor ; and  when 
he  saw  the  force  he  lately  commanded  approaching,  he  thought 
they  were  coming  to  join  his  standard.  But  their  fierce  attack 
soon  showed  fheir  spirit  and  aims.  Mohammed  and  Shuja 
exerted  themselves  to  the  utmost,  but  their  force  soon  gave  way 
and  fled  with  great  loss. 

Soon  after  this  defeat,  Aurungzeb,  who  never  scrupled  at  any 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


129 


means  for  accomplishing  his  purposes,  wrote  a letter  to  his  son, 
which  professed  to  be  in  answer  to  one  from  him,  in  which  he 
referred  to  a plan  for  betraying  Shuja  into  his  power.  This  let- 
ter was  designed  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Shuja,  and  matters 
were  purposely  so  arranged  that  it  should  come  into  his  hands 
without  his  suspecting  any  artifice  to  deceive  him.  The  plan 
succeeded.  Shuja  was  shocked  at  discovering  the  treachery,  as 
he  thought,  of  his  son-in-law.  It  was  in  vain  that  Mohammed 
asserted  his  innocence  and  fidelity,  and  that  he  had  written 
nothing  whatever  to  his  father  since  he  abandoned  his  interest. 
Shuja’s  suspicions  stiU  continued,  and  Mohammed  was  told 
that  he  must  at  once  depart  from  Bengal.  The  unhappy  prince 
was  now  reduced  to  the  greatest  distress.  He  had  now  no  re- 
source but  to  throw  himself  upon  the  clemency  of  his  father, 
and  he  had  never  been  known  to  show  elemency  to  any  one 
who  had  once  offended  him,  or  of  whom  he  was  suspicious. 
Aurungzeb  caused  his  son  to  be  arrested  and  confined  in  Gwa- 
lior, the  common  prison  for  aU  persons  supposed  to  be  danger- 
ous to  the  State.  And  here  the  unfortunate  Mohammed 
remained  in  prison  tiU  his  death.  Sepher  a son  of  Dara,  Suli- 
man  a son  of  Shuja,  and  a son  of  Morad,  were  also  confined 
in  the  same  prison,  and  all  were  kept  there  for  life,  or  were  put 
to  death.  The  affairs  of  Shuja  became  worse  till  he  was  com- 
pelled to  escape  with  his  family  into  Arracan,  where  they  aU 
soon  perished. 

The  reign  of  Aurungzeb,  though  commenced  with  such  cruel- 
ties and  atrocities  yet  enjoyed  more  quiet  than  those  of  his 
predecessors  generally,  perhaps  more  than  any  of  them.  Under 
him  the  Mogul  empire  in  India  attained  its  greatest  extent, 
including  nearly  all  the  peninsula,  with  Cabul  on  the  west,  and 
Assam  on  the  east.  In  the  6th  year  of  his  reign,  he  had  a 
severe  and  dangerous  fflness.  While  he  was  in  this  state,  in- 
trigue and  faction  were  busy,  and  he  had  reason  to  fear  the 
consequence  to  himself  and  his  family.  In  these  circumstances 
he  exhibited  great  fortitude  under  his  sufferings,  and  great 
energy  and  sagacity  in  the  administration  of  his  affairs.  On 
his  recovery,  these  factions  and  intrigues  were  soon  suppressed 
by  his  prudence  and  vigilance.  The  interruptions  of  amicable 
relations  between  the  court  of  India  and  Persia,  and  the  threat- 


130 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ened  invasion  of  India  by  Shah  Abbas,  then  King  of  Persia  and 
the  most  powerful  and  warlike  sovereign  in  Asia,  for  awhile 
caused  Aurungzeb  great  uneasiness.  He  was  naturally  very 
suspicious,  and  he  was  apprehensive  that  in  the  event  of  such  an 
invasion,  the  Persians  who  were  numerous  in  India,  would 
unite  with  the  invaders.  But  it  was  not  long  before  the  death 
of  Shah  Abbas  occurred,  and  the  state  of  anarchy  which 
ensued  in  Persia,  relieved  him  from  all  anxiety  from  this  source. 

There  was  one  insurrection  at  this  time  which  showed  the 
superstitious  character  of  the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans.  An 
old  Hindu  woman  in  Marwar,  having  in  some  way  acquired 
a high  reputation  for  sanctity,  collected  around  her  a large  num- 
ber of  faquers  and  other  devotees,  who  assumed  the  form  of 
an  army  and  defeated  some  force  sent  against  them.  Exagger- 
ated reports  of  these  victories  were  circulated,  and  this  fanatical 
host  was  soon  increased  to  20,000.  This  woman  pretended  to 
perform  miracles,  and  that  by  the  rites  she  practised  and  pre- 
scribed to  her  followers,  they  would  become  invulnerable  to  any 
kind  of  weapons  or  fire-arms.  Several  of  the  petty  princes 
joined  her  party.  They  marched  towards  Agra,  overcoming 
aU  resistance,  and  proclaiming  Bistamia,  (the  name  of  this  wo- 
man,) the  Queen  of  India.  Aurungzeb  was  surprised  at  this 
sudden  outbreak,  and  he  became  alarmed  on  finding  that  his 
own  army  was  becoming  infected  with  this  superstition.  The 
means  he  used  to  suppress  this  insurrection,  showed  that  he 
well  understood  the  character  of  his  army,  and  the  spirit  of  the 
age.  He  caused  selected  sentences  of  the  Koran,  some  WTitten 
with  his  own  hand,  and  all  duly  consecrated,  to  be  applied  to 
their  weapons,  and  then  to  be  put  upon  their  standards,  assuring 
them  that  these  would  prove  an  infallible  protection  against  any 
magical  rites  and  miraculous  powers  possessed  by  their  enemies. 
Having  thus  inspired  his  army  with  confidence,  he  made  an 
attack  upon  the  fanatical  hosts,  and  dispersed  them  with  great 
slaughter. 

The  Rajpoot  princes  had  at  difl’erent  times  acknowledged  the 
sovereignty  of  the  emperors  of  Delhi,  and  paid  them  an  annual 
tribute,  but  they  retained  the  control  of  affairs  in  their  own  ter- 
ritories, and  supported  very  considerable  military  forces.  With 
these  armies  they  often  assisted  the  emperors,  and  perhaps  as 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


131 


often  they  rersisted  them.  Aurungzeb  was  a bigoted  Moham- 
medan, and  had  a great  abhorrence  of  idolatry.  Some  means 
he  used  to  proselyte  the  IDndus,  and  some  laws  he  enacted  in 
favor  of  the  Mohammedans  gave  great  offence  to  the  Rajpoots, 
and  they  united  in  self-defence.  This  had  more  the  character 
of  a religious  war  than  any  which  had  occmTcd  under  the  Mogul 
dynasty.  The  combination  at  one  time  became  very  formidable, 
the  Rajpoot  army  amounting  to  70,000  men.  Acber,  the  em- 
peror’s youngest  son,  joined  them,  and  they  proclaimed  hun 
emperor.  Their  intention  was  to  depose  Aurungzeb,  and  put 
Acber  upon  the  throne.  Aurungzeb  was  once  very  near  falling 
into  their  hands.  But  he  soon  succeeded  in  elTecting  divisions 
among  his  enemies.  Acber  becoming  discouraged,  fled  into 
the  Deckan  and  joined  the  Mahrattas.  The  state  of  the  Deckan 
now  requiring  Aurungzeb’s  immediate  attention  and  all  the  mil- 
itary force  he  could  collect,  he  offered  such  terms  of  peace  to  the 
Rajpoots,  as  they  gladly  accepted. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Shah  Jehan,  the  INIahrattas 
under  Shevajee  began  to  act  a conspicuous  part  in  the  affairs  of 
western  India.  Shevajee  was  the  son  of  Shahjee,  a IMahratta 
chief,  and  he  inherited  a part  of  his  father’s  possessions.  He 
early  conceived  a strong  aversion  to  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
and  was  more  than  ordinarily  scrupulous  in  performing  and  sus- 
taining the  superstitions  of  the  Hindus.  When  Aunmgzel) 
was  viceroy  of  the  Deckan,  Shevajee  occasioned  liim  much 
trouble.  The  natural  features  of  the  country,  the  character  of 
the  people  where  Shevajee  began  his  course,  and  the  declining 
and  often  distracted  state  of  the  kingdom  of  Beejapoor,  were  all 
favorable  to  his  progress.  Nor  was  he  at  aU  scrupulous  in 
respect  to  the  means  he  used  to  increase  his  power,  or  to  replen- 
ish his  treasury.  Having  obtained  information  concerning  the 
immense  wealth  and  defenceless  state  of  Surat,  then  the  great 
commercial  emporium  of  western  India,  Shevajee  took  4,000 
horse,  and  proceeding  rapidly  by  unfrequented  ways  came  unex- 
pectedly upon  the  city,  plundered  it  for  several  days,  obtained  a 
great  amount  of  booty,  and  retmmed  to  his  own  hill-fort  among 
the  Ghats.  Aurungzeb  sent  a large  force  against  him  under 
experienced  generals,  who  carried  on  war  for  several  years  with 
various  success.  An  arrangement  was  at  length  made  by  which 


132 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Shevajee  surrendered. a part  of  his  territory  and  was  to  have  a 
high  command  in  the  emperor’s  army.  He  then  proceeded  to 
Delhi,  where  he  was  to  be  duly  invested  with  the  command.  But 
Aurungzeb,  regarding  his  enemy  as  now  in  his  power,  instead 
of  fulfilling  his  part,  first  treated  Shevajee  \\dth  neglect,  and 
then  put  him  under  restraint.  The  latter  foimd  means  to  escape, 
and  after  wandering  about  for  nine  months  in  the  guise  of  a 
Hindu  devotee,  reached  his  fi-iends  in  safety.  From  this  time 
he  was  irreconcilably  opposed  to  Aurungzeb,  and  to  all  Mo- 
hammedan power.  Li  1674,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Raja,  and 
though  illiterate  (for  he  was  never  able  to  read  or  to  write),  yet 
his  territory  was  well  governed,  and  he  was  very  popular  among 
the  Mahrattas.  His  power  continued  to  increase,  and  his  army 
at  one  time  amounted  to  30,000  cavahy,  and  40,000  infantry. 
He  died  in  a.d.  1680,  in  the  53d  year  of  his  age.  His  name  and 
character  have  always  been  revered  by  the  Mahrattas. 

Aurungzeb  became  at  length  so  much  dissatisfied  with  the 
manner  in  which  the  wars  in  the  Deckan  were  carried  on,  that 
he  resolved  to  proceed  there  and  superintend  them  himself. 
The  kingdoms  of  Beejapoor  and  of  Golconda,  had  acknowledged 
the  sovereignty  of  the  emperor  of  Delhi  and  paid  annual  tribute, 
but  they  stiU  retained  the  management  of  their  outi  internal 
affairs.  Aurungzeb  resolved  entirely  to  subdue  these  kingdoms, 
as  well  as  to  conquer  the  Mahrattas.  He  first  commenced  war 
on  Beejapoor,  which  had  become  much  diminished  by  previous 
wars,  and  was  then  distracted  by  internal  feuds.  He  besieged 
and  took  the  city  in  1683,  and  annexed  the  territory  to  the  em- 
pire of  Delhi.  Beejapoor  had  been  the  capital  of  one  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan kingdoms  of  the  Deckan  for  200  years.  He  then  com- 
menced war  on  the  Idngdom  of  Golconda,  wliich  was  annexed 
to  the  empire  in  1687.  While  engaged  in  this  last-mentioned 
war,  he  became  suspicious  that  his  son  Moazzim  had  some 
plan  to  depose  him  and  seize  the  throne.  He  immediately  caus- 
ed his  son  to  be  arrested.  It  was  in  vain  that  his  son  asserted 
his  innocence,  and  that  all  believed  he  was  innocent.  He  was 
put  into  confinement,  and  was  kept  under  more  or  less  restraint 
for  7 years.  Aurungzeb’s  youngest  son  Acber,  who  first  joined 
the  governor  of  Gujerat  in  an  insurrection  against  his  father 
and  then  fled  to  the  Mahrattas,  now  fearful  of  falling  into  his 


niSTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


133 


father’s  hands,  fled  to  Persia  and  never  returned  again  to 
India. 

Aurungzeb  continued  in  the  Deckan  till  his  decease  in  1706. 
His  residence  there  exceeded  22  years.  lie  did  not  select 
any  city  as  his  capital,  but  removed  about  from  place  to  place. 
His  encampment  in  extent  and  population  resembled  a large 
city.  The  royal  pavilion  was  of  great  extent,  and  every  thing 
connected  with  it  was  in  a style  of  imperial  magnificence.* 

* “ The  display  of  power  presented  by  Aunmgzeb’s  marches  and  encampments 
in  the  Deckan,  was  grand  and  im|)osing  to  a degree  which  has  seldom  been  sur- 
passed. Besides  foreigners,  his  cavalry,  assembled  from  Cabul,  Candahar,  Mul- 
tan, Lahore,  Bajpootana,  and  the  extended  provinces  of  his  vast  empire,  was  the 
llower  of  his  army  and  array  of  gigantic  men  and  horses  comjdetely  armed  and 
accoutred,  whom  it  might  be  imagined  the  more  slender  and  light-amied  natives 
of  the  Deckan  could  hardly  venture  to  oppose.  His  infantry  was  numerous 
and  was  composed  of  musketeers,  matchlock  men,  and  archers,  well  erpiippcd, 
besides  bodies  of  hardy  Boondelas  and  Mewattces,  accustomed  to  predatory  con- 
tests among  the  mountains,  and  better  able  to  cope  with  the  Llahratta  Mawulces. 
To  these  were  afterwards  added  many  thousands  of  infantry  raised  in  the  Car- 
natic. There  were  several  hundred  cannon  manned  by  natives  of  Hindustan,  but 
directed  by  European  gunners.  A great  number  of  miners  were  attached  to  the 
park  of  artillery  with  artisans  of  every  description.  A long  train  of  war  elephants 
was  followed  by  a number  of  the  same  animals  on  the  emperor’s  private  establish- 
ment, employed  to  carrj-  the  ladies  of  his  seraglio.  Numerous  led  horses  mag- 
nificently caparisoned,  formed  a stud  for  the  emperor’s  riding.  A menagerie 
accompanied  the  camp,  from  which  the  rarest  animals  in  the  world  were  fre- 
quently brought  forth  and  exhibited  by  their  keepers  before  the  emperor  and  his 
court,  while  hawks,  hounds,  hunting  tigers,  trained  elephants,  and  every  accom- 
paniment used  for  field  sport,  swelled  the  pomp  of  the  prodigious  retinue. 

“ The  canvas  walls  which  encompassed  the  royal  tents,  formed  a circumfer- 
ence of  1,200  yards,  and  contained  everj'  description  of  apartment  to  be  found 
in  the  most  spacious  palace.  Halls  of  audience  for  public  assemblies  and 
private  councils,  with  all  the  courts  and  cabinets  attached  to  them,  each  hall 
magnificendy  adorned,  and  having  in  it  a raised  seat  or  throne  for  the  emperor, 
surrounded  with  gilded  pillars,  with  canopies  of  velvet  richly  fringed  and 
superbly  embroidered ; separate  tents  as  mosques  and  oratories ; baths,  and  gal- 
leries for  archery  and  gjannastic  exercises ; a seraglio  as  remarkable  for  luxury 
and  privacy  as  that  at  Delhi ; Persian  carpets,  damasks,  and  tapestries ; Euro- 
pean velvets,  satins,  and  broadcloths ; Chinese  silks  of  every  description,  and 
muslins,  and  cloths  of  gold  were  used  in  the  utmost  profusion,  and  arranged  for 
die  greatest  effect.  Gilded  balls  and  cupolas  surmounted  the  tops  of  the  royal 
tents,  the  outside  of  which  and  the  canvas  walls,  were  of  a variety  of  lively 
colors  disposed  in  a manner  which  heightened  the  general  splendor.  The  en- 
trance into  the  royal  inclosure  was  through  a spacious  portal,  flanked  by  two- 

12 


134 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


The  war  with  the  Mahrattas  continued  all  this  time.  Sum- 
bhajee,  the  son  and  successor  of  Shevajee,  was  a depraved  and 
profligate  prince.  “ He  put  the  widow  of  Shevajee  to  a painful 
and  Angering  death;  he  imprisoned  her  son  Raja  Ram.  He 
threw  the  brahmin  ministers  who  had  been  most  active  against 
him  into  prison,  and  he  beheaded  such  of  his  other  enemies  as 
were  not  protected  by  the  sanctity  of  their  class.”  When  in  a 
state  of  intoxication  and  revelry,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Tokarnab  Khan,  one  of  the  emperor’s  generals.  Sumbhajee 
had  imbibed  his  father’s  hatred  of  Mohammedans,  and  their 
religion.  “ To  an  invitation  to  become  a Mussulman,  he  replied 
in  language  so  insulting  to  the  emperor  and  so  impious  towards 
the  prophet,  that  an  order  was  given  for  his  immediate  execu- 
tion. His  eyes  were  first  destroyed  with  a hot  iron,  his  tongue 
was  cut  out,  and  he  was  then  beheaded.”  This  barbarity  in- 
creased the  hatred  of  the  Mahrattas  towards  Aurungzeb  and 
the  Mohammedan  government,  and  the  war  on  their  part 
had  much  of  a religious  character.  Unable  to  meet  the  em- 
peror’s forces  in  the  open  country,  the  Mahratta  cliiefs  avoided 
coming  to  pitched  battles,  but  kept  up  a harassing  warfare, 
plundering  the  country  around  the  royal  encampment,  cutthig 
oflf  convoys,  attacking  departments,  etc.  Aurungzeb  obtained 
possession  of  nearly  all  the  forts,  and  the  grand  army  exliibited 
a striking  contrast  to  any  force  the  Mahratta  chiefs  could  assem- 
ble. Still  after  20  years  of  warfare,  the  emperor’s  army  and 
power  had  decreased,  and  theirs  had  increased.  Indeed,  so 


elegant  pavilions,  from  which  extended  on  each  side  rows  of  cannon,  forming 
an  avenue,  at  the  extremity  of  which  rVas  an  immense  tent  containing  the  great 
state  drums  and  imperial  band.  A little  further  in  front  was  the  post  of  the 
grand  guard  on  duty,  commanded  by  a nobleman  who  mounted  it  daily.  Ou 
the  other  side  surrounding  the  great  kiclosure  just  mentioned,  were  se]>arate 
tents  for  the  emj)eror’s  annory,  liarness,  etc.,  a tent  for  water  kept  cool  with 
saltpetre,  another  for  fruit,  a third  for  sweetmeats,  a fourth  for  betel,  and  so  on, 
with  numerous  kitcliens,  stables,  etc.  Such  luxury  in  a camp  is  scarcely  to  be 
conceived.  And  besides  what  has  been  described,  every  tent  had  its  exact  dupli- 
cate, wliich  was  sent  on  in  advance  to  be  prepared  against  the  emperor’s  arrival. 
His  march  was  a "rand  procession,  and  when  he  entered  his  pavilion,  a salvo 
from  50  pieces  of  ordnance  announced  the  event.  In  all  places  and  circum- 
stances lie  assumed  and  maintained  every  form  and  ceremony  observed  at  tlie 
established  residences  of  the  imperial  court.” — Calcutta  Review, 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


135 


great  had  been  the  change,  that  it  was  becoming  evident  the 
emperor  must  bring  hostilities  to  a close  by  making  peace  with 
the  Mahrattas,  or  witlidraw  from  the  Deckan,  leaving  the  coun- 
try to  their  undisputed  possession. 

But  this  state  of  matters  was  brought  to  a close  by  the  death 
of  Aurungzeb,  which  took  place  near  Ahmednugger,  in  1706,  in 
the  89th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  50th  year  from  his  assuming 
the  imperial  power  — a long  and  eventful  reign.*  He  made  his 
way  to  the  throne  by  deposing  and  imprisoning  his  father,  and 
putting  to  death  his  three  brothers  and  all  their  sons.  And  he 
was  equally  unscrupulous  during  all  his  life  in  respect  to  using 
means  to  preserv^e  his  power.  He  had  no  confidence  in  his  own 
sons  that  they  would  not  at  any  time  treat  him  and  each  other, 
as  he  had  treated  his  father  Shah  Jehan,  and  his  brothers.  And 
his  sons,  knowing  as  they  did,  by  what  means  he  acquired  the 
throne,  and  seeing  his  suspicions  of  them,  had  neither  confi- 
dence in  him  nor  affection  for  him.  His  oldest  son  Mohammed 
joined  his  uncle  and  father-in-law  Shuja,  and  fought  against 
his  own  father,  and  when  he  afterwards  again  espoused  his 
father’s  interest,  he  was  put  in  prison  and  never  again  had  his 
liberty.  Acber,  another  son,  joined  the  governor  of  Gujerat,  in 
an  insurrection  against  his  own  father,  and  when  this  failed,  he 
fled  to  the  Mahrattas,  and  ultimately  to  Persia,  where  he  died. 

* Historians  differ  in  respect  to  his  age  and  reign.  One  says  “ he  died  in  the 
89th  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  50th  year  of  his  reign.”  Another  says,  “ In  the 
94th  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  49th  year  of  his  reign.”  Another  says,  “ In 
the  93d  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  48th  of  his  reign.”  And  yet  another  says, 
“In  the  93d  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  51st  year  of  his  reign.” 

Aurungzeb’s  body  was  buried  at  Koza,  16  miles  from  Aurungabad.  Koza 
contains  the  mausoleums  of  many  Mohammedan  kings,  princes,  and  nobles. 
When  at  this  place  in  1834,1  inquired  for  the  tomb  of  Aurungzeb,  and  expected 
to  find  a mausoleum  corresponding  to  his  dignity  and  fame.  I was  conducted 
to  a grave  covered  with  a weU-wrought  stone,  and  with  a small  frame  of  wood 
over  it,  but  surrounded  with  several  large  and  elegant  mausoleums  erected  over 
graves.  Great  reverence  was  shown  to  the  grave  of  Aurungzeb,  and  the  moolahs 
in  charge  of  the  burial  ground  apparently  thought  more  of  it  than  of  all  the 
mausoleums  of  the  place.  I asked  them  why  the  great  Aurungzeb  had  not  a 
mausoleiun  corresponding  to  his  rank  and  dignity,  and  they  replied  that  the 
grave  and  the  smalt  wooden  frame  over  it  were  prepared  and  had  been  pre- 
served just  as  he  directed  before  his  death,  as  he  wished  thus  to  show  to  the 
world  the  end  of  all  human  g-eatness,  pomp,  and  power. 


136 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Moazziin,  another  son,  was  in  confinement  for  many  years.  Of 
his  other  sons  he  showed  great  suspicion,  and  they  lived  in  con- 
stant dread  of  him. 

In  all  the  departments  of  government,  in  war  as  well  as  in 
peace,  he  exhibited  great  talents.  Nor  was  his  care  limited  to 
a general  superintendence  of  the  different  departments.  “ He 
conducted  every  branch  of  his  government  in  the  most  minute 
detail.  He  planned  campaigns  and  issued  instructions  during 
their  progress ; drawings  of  forts  were  sent  to  him  to  fix  on  the 
points  of  attaek.  His  letters  embrace  measures  for  keeping 
open  the  roads  in  the  Afghan  country,  for  queUhig  disturbances 
at  Multan  and  Agra,  and  even  for  recovering  Candahar ; and  at 
the  same  time  there  is  scarcely  a detachment  marches,  or  a con- 
voy moves  in  the  Deckan  without  some  orders  from  his  own 
hand.  The  appointment  of  the  lowest  revenue  officer  of  a dis- 
trict, or  the  selection  of  a clerk  in  an  office,  is  not  beneath  his 
attention,  and  the  conduct  of  all  these  functionaries  is  watched 
by  means  of  spies  and  of  prying  inquiries  from  all  comers,  and 
they  are  constantly  kept  on  the  alert  by  admonitions  founded 
upon  such  information.” 

In  his  personal  habits,  he  was  remarkable  for  an  Asiatic  sov- 
ereign of  a great  empire.  He  was  plain  and  simple  in  his  dress, 
abstemious  in  his  food,  refi-aining  entirely  from  the  use  of  spirits, 
indulging  in  no  amusements  or  revelry,  systematic  in  the  em- 
ployment of  his  time,  and  punctual  in  performing  his  religious 
duties.  His  zeal  for  the  Mohammedan  faith  and  the  means  he 
used  to  propagate  it,  made  him  unpopular  and  even  odious 
among  the  Hindus,  and  excited  prejudices  which  greatly 
impaired  the  stability  of  Mohammedan  governments  in  India. 
He  would  employ  the  IDndus  in  no  situation  of  honor  or  respon- 
sibility. The  Mohammedan  eonquerors  of  India,  in  accordance 
with  the  general  principles  of  their  faith,  imposed  a capitation 
tax  on  the  Hindus,  thus  discriminating  between  them  and  the 
believers.  This  tax  was  always  odious  among  the  Hindus,  as 
taxes  always  must  be  which  are  founded  upon  a difference  of 
faith.  This  odious  tax  was  annulled  by  Acber,  and  was  not 
exacted  for  more  than  a century.  But  it  was  re-imposed  and 
exacted  by  Aurungzeb.  He  also  forbid  the  use  of  liquors, 
gambling,  and  idolatrous  processions.  He  forbid  the  public 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


137 


celebration  of  the  Hindu  festivals.  In  a few  large  cities  the 
most  celebrated  temples  were  demolished,,  and  mosques  were 
erected  in  their  places.*  Many  of  his  letters,  on  personal  as 
well  as  public  matters,  have  been  preser\'ed,  and  the  life  and 
reign  of  no  Asiatic  sovereign  have  been  so  fully  described  and 
are  now  so  generally  known.  Mohammedan  historians  often 
speak  of  him  as  the  greatest  of  all  the  emperors  of  India. 

The  following  extract  appears  to  give  a just  view  of  the  char- 
acter of  Aurungzeb.  “ He  was  a man  of  a mild  temper  and 
cold  heart ; cautious,  artful,  and  designing ; a perfect  master  of 
dissimulation  ; acute  and  sagacious,  though  not  extended  in  his 
views ; and  ever  on  the  watch  to  gain  friends  and  to  propitiate 
enemies.  To  these  less  brilliant  qualities  he  joined  great  cour- 
age and  skill  in  military  exercises ; a handsome,  though  not  ath- 
letic form ; affable  and  gracious  manners,  and  lively  and  agreea- 
ble conversation.  He  was  so  great  a dissembler  in  other  matters 
that  he  has  been  supposed  to  have  been  a hypocrite  in  religion. 
But  although  religion  was  a great  instrument  of  his  policy,  he 
was  beyond  aU  doubt  a sincere  and  bigoted  Mussulman.  He 
had  been  brought  up  by  men  of  known  sanctity,  and  had  him- 
self shown  an  early  turn  for  devotion ; he  at  one  time  professed 
the  intention  of  renouncing  the  world  and  taking  the  habit  of 
a fakir ; and  throughout  his  whole  life  he  evinced  a real  attach- 
ment to  his  faith  in  many  things  indifferent  to  his  interest,  and 
in  some  most  seriously  opposed  to  it.  His  zeal  was  shoA\m  in 
his  prayers,  and  reading  the  Koran,  in  pious  discourses,  in  abste- 
miousness, (which  he  affected  to  carry  so  far  as  to  subsist  on  the 
earnings  of  his  manual  labor,)  in  humility  of  deportment, 
patience  under  provocation,  and  resignation  in  misfortunes ; but 
above  all  in  earnest  and  constant  endeavors  to  promote  his  o-wni 
faith,  and  to  discourage  idolatry  and  infidelity.  But  neither 
religion  nor  morality  stood  for  a moment  in  his  way  when  they 
interfered  with  his  ambition;  and  though  full  of  scruples  at 
other  times,  he  would  stick  at  no  crime  that  was  requisite  for  the 
gratification  of  that  passion.”  f 

* This  Aurungzeh  caused  to  be  done  in  Benares  and  Mathura.  The  mate- 
rials of  the  temples  were  used  in  building  the  mosques. 

t Elphinstone,  p.  521. 

12  * 


138 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


In  reading  the  actions  and  contemplating  the  character  of 
such  men  as  Aurungzeb,  we  often  wish  to  know  how  their  con- 
duct appeared  to  themselves,  especially  in  such  a review  of  life 
as  they  can  take  in  their  old  age.  The  following  extracts  from 
his  letters  to  his  sons  give  a striking  picture  of  his  feelings 
in  view  of  his  past  life  and  death  then  just  before  him.  He 
says : — 

“ Old  age  is  arrived ; weakness  subdues  me,  and  strength  has 
forsaken  aU  my  limbs.  I came  a stranger  into  this  world,  and  a 
stranger  I depart.  I know  nothing  of  myself,  what  I am,  and 
for  what  I am  destined.  The  instant  which  passed  in  power, 
has  left  only  sorrow  behind  it.  I have  not  been  the  guardian 
and  protector  of  the  empire.  My  valuable  time  has  been  passed 
vainly.  I had  a patron  in  my  own  dwelling  (conscience),  but 
his  glorious  hght  was  unseen  by  my  dim  sight.  — I brought 
nothing  into  this  world,  and  except  the  infirmities  of  man,  carry 
nothing  out.  I have  a dread  for  my  salvation,  and  with  what 
torments  I may  be  punished.  Though  I have  strong  reliance 
on  the  mercies  and  bounty  of  God,  yet  regarding  my  actions 
fear  will  not  quit  me ; but  when  I am  gone,  reflection  will  not 
remain.  — My  back  is  bent  with  weakness,  and  my  feet  have  lost 
the  powers  of  motion.  The  breath  which  rose  is  gone,  and  left 
not  even  hope  behind  it.  I have  committed  numerous  crimes, 
and  know  not  with  what  punishments  I may  be  seized.  — The 
guardianship  of  a people  is  the  trust  by  God  committed  to  my 
sons.  — I resign  you,  your  mother,  and  son,  to  God  as  I myself 
am  going.  The  agonies  of  death  come  upon  me  fast.  — Odi- 
poree,  your  mother,  was  a partner  in  my  illness,  and  wishes  to 
accompany  me  in  death ; but  every  thing  has  its  appointed 
time.  — I am  going.  Wliatever  good  or  evil  I have  done,  it  was 
for  yon.  — No  one  has  seen  the  departing  of  his  own  soul,  but  I 
see  that  mine  is  departing.” 

Such  were  the  feelings  of  this  great  emperor  in  review  of  a 
life  containing  probably  a greater  amount  of  deliberately  perpe- 
trated wickedness  than  was  ever  committed,  more  uninterrupted 
success  in  all  his  schemes,  and  prosperity  in  all  his  affairs,  than 
was  ever  realized,  more  wealth  and  power  than  was  ever  pos- 
sessed, and  more  grandeur  and  splendor  than  was  ever  enjoyed, 
by  any  other  monarch  or  mortal  in  the  history  of  the  world. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


139 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  AURUNGZEB. 

Aurungzeb’s  love  of  power  and  his  jealousy  of  his  sons,  did 
not  allow  of  his  investing  any  of  them  with  much  power  while 
he  was  living.  In  a paper  containing  a kind  of  will,  found 
under  his  pillow  after  his  decease,  he  recommended  that  Moaz- 
zim  should  be  recognized  as  emperor,  and  that  he  and  Azim 
should  divide  the  empire,  the  former  having  Delhi  for  his  capital, 
with  the  northern  and  eastern  provinces,  and  the  latter  having 
Agra  for  his  capital,  with  the  south-western  and  southern  prov- 
inces including  the  Deckan,  excepting  the  kingdoms  of  Beejapoor 
and  Golconda,  which  were  to  belong  to  Cambuksh.  As  soon 
as  Moazzim,  who  was  in  Cabul,  heard  of  his  father’s  death,  he 
assumed  the  dignity  of  emperor,  and  the  title  of  Bahadur  Shah, 
though  for  some  time  before  his  father’s  death,  he  was  laiowm 
by  the  title  of  Shah  Aulum.  Azim  who  was  in  Malwa,  has- 
tened to  the  royal  camp  and  was  acknowledged  emperor  of 
India.  The  two  brothers  then  proceeded  towards  Agra,  with 
as  large  a force  as  each  could  collect.  Some  historians  say  that, 
as  the  twm  armies  were  approaching  each  other  near  Agra, 
Bahadur  Shah  wrote  to  his  brother,  proposing  to  divide  the 
empire  between  them,  and  that  Azim  rejected  the  offer.  The 
tw'O  armies  soon  came  into  conflict,  when  Azim  was  defeated 
and  himself  and  his  two  sons  were  slain.  Bahadur  Shah  then 
took  formal  possession  of  the  throne,  palace,  etc.  Cambuksh, 
who  had  taken  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Beejapoor  and  Gol- 
conda, and  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Azim,  refusing 
now  to  acknowledge  Bahadur  Shah,  the  latter  marched  into  the 
Deckan,  and  in  a battle  near  Hyderabad  defeated  his  brother, 
who  died  of  his  wounds  the  same  day.  Bahadur  Shah  died 
in  1712,  having  reigned  nearly  6 years.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  reign  he  was  involved  in  war  with  the  Sikhs,  then  a 
religious  sect  and  beginning  to  acquire  importance  in  the 
northern  parts  of  India.  This  war  was  conducted  on  both 
sides  mth  great  barbarity. 

Bahadur  Shah  left  four  sons,  who  began  to  contend  each  for 
the  throne  soon  after  their  father’s  death.  Nor  did  this  struggle 
cease  till  three  of  them  had  fallen,  and  the  oldest  was  left  in 


140  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

undisputed  possession.  Jehander  Shah  proved  to  be  a weak- 
minded  and  profligate  sovereign.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to 
put  to  death  all  the  males  of  the  royal  family,  whom  he  cotdd 
get  into  his  power.  But  there  was  one,  Ferokshere,  a son  of 
his  brother  Azim  Shah,  then  in  Bengal  and  beyond  his  reaeh. 
Ferokshere  and  his  friends,  among  whom  were  AbdooUa  Khan, 
and  Hoossen  Ali,  two  brothers,  who  were  then  the  governors  of 
Bahar  and  Allahabad,  knowing  the  emperor’s  purpose,  and 
shocked  at  his  cruelty  and  selfishness,  collected  a large  army, 
and  defeated  the  force  which  was  sent  against  them.  They 
then  proceeded  towards  Agra.  On  arriving  near  the  city,  the 
emperor  and  his  vizier  met  them  with  an  army  of  70,000  men. 
The  emperor  was  defeated,  and  Ferokshere  soon  took  posses- 
sion of  Agra.  The  emperor,  the  vizier,  and  many  others  were 
put  to  death,  and  Ferokshere  ascended  the  throne  in  a.d.  1713. 
lie  appointed  AbdooUa  Khan  his  vizier,  and  Hoossen  Ali  his 
commander-in-chief,  and  the  emperor  was  little  else  than  a 
pageant  in  their  hands  while  he  lived.  These  brothers  were 
Syuds  or  descendants  of  Mohammed. 

The  reign  of  this  emperor  continued  for  about  6 years.  The 
empire  was  aU  the  time  in  a very  distracted  state  in  the  capital 
as  weU  as  the  provinces.  Intrigues  in  the  court,  assassinations 
in  the  palace,  and  insurrections  and  battles  in  the  provinces, 
constitute  the  principal  matters  of  his  reign.  This  state  of  the 
empire  encouraged  the  Sikhs  to  renew  the  war,  which  was  car- 
ried on  with  greater  barbarity,  if  possible,  than  before.*  So 


* The  following  extracts  show  the  character  of  the  parties  and  the  spint  and 
maimei’s  of  the  age:  — “The  Sikhs  under  a new  chief  named  Bandn,  who  had 
been  bred  a religious  ascetic,  and  who  combined  a most  sanguinary  disposition 
with  bold  and  daring  counsels,  broke  from  their  retreat  and  overran  the  east  of 
the  Punjab,  committing  unheard  of  cruelties,  wherever  they  directed  their  steps. 
The  mosques  were  destroyed  and  the  moolahs  were  butchered.  The  rage  of 
the  Sikhs  was  not  restrained  by  any  considerations  of  religion,  or  by  any  mercy 
for  age  and  se.\.  Whole  towns  were  mas.sacred  with  wanton  barbarity,  and 
even  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  dug  up  and  thrown  out  to  the  biixls  and  beasts 
of  prey.”  — Tlie  same  horrors  markeil  their  route  tlmmgh  the  country  eastward 
of  the  Sutledge  and  the  .Tumna,  into  whieh  they  ])enetratcd  as  far  as  Seharan- 
pooi’.  In  their  next  exeursion  they  ravaged  the  eountry  as  far  as  Lahore  on  the 
one  side  and  of  Delhi  itself  on  the  other.  Such  was  the  character  of  the  Sikhs  in 
their  former  wars.  And  they  were  not  reformed  by  sufTering  punishment  from 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


141 


many  of  the  Sikhs  were  put  to  death  and  otherwise  perished  in 
this  war,  that  it  was  a long  time  before  they  appeared  again 
upon  the  page  of  history.  Ferokshere  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Abdoolla  Khan  and  Hoosseu  Ali,  who  then  proclaimed  a 
child,  a great  grandson  of  Aurungzeb,  to  be  emperor,  but  he  lived 
only  five  months.  They  then  proclaimed  another  similar  child 
to  be  emperor,  but  he  lived  only  three  months.  They  then 
placed  a grandson  of  Bahadur  Shah,  then  17  years  old  on  the 
throne,  by  the  title  of  Mohammed  Shah.  This  emperor  was  for 
a while  a mere  pageant  of  those  who  had  placed  him  on  the 
throne,  but  becoming  impatient  of  their  control,  he  united  with 
others  in  a plan  for  removing  them.  Hoossen  Ali  was  soon 
assassinated  in  his  palanquin,  and  Abdoolla  Khan  was  deposed 
and  deprived  of  aU  power.  The  empire  continued  to  be  in  a 
distracted  state.  The  emperor  was  dissolute  in  his  habits,  and 
fickle  in  his  purposes  and  plans.  He  was  often  at  variance  with 
his  ministers,  and  they  again  w’^ere  quarrelling  among  them- 
selves. Nizam  ul  Mulk,  who  established  the  family  and 

the  government,  nor  the  principles  of  their  own  religion.  — “ Meanwhile  the  long 
continued  dissensions  among  the  hlohammedans  afforded  an  opportunity  to  the 
Sikhs  to  recruit  their  strength.  Bandu  issued  from  his  retreat,  defeated  the 
imperial  troops  and  ravaged  the  country  with  greater  fury  than  before.  At 
length  an  army  was  sent  against  him,  under  an  able  chief  named  Abdusemed 
Khan.  By  him  the  Sikhs  were  beaten  in  repeated  actions,  and  Bandu  was  at 
last  made  prisoner  with  a number  of  his  men  and  some  of  his  principal  follow- 
ers. Most  of  these  persons  were  executed  on  the  spot,  but  740  were  selected 
and  sent  with  Bandu  to  Delhi.  They  were  paraded  through  the  streets  on 
camels,  dressed  in  black  sheep  skins  with  the  wool  outside,  and  were  exposed  to 
the  execrations  of  the  people,  which  it  must  be  confessed  they  had  well  deserved. 
But  their  punishment  exceeded  the  measure  of  their  offences,  even  such  as 
theirs.  They  were  all  beheaded  on  7 successive  days,  and  died  with  the  utmost 
firmness,  disdaining  every  offer  to  save  their  lives  at  the  expense  of  their 
religion.  Bandu  was  reserved  for  greater  cruelties.  He  was  exhibited  in  an 
iron  cage,  clad  in  a robe  of  cloth  of  gold  and  a scarlet  turban.  An  executioner 
stood  behind  him  with  a drawn  sword.  Around  him  were  the  heads  of  his  fol- 
lowers on  pikes,  and  even  a dead  cat  was  stuck  on  a similar  weapon  to  indicate 
the  extirpation  of  everj-  thing  belonging  to  him.  He  was  then  given  a dagger 
and  ordered  to  stab  his  infant  son,  and  on  his  refusing,  the  child  was  butchered 
before  his  eyes,  and  its  heart  thrown  in  his  face.  He  was  at  last  torn  to  pieces 
with  hot  pincers,  and  died  with  unshaken  constancy,  glor}-ing  in  having  been 
raised  up  by  God  to  be  a scourge  to  the  iniquities  and  oppressions  of  the  age.” 
— Elphinstone,  p.  607,  608. 


142 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


power  of  the  present  Nizam  of  Hyderabad,  and  Sadat  Khan, 
who  established  the  family  and  power  of  the  present  Nabob  of 
Oude  or  Lucknow,  became  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  the 
empire  at  this  time.  The  Mahrattas,  though  their  chiefs  were 
often  at  war  among  themselves,  yet  carried  on  an  aggressive 
war  most  of  the  time  on  all  sides,  and  appeared  likely  soon  to 
become  the  predominant  power  in  India. 

While  affairs  were  in  this  state  in  India,  intelligence  arrived 
from  the  west,  which  reminded  the  princes  and  the  people  of  the 
former  invasions  of  Tamerlane  and  Baber.  Nadir  Shah,  the 
most  conspicuous  prince  of  Persia  in  the  last  century,  com- 
menced his  military  career  as  the  head  of  a company  of  ban- 
ditti. The  increase  of  his  followers  soon  gave  him  power,  and 
his  daring  spirit  produced  an  inclination  to  engage  in  the  po- 
litical affairs  of  Persia,  then  in  an  unsettled  state.  He  was  for 
some  time  engaged  in  war  wdth  the  Turks,  and  then  again  with 
the  Afghans.  In  all  circumstances  he  displayed  military  talents 
of  the  highest  order,  and  wherever  he  went,  victory  followed 
his  standard.  For  some  pretended  offence  he  seized  the  king  of 
Persia,  put  him  under  restraint,  and  governed  the  country  in  the 
king’s  name.  Having  restored  order  in  the  kingdom  and  be- 
come popular  in  the  army,  in  the  plain  of  Maghan  he  assembled 
a great  council,  which  including  the  army  under  his  command, 
was  said  to  amount  to  100,000  men,  and  he  was  there  pro- 
claimed king  of  Persia.  He  then  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  late 
king  Thamas  or  Tahmasp,  so  as  to  make  him  incapable  of 
recovering  his  throne.  Nadir  Shah  was  himself  of  a restless 
spirit,  and  it  was  necessary  to  find  employment  for  his  army, 
and  means  to  support  them.  The  countries  cast  of  Persia  were 
in  an  unsettled  state,  and  he  formed  the  purpose  of  adding 
Afghanistan  to  his  dominions.  While  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Candahar  and  Cabul,  and  subsequently  in  settling  the  affairs  of 
these  cities  and  their  provinces,  he  sent  several  messages  to 
Mohammed  Shah  then  emperor  of  India,  and  he  affected  to  be 
much  displeased  with  the  manner  in  which  they  were  received, 
and  with  the  answers  returned  to  him.  Some  Persians  or 
Afghans  who  had  incurred  his  displeasure,  having  taken  refuge 
at  Delhi,  Nadir  Shah  sent  an  ambassador  to  demand  that  they 
should  be  delivered  up  to  him.  The  ambassador  and  his  escort 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


143 


were  murdered  at  Jellallabad.  Tliis  excited  his  rage,  and  he 
was  soon  on  the  way  to  inflict  vengeance,  and  his  army  com- 
mitted shocking  ravages  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  ofl’ending 
city.  From  Jellallabad  he  proceeded  to  Peshawur,  and  then  to 
Lahore,  without  encountering  any  opposition  to  retard  his  pro- 
gress. The  emperor,  his  army,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Delhi 
were  astonished  to  hear  that  Nadir  Shah  with  his  victorious 
army  had  already  passed  the  Indus,  and  so  was  within  the 
borders  of  the  empire.  Historians  difier  much  in  respect  to  the 
number  of  Nadir  Shah’s  army.  By  some  it  is  put  at  160,000 
men,  and  by  others  at  not  more  than  half  this  number.  From 
Lahore  he  proceeded  on  the  way  to  Delhi.  Wlien  the  emperor 
became  assured  that  the  Persian  army  had  entered  India,  he 
despatched  against  liim  all  the  force  which  could  be  collected. 
The  two  armies  met  and  encountered  a few  marches  from 
Delhi.  The  Indian  army,  hastily  collected  together,  relaxed  in 
discipline  and  without  experience  in  war,  were  no  match  for 
the  disciplined  Persians,  who  were  inured  to  war  and  led  by 
the  greatest  hero  of  that  age.  The  Indian  army  was  easily 
routed,  and  the  commander-in-chief  was  slain. 

The  emperor  Mohammed  Shah  had  no  resource  but  submis- 
sion or  flight,  and  he  chose  the  former.  He  sent  his*  vizier  Azof 
Khan  to  the  Persian  camp,  and  he  soon  repaired  there  himself. 
Some  negotiations  ensued,  and  Nadir  Shah  agreed  to  spare  the 
city  and  leave  India  upon  receiving  a definite  sum  of  money. 
But  some  of  the  emperor’s  courtiers  and  counsellors  interfered, 
and  the  city  with  its  emperor  and  nobles,  and  aU  its  riches  and 
inhabitants,  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  Mohammed 
Shah  was  compelled  to  join  the  Persian  camp,  and  accompany 
Nadir  Shah  on  his  march  towards  Delhi.  On  arriving  at  the 
city,  the  gates  were  opened  to  admit  the  Persian  army,  and  the 
two  sovereigns  took  up  their  residence  in  the  royal  palace. 
Nadir  Shah  distributed  his  army  in  different  parts  of  the  city, 
and  for  two  days  strict  order  w’as  observed.  But  the  state  of 
parties  gave  little  promise  of  continued  quiet  and  safet}%  The 
Persians  were  anxious  to  grasp  the  immense  wealth  now 
before  them,  as  the  reward  of  their  long  labors  and  sufferings, 
and  the  people  of  the  city  looking  upon  them  as  ruthless  invad- 
ers and  plunderers,  w^ere  in  the  spirit  of  seizing  their  arms  and 


144 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

falling  upon  them.  In  the  evening  of  the  third  day  a report 
was  circulated  that  Nadir  Shah  had  been  killed.  The  inhabi- 
tants began  at  once  to  attack  the  Persians  wherever  any  could 
be  found,  and  before  morning  several  hundred  were  killed.  As 
soon  as  there  was  sufficient  light  in  the  morning,  Nadir  Shah 
mounted  his  horse  and  endeavored  to  suppress  the  tumult,  but 
seeing  many  of  the  Persians  murdered  and  being  attacked  him- 
self, he  despatched  his  troops  over  the  city,  with  orders  to  make 
a general  massacre  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Persians  were 
accustomed  to  such  work,  and  “ the  slaughter  raged  from  sun- 
rise till  the  day  was  far  advanced,  and  was  attended  with  all 
the  horrors  that  could  be  inspired  by  rapine,  lust,  and  thirst  of 
vengeance.  The  city  was  set  on  fire  in  several  places,  and  was 
soon  involved  in  one  scene  of  destruction,  blood,  and  terror.” 
While  this  terrible  carnage  was  going  on.  Nadir  Shah  sat  alone 
in  gloomy  silence,  no  one  daring  to  speak  to  him.  At  length, 
Mohammed  Shah  and  some  of  his  nobles  ventured  before  him, 
and  entreated  him  to  stop  the  carnage.  He  immediately  issued 
orders,  and  before  night  all  was  quiet.  Historians  differ  much 
in  respect  to  the  number  who  perished  in  this  dreadful  massacre, 
some  accounts  making  it  not  more  than  30,000,  and  others 
as  many  as  120,000. 

But  the  sufferings  of  the  inhabitants  were  far  from  being  at 
an  end.  Nadir  Shah’s  object  in  invading  India  appears  to  have 
been  to  enrich  himself  and  his  army  by  plunder.  To  this  work 
he  now  applied  himself.  He  seized  all  the  imperial  treasure, 
gold  and  silver,  coined  and  bullion,  jewels,  precious  stones,  and 
whatever  was  valuable,  which  could  be  converted  into  money  or 
carried  away.  He  then  seized  the  money,  etc.,  of  the  nobles, 
bankers,  and  merchants.  Guards  were  placed  at  all  the  gates 
to  prevent  any  thing  being  carried  out  of  the  city.  People  of 
all  classes  were  tortured  to  deliver  up  their  money,  or  to  disclose 
where  it  was.  Many  died  under  the  tortures  thus  inflicted,  and 
many  killed  themselves  rather  than  suffer  the  tortures,  losses, 
and  disgrace  that  awaited  them.  To  these  miseries  were  soon 
added  famine  (the  Persians  consuming  the  provisions  found  in 
the  city  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  afraid  to  come  to  the 
city,)  and  pestilence  occasioned  by  the  great  number  of  the  slain 
which  remained  unburied.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive  of 
a city  in  a more  deplorable  state  than  Dellii  was  at  this  time. 


HISTORY  — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


145 


Nadir  Shah,  having  become  satisfied  that  nothing  further  was 
to  be  obtained  at  Delhi,  began  to  prepare  for  his  departure.  He 
required  IMohammed  Shah  to  cede  to  him  all  the  provinces  west 
of  the  Indus.  He  reinstated  him  on  the  throne  of  the  empire. 
He  arranged  a marriage  beUveen  one ‘of  his  sons  and  a daugh- 
ter of  the  emperor.  He  enjoined  all  the  nobles  to  give  implicit 
obedience  to  Mohammed  Shah  or  to  expect  his  future  displeas- 
ure and  vengeance,  and  having  collected  all  his  treasure  and 
plunder  he  departed.  His  stay  at  Delhi  was  37  days,*  and  the 
amount  of  treasure,  jewels,  and  other  property  he  carried  away, 
has  been  generally  estimated  at  320,000,000  rupees,  or  0160,- 
000,000.f 

Nadir  Shah  lived  8 years  after  his  return  to  Persia.  He 
became  so  jealous  and  irritable,  so  excessively  capricious  and 
cruel,  that  no  one  of  those  around  him  felt  he  had  any  security  for 
his  own  life  for  a single  day.  A conspiracy  was  formed  to  rid 
the  world  of  a tyrant  no  longer  endurable,  and  he  was  assas- 
sinated in  his  tent.  Immediately  after  liis  death,  Ahmed  Shah 
Abdallee,  one  of  his  most  experienced  generals,  and  who  com- 
manded his  Afghan  troops,  withdrew  with  the  force  under  him 
to  Candahar,  and  was  there  soon  proclaimed  king  of  Afghanistan. 
He  was  a skilful  commander  and  had  a large  and  well  disci- 
plined army.  He  was  of  a restless  and  ambitious  spirit,  and 
soon  began  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  India.  Mohammed 
Shah  died  in  1748,  after  a reign  of  30  years.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Alimed  Shah,  who  after  reigning  6 years,  was 
deposed  and  blinded  by  Ghazee  ud  Deen,  who  elevated  one  of 
the  royal  family  by  the  title  of  Atdumgheer  II.  to  the  throne,  and 
then  obtained  for  himself  the  office  of  vizier.  In  the  third  year 
of  this  emperor’s  reign,  Ahmed  Shah  Abdallee  invaded  India 
and  plundered  Delhi.  The  horrors  of  Nadir  Shah’s  invasion 
were  repeated,  and  “ the  city  again  became  a scene  of  rapine, 
violence,  and  murder.”  Several  other  cities  in  the  same  part  of 
Lidia  were  plundered,  and  the  inhabitants  were  treated  with 

* One  account  says  that  Nadir  Shah  remained  at  Delhi  58  days. 

t The  statements  of  historians  differ  much  in  respect  to  the  amount  of  this 
wealth.  The  lowest  sum  I have  seen  is  320,000,000  rupees,  and  the  largest  is 
1,250,000,000  rupees.  The  lowest  estimate  is  a large  sum,  and  the  largest  esti- 
mate appears  to  be  incredible.  A rupee  is  nearly  half  a doUcir. 

13 


146 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  JIODEKN. 


great  barbarity.  A violent  sickness  breaking  out  in  his  army, 
Ahmed  Shah  AbdaUee  was  compelled  to  return  to  his  own 
country. 

The  distracted  state  of  afiairs  at  Delhi  and  in  the  provinces 
around  it,  invited  such  people  as  the  Mahrattas  and  the  Afghans 
to  plunder  and  conquests.  The  Mahrattas  were  now  at  the 
zenith  of  their  power,  and  formed  a plan  of  extending  their  con- 
quest over  all  the  northern  parts  of  India.  In  pursuance  of 
tliis  plan,  a large  force  proceeded  into  the  central  and  northern 
provinces.  Ahmed  Shah  AbdaUee,  who  abhorred  idolatry  and 
aU  idolaters,  had  done  much  to  destroy  the  Mogul  empire,  yet 
he  was  unwilling  to  see  the  Hindus  extending  their  power  over 
the  true  beUevers.  So  he  again  invaded  Lidia  and  defeated  the 
Mahratta  force  under  Duttajee  Scindia,  and  again  under  Mulhar 
Row  Holkar,  in  both  instances  with  great  slaughter.  These 
defeats  excited  strong  feeUng  among  the  Mahrattas,  and  arrange- 
ments were  made  to  send  as  soon  as  possible,  a much  larger 
army  into  the  northern  provinces.  This  force,  after  various 
changes,  became  concentrated  at  Panniput,  about  40  mUes 
north-west  from  Delhi.  The  entire  number  there  assembled, 
including  the  cavaLy,  infantry,  and  artiUery,  and  aU  the  adven- 
turers and  camp  followers,  are  stated  to  have  amounted  to 
300,000.  Ahmed  Shah  AbdaUee,  who  had  been  for  some 
time  encamped  on  the  other  side  of  Delhi,  on  learning  the  plans 
and  movements  of  the  Mahrattas,  proceeded  to  the  vicinity  of 
Panniput  and  there  encamped.  His  entire  force  is  stated  to 
have  been  91,000  men.  Of  these  40,000  are  said  to  have  been 
Persians  and  iVfghans,  who  had  been  inured  to  war  aU  their 
Uves,  and  the  rest  consisted  of  additions  since  he  entered  India. 

The  two  armies  remained  encamped  near  each  other  for 
nearly  three  months.  Each  army  endeavored  to  cut  off  the  sup- 
pUes  and  convoys  of  the  other.  In  this  work  the  Afghans  had 
more  success  than  the  Mahrattas,  who  on  account  of  their  great 
numbers  and  crowded  state,  began  to  suffer  from  famine  and 
pestilence.  These  sufferings  soon  became  so  great  that  the 
Mahratta  leaders  resolved  to  risk  a general  battle,  and  orders 
were  issued  to  prepare  for  it.  The  celebrated  battle  of  Panni- 
put was  fought  in  January  of  1761.  The  Mahrattas  were 
defeated  with  great  slaughter.  The  pursuit  was  continued  in 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


147 


every  direction  for  15  or  20  miles,  the  Afghans  slaughtering  the 
IMahrattas  wherever  found.  The  inhabitants  of  the  country 
around  Panniput,  to  whom  the  IMahrattas  had  become  odious 
on  account  of  their  extortions  and  arrogance,  united  with  the 
Afghans  in  the  pursuit  and  slaughter  of  their  common  enemies. 
The  whole  number  who  perished  in  the  battle  and  pursuit,  was 
estimated  at  200,000.  “ Never  was  there  a defeat  more  com- 
plete, and  never  was  there  a calamity  that  diffused  more  con- 
sternation.” It  was  expected  that  Ahmed  Shah  AbdaUee  would 
assume  the  empire  of  India.  But  for  some  reasons  not  known 
he  made  but  little  use  of  this  victory  for  his  own  advantage. 
Having  made,  or  rather  approved  of  some  arrangements  at 
Delhi  for  its  future  government,  he  returned  to  his  own  country 
and  never  again  interfered  in  the  affairs  of  India. 

The  history  of  the  Mohammedan  empire  in  India  may  prop- 
erly close  here.  The  power  and  influence  of  him  who  was 
called  emperor  from  this  time  were  little  beside  the  prestige  of 
his  name  and  titles,  and  the  thought  that  possibly  he  or  some  one 
of  his  family  might  again  recover  their  former  powder  and  great- 
ness. The  battle  of  Plassey,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
English  power  in  India,  was  fought  in  1757,  or  4 years  before 
the  great  battle  of  Panniput.  So  the  English  were  now  becom- 
ing prominent  actors  on  the  great  field  of  Indian  history,  and 
might  be  reckoned  one  of  the  powers  among  which  the  country 
was  divided.  Hyder  Ali  had  now  established  his  power  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  having  Seringapatam  for  his 
capital.  The  Nizam  ul  Mulk  ^^dth  Hyderabad  for  his  capital,  and 
the  Mahrattas  with  Poona  for  their  capital,  had  established  their 
power  in  the  Deckan.  The  Nabob  of  Oude  and  the  Rajpoot 
princes  were  now  -sirtually  independent.  The  history  of  these 
different  powers,  IMohammedan  and  Hindu,  wfll  come  into  view, 
so  far  as  the  limits  of  this  work  wfll  admit  of  an  account  of 
them,  in  the  European  history  of  India.  From  the  battle  of 
Plassey  in  1757,  or  of  Panniput  in  1761,  the  English  became 
the  most  important  and  the  rising  power  in  India. 

The  professed  object  of  the  IMohammedans  in  invading  and 
conquering  India,  was  the  conversion  of  the  inhabitants  to  the 
faith  of  their  Prophet,  and  this  object  they  openly  avowed  to 
the  people  of  the  country.  But  when  their  power  had  become 


148 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


established  in  the  country,  they  lost  much  of  their  zeal  for  the 
propagation  of  their  religion,  and  so  long  as  the  Hindus  paid 
their  tribute  and  their  taxes,  they  were  generally  permitted  qui- 
etly to  practise  their  own  superstitions.  The  Mohammedan 
emperors,  princes,  and  nobles  employed  the  Hindus  in  various 
ways,  chiefly  in  matters  of  finance  and  revenue,  in  wliich  they 
have  always  excelled.  The  Mohammedans  would  always  have 
preferred  men  of  their  own  faith,  and  would  often  reward  with 
honors  or  employments,  converts  from  Hinduism.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  government  in  oriental  countries  is  generally  great, 
and  considering  the  pow’^er  and  the  spirit  of  the  Mohammedan 
governments  and  people,  and  the  character  and  circumstances 
of  the  great  body  of  the  Hindus,  it  might  naturally  be  expected 
that  great  numbers  of  the  latter  would  embrace  the  religion  of 
their  conquerors  and  rulers  in  the  long  course  of  the  7 or  8 cen- 
turies of  then-  power.  But  the  general  opinion  is  that  not  more 
than  one  eighth  or  one  tenth  of  the  whole  population  have  ever 
been  Mohammedans,  and  probably  one  half  of  these  are  the 
descendants  of  those  who  were  Mohammedans  when  they  came 
into  the  country. 

Should  it  appear  strange  how  the  hlohammedans,  who  have 
always  formed  so  small  a proportion  of  the  population,  could 
conquer  and  govern  the  country  for  so  long  a period,  we  must 
consider  that  the  armies  which  invaded  and  conquered  India, 
were  large,  that  they  were  composed  of  men  superior  to  the 
Hindus  in  physical  strength,  energy,  and  courage,  that  they  were 
inured  to  war,  and  were  in  a state  of  high  military  disciphne ; 
that  it  was  a sentiment  of  all  the  early  hlohammedans  that  they 
ought  not,  and  their  determination  that  they  would  not,  be  sub- 
ject to  idolaters,  that  they  seized  and  appropriated  the  wealth 
and  resources  of  the  country  to  their  own  use  without  scruple, 
that  they  always  formed  the  military  class  and  composed  nearly 
aU  the  armed  force  of  the  empire,  and  that  their  armies  were 
often  reinforced  by  great  numbers  of  daring  and  warhke  adven- 
turers from  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Central  Asia. 

It  was  mentioned  that,  in  the  anarchy  consequent  upon  the 
invasion  of  India,  and  subversion  of  the  empire  of  Delhi,  by 
Tamerlane,  some  of  the  Mohammedan  governors  of  the  j)rov- 
inces  asserted  their  independence,  assumed  regal  titles,  and  began 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


149 


to  exercise  the  functions  of  kings.  In  this  way  Bengal  became 
a kingdom,  and  continued  under  its  own  sovereigns  for  two  cen- 
turies. Kulburga,  ^Vhmednuggur,  Beejapoor,  Beder,  and  Gol- 
conda,  became  the  capitals  of  small  Mohammedan  kingdoms  in 
the  Deckan.  So  Gujerat,  Candeish,  and  Scinde,  became  sepa- 
rate governments.  Some  of  these  provinces,  or  kingdoms  as 
they  were  then  called,  maintained  their  independence  for  one, 
two,  and  even  three  centuries,  but  all  at  length  became  again 
subject  to  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  and  provinces  of  the  empire. 
The  limits  of  this  work  does  not  allow  of  giving  any  particular 
description  of  these  kings  and  their  governments.  Nor  does  it 
appear  to  be  necessary,  as  in  their  general  character  and  spirit 
they  resembled  the  emperors  of  Delhi,  though  on  a reduced 
scale.  Their  courts  exhibited  the  intrigues,  deceit,  profligacy, 
assassinations,  etc.,  so  common  in  oriental  governments.  Some 
of  these  Mohammedan  kings  erected  large  palaces,  mosques, 
and  mausoleums,  and  some  of  the  capitals  of  these  former 
kingdoms  are  remarkable  for  splendid  edifices,  though  now 
many  of  them  are  in  ruins.  There  are  such  remains  of  former 
splendor  at  Beejapoor,  Aurungabad,  Ahmedabad,  and  other 
places.* 

* The  writer  saw  many  such  monuments  and  ruins  in  different  places  in 
India.  The  following  are  extracts  from  his  notes  on  some  ruins  at  Beejapoor. 
“ The  Jumma  ^lusjid,  or  great  mosque  is  a splendid  edifice,  290  feet  long,  and 
165  feet  wide,  and  the  two  wings  which  project  from  the  front  corners  are  210 
feet  long,  and  45  feet  wide.  The  roof  consists  of  one  large  dome  in  the  centre, 
and  many  smaller  ones  in  rows,  supported  by  pillars  united  at  the  top  by  arches. 
The  Kebla,  or  principal  place  for  prayer,  contains  many  extracts  from  the  Koran, 
beautifully  carved  in  stone,  and  the  letters  covered  with  gold.  This  immense 
structure  in  its  design  and  execution  displays  much  genius  and  skill.  It  is  built 
of  stone  or  brick  and  lime,  no  wood  appearing  to  be  used  in  any  part  of  it. 
This  mosque  was  erected  nearly  300  years  ago,  and  is  in  a state  of  good  preser- 
vation. 

“ The  mausoleum  of  Sultan  Mohammed  is  an  immense  pile,  240  feet  square. 
The  interior  is  one  vast  room,  covered  by  a single  dome.  The  tombs  of  the 
royal  founder  and  his  family  are  in  the  centre  under  the  dome.  At  each  comer 
of  the  mausoleum  and  contiguous  to  it,  is  a minaret,  containing  a spiral  staircase 
ascending  through  8 stories  to  the  top,  where  a passage  leads  through  the  dome 
at  its  base.  The  inside  view  of  the  edifice  at  the  base  of  the  dome,  appeared  to 
be  more  sublime  than  at  any  other  point. 

“ Some  cannon  here  deserve  a passing  notice.  One  of  these  is  of  brass,  and 
its  weight  is  more  than  40  tons.  The  diameter  of  the  muzzle  is  4 feet  8 inches, 

13* 


150 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Mr.  IMill,  in  his  History  of  British  India,  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  Mohammedan  period,  attempts  to  show  at  considerable 
length,  that  Lidia  must  have  gained  much  in  civilization, 
humanity,  etc.,  from  the  Mohammedan  conquest  and  govern- 
ment  of  the  country.  The  reasons  he  gives  for  this  opinion 
are,  that  the  Mohammedans  were  in  many  respects  superior  to 
the  Hindus : — as,  1.  Li  their  classification  and  distribution  of 
the  people ; 2.  Their  form  of  government ; 3.  Their  laws ; 4. 
The  taxes ; 5.  Their  religion ; 6.  Their  manners ; 7.  Their  lit- 
erature.* Mr.  Mfil  was  never  in  Lidia,  and  so  could  have  had 
no  personal  acquaintance  with  the  classes  of  people,  or  the  gov- 
ernments he  has  described.  In  his  accounts  of  the  Hindus,  their 
customs,  manners,  religion,  etc.,  he  shows  in  many  places  a 
strong  prejudice  against  them,  while  he  gives  too  favorable  a 
view  of  the  state  and  character  of  the  Mohammedan  popula- 
tion. If  we  admit  that  the  Mohammedans  who  invaded  India, 
were  superior  to  the  Hindus  in  all  the  respects  he  has  mentioned, 
still  it  win  not  follow  that  they  communicated  these  benefits  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  country.  Had  the  Mohammedans  em- 
braced the  religion  they  found  in  India,  as  the  Goths  and  Van- 
dals embraced  the  religion  of  the  southern  nations  of  Europe, 
which  they  conquered,  or  if  the  Hindus  had  become  Moham- 
medans, as  the  inhabitants  of  Persia  did,  so  as  in  either  case  to 
have  formed  a homogeneous  population,  then  a superior  state  of 
civUization  would  probably  have  been  the  result.  But  no  such 
union  or  amalgamation  took  place.  The  Mohammedans  did 
not  unite  with  the  Hindus,  and  only  a small  portion  of  the  Hin- 
dus, and  those  generally  persons  of  low  caste  became  Moham- 
medans. The  two  classes  continued  to  be  separate  and  distinct 
for  generations  and  for  centuries,  with  as  little  knowledge  of 

and  tlie  diameter  of  the  calibre  is  nearly  30  inches.  ‘ A cast-iron  ball  for  this 
cannon  would  weigh  2,61G  pounds.’  This  cannon  was  oa.st  at  Aliincduuggur  in 
1550.  It  was  part  of  the  spoils  of  war,  taken  by  the  king  of  lleejapoor  in  a 
battle  near  rurinda,  and  carried  thence  to  Beejapoor.  On  one  of  the  bastions 
of  the  fort  is  an  iron  cannon  with  a muzzle  of  4 feet  and  3 inelics,  and  a calibre 
21  inches.  On  a high  mound  or  tower,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  is  an 
iron  cannon,  more  than  30  feet  long,  with  a calibre  of  13  inches.  These  two 
last  mentioned  arc  made  of  bare  of  iron  hooped  round  and  welded  so  as  to  make 
a compai'l  mass.” 

• History  of  British  India,  vol.  1,  p.  625-G18.  4to  edition. 


HISTORY — THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PERIOD. 


151 


each  other,  as  little  respect  for  each  other,  and  as  little  influence 
upon  each  other,  as  there  could  well  be  between  diflerent  classes 
of  people  in  such  circumstances. 

The  Mohammedan  invasions  of  India  from  A.  D.  1000  to 
1200,  destroying  idols,  demolishing  temples,  plundering,  mas- 
sacring, and  enslaving  the  inhabitants,  produced  incalculable 
evils  and  miseries.  From  A.  D.  1200,  or  the  establishment  of  the 
Mohammedan  power  in  Delhi,  to  the  invasion  of  Tamerlane  in 
1399,  or  to  the  invasion  of  Baber  in  1526,  the  character  and 
spirit  of  the  Mohammedans  and  the  oppressed  and  suffering 
state  of  the  Hindus,  who  were  then  more  than  nine  tenths  of 
the  population,  do  not  exhibit  a favorable  view  of  the  effects  of 
the  government.  It  is  not  easy  to  believe  that  the  general  state 
of  India,  the  state  and  circumstances  of  more  than  nine  tenths 
of  the  people,  were  in  any  way  improved  during  this  period  by 
the  Mohammedan  government  of  the  country.  Nor  was  the 
state  of  the  Hindu  population  much  if  any  improved  during 
the  reigns  of  Baber  and  Humayoon.  In  the  reigns  of  Acber, 
Jehangheer,  Shah  Jehan,  and  Aurungzeb,  a period  of  140  years, 
the  Mohammedan  power  was  extended  and  consolidated.  And 
yet  during  this  period  there  were  often  wars  of  a religious  char- 
acter, which  were  carried  on,  as  such  wars  always  are,  with 
great  barbarity  and  cruelty.  Nor  did  such  wars  and  the  spirit 
engendered  by  them  cease  with  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  of 
Delhi,  consequent  upon  the  death  of  Aurungzeb.  A strong 
spirit  of  fanaticism  pervaded  the  government  of  Tippoo  Sultan, 
of  the  Mahrattas,  and  of  Ahmed  Shah  AbdaUee,  producing  per- 
secution and  oppression,  wars  and  revolutions.  The  Moham- 
medan courts,  government  agents,  and  armies  may  have  had  a 
higher  state  of  civilization  than  any  Hindu  courts,  agents,  or 
armies,  but  they  had  little  influence  upon  the  state  and  circum- 
stances of  the  Hindus,  who  were  always  the  great  body  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  who  were  often  suffering  in  various  ways  from 
the  proselyting  efforts  and  haughty  spirit  of  their  rulers. 


152 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 

DISCOVERIES  AND  CONQUESTS  OP  TEE  PORTUGUESE. 

Tue  15th  century  is  remarkable  for  great  events,  inventions, 
and  discoveries.  The  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  and  tlie 
capture  of  Constantinople  united  in  producing  the  revival  of 
letters  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  while  their  diseovery  of 
America  and  of  the  passage  round  Africa  to  the  southern  coun- 
tries of  Asia  and  its  islands,  spread  out  before  them  the  world  for 
conquest  and  commerce.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century  the 
Portuguese  were  far  in  advance  of  any  other  nation  in  maritime 
diseovery.  In  1413  they  discovered  the  Islands  of  Madeha,  and 
in  1454  they  reached  Senegal.  In  accordance  with  the  spirit  of 
the  age,  the  propagation  of  Christianity  was  avowed  as  the 
leading  object  in  prosecuting  these  discoveries.  And  to  excite 
greater  interest  in  such  enterprises  among  his  people.  Prince 
Henry  applied  to  the  Pope,  setting  forth  that  the  propagation 
of  the  Christian  faith,  the  enlargement  of  the  Holy  See,  and 
the  salvation  of  the  heathen  in  the  countries  discovered,  had 
been  and  would  continue  to  be  his  great  object,  and  soheiting 
for  his  nation  exclusive  rights  and  privileges.  Eugene  IV.  who 
then  filled  the  Holy  See,  and  who,  as  the  vicegerent  of  Christ, 
professed  to  have  power  to  dispose  of  all  parts  of  the  earth  as 
he  pleased,  strongly  commended  the  zeal  of  the  king  and  Iris 
people,  and  issued  a buU  exhorting  them  to  continue  in  the 
same  glorious  career,  and  granting  them  exclusive  right  to  all 
the  countries  they  should  discover  from  Cape  Non  to  the  con- 
tinent of  India.  This  grant  not  only  infused  new  ardor  into 
the  Portuguese  nation,  but  as  it  was  not  supposed  in  that  age 
that  the  Holy  Father  had  exceeded  his  power,  it  j)reventcd  all 
the  other  nations  of  Europe  from  in  any  way  interfering  \vith 
tlie  rights  of  the  crown  of  Portugal  to  all  the  discoveries  they 
miglit  make. 

In  1484  the  Portuguese  readied  the  coast  of  Congo,  and 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


153 


finding  the  coast  there  turned  towards  the  cast,  supposed  they 
must  have  nearly  reached  the  southern  limit  of  the  continent. 
This  hope  induced  John  II.  to  send  out  three  vessels  under  Bar- 
tholomew Diaz,  an  experienced  and  skilful  officer,  who  encoun- 
tered much  tempestuous  weather,  and  was  carried  so  Tar  into  the 
Southern  Ocean  that  in  sailing  back  in  search  of  land  he 
reached  the  continent  near  its  southern  extremity.  Diaz  would 
gladly  have  prosecuted  his  voyage  on  the  eastern  side,  but  his 
officers  and  crew  all  insisted  upon  returning  home,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  yield  to  their  wishes.  The  king,  on  hearing  a descrip- 
tion of  their  discovery,  named  the  point  of  land  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  which  it  has  ever  since  retained.  Affairs  of  a 
more  urgent  nature  occupied  the  time  of  John  tiU  liis  death  in 
1495.  In  the  mean  time  maritime  enterprise  had  received  a 
new  impulse  from  the  discovery  of  America  in  1492  by  Colum- 
bus. Emanuel,  who  had  succeeded  John,  now  resolved  to  pros- 
ecute discovery  with  increasing  ardor.  He  caused  several  ves- 
sels to  be  prepared  in  superior  style,  and  intrusted  the  expedi- 
tion to  Vasco  de  Gama,  a member  of  the  royal  household,  andi 
who  had  acquired  a high  reputation  for  nautical  skill  and  enter-' 
prise.  No  previous  expedition  had  excited  so  much  interest  and 
60  high  expectations.  When  all  the  preparations  had  been 
completed,  Gama  received  his  instructions  from  the  king  in 
open  court,  with  a consecrated  silk  banner,  and  a letter  to  the 
mysterious  Prester  John,  who  it  was  supposed  was  then  reign- 
ing somewhere  in  Southern  Asia,  Previous  to  embarking,  aU 
the  officers  assembled  in  the  church  and  received  the  sacrament, 
and  the  priests  and  monies  accompanied  them  to  the  ships,  bear- 
ing wax  tapers  and  chanting  prayers.  AU  the  sailors  went 
through  the  ceremonies  of  confession  and  absolution,  as  a suit- 
able preparation  for  so  uncertain  and  dangerous  an  expedition. 

Gama  saUed  from  Lisbon  on  the  8th  of  July,  1497,  but  as  he 
stopped  at  several  places  on  the  coast  they  did  not  reach  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  continent  tUl  November,  and  Avhen 
they  changed  their  course  for  India,  they  celebrated  the  event 
with  religious  services  and  great  rejoicings,  an  event  in  modern 
discovery  only  exceeded  by  the  discovery  of  America. 

Gama  then  proceeded  along  the  eastern  coast,  endeavoring 
where  he  could,  to  hold  intercourse  with  the  inhabitants  and 


154 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


obtain  all  possible  information  concerning  the  countries  and 
their  inhabitants,  till  he  reached  hlozambique.  Here  they  found 
another  class  of  people,  professing  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
wearing  turbans,  and  clothed  in  cotton,  sUk,  and  velvet.  The 
Portuguese*  were  now  in  high  spirits,  as  they  appeared  to 
be  approaching  the  rich  and  civihzed  nations  of  India,  of 
whom  they  had  heard  such  marvellous  accounts.  Their  inter- 
course with  the  inhabitants  at  Mozambique  was  for  some 
time  of  a friendly  character,  but  the  Mohammedans,  on  learning 
who  the  Portuguese  were  and  their  objects  in  coming  to  the 
East,  became  jealous  of  them,  and  were  soon  detected  in  plans 
for  cutting  them  off.  Having  obtained  a pilot,  Gama  proceeded 
to  Mombas,  where  the  people  at  first  appeared  very  friendly,  but 
soon  became  hostile  and  made  repeated  attempts  to  surprise  his 
ships  and  cut  their  cables.  From  Mombas,  Gama  proceeded  to 
Melinda,  which  is  described  as  a weU-biult  and  beautiful  city, 
surrounded  by  numerous  gardens  and  forests  of  palm-trees. 
The  king  was  a Mohammedan,  who  fived  in  regal  splendor  and 
invited  Gama  to  visit  him  in  his  palace.  But  Gama,  remember- 
ing the  treachery  manifested  by  the  same  class  of  people  in  the 
ports  he  had  left,  pretended  that  the  king  of  Portugal  had  strictly 
forbidden  him  to  go  on  shore,  and  proposed  a meeting  in  boats. 
The  king  accepted  this  proposal,  and  he  and  Gama  had  an 
interview  in  this  manner.  He  made  many  inquiries  about  the 
vessels  and  also  about  the  king  of  Portugal,  his  army,  the  num- 
ber of  his  ships  of  war,  etc.  When  an  image  of  Mary  was  ex- 
hibited to  some  Hindu  merchants  who  were  on  board,  they  wor- 
shipped it  with  a readiness  and  veneration  which  greatly 
surprised  the  Portuguese.  Probably  this  image  was  taken  for 
an  idol  of  some  Hindu  goddess,  or  their  veneration  may  have 
originated  in  their  superstitious  reverence  for  any  object  of 
worship. 

Having  obtained  a pilot  who  had  often  been  to  India,  Gama 
left  the  coast  of  Africa  and  steered  his  course  for  Calicut.  In  23 
days  they  descried  the  mountains  of  India,  and  soon  after 
reached  Calicut,  the  place  above  all  others  which  they  wished 
to  see.  At  this  time  the  northern  parts  of  India  were  subject  to 
the  Mohammedans,  but  the  southern  parts,  or  nearly  all  south 
of  the  Dcckan,  was  subject  to  different  Hindu  sovereigns. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


155 


Among  the  latter,  the  king  of  Calicut,  who  had  the  title  of 
Zamorin,  or  king  of  kings,  was  conspicuous.  The  commerce 
of  the  western  coast  of  India  with  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian 
Gulf,  was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans  who  had 
originally  come  from  those  places,  and  of  proselytes  to  their 
faith  from  the  Hindus.  Aware  from  his  past  »experience  of 
the  treachery  of  this  class  of  people,  Gama  first  sent  on  shore 
his  pilot  and  a criminal,  who  had  been  sentenced  to  death 
in  Portugal,  and  brought  out  to  be  employed  in  cases  of  peculiar 
peril.  On  their  return  to  the  ship  the  next  day,  a man  accom- 
panied them,  who  said  he  was  a native  of  Tunis,  where  he  was 
acquainted  with  many  Portuguese  and  had  professed  Christian- 
ity. He  accosted  Gama  in  a cordial  manner,  and  expressed  his 
feelings  as  being  glad  to  see  them  in  a country  abounding  in 
precious  stones,  spices,  drugs,  and  all  the  most  valuable  articles 
of  commerce.  The  Zamorin  was  at  that  time  absent  from 
Calicut,  but  was  expected  to  return  in  a few  days,  when  Gama 
was  encouraged  to  expect  a very  friendly  reception.  In  these 
circumstances  many  things  conspired  to  excite  the  interest  and 
wonder  of  the  Portuguese.  On  one  occasion  a party  of  them 
being  on  shore,  and  being  near  a large  pagoda  which  had  some- 
what the  appearance  of  a church,  they  were  invited  into  the 
vestibule,  and  supposing  the  images  they  saw  around  them 
might  be  those  of  the  Apostles  and  saints,  they  began  to  pros- 
trate themselves  in  adoration.  One  of  them,  however,  more 
inquisitive  or  less  superstitious  than  the  rest,  examined  the  fig- 
ures more  carefully,  and  observing  that  some  of  them  were  of 
liideous  and  monstrous  forms,  having  4 or  5 hands  and  arms, 
several  faces,  etc.,  he  exclaimed,  “ K these  are  devils,  then  it  is 
God  whom  I worship.”  An  examination  of  the  idols  by  the 
rest  of  the  company  soon  brought  their  worship  to  a close. 

The  Zamorin  received  Gama  with  much  oriental  pomp,  and 
for  considerable  time  manifested  a friendly  disposition.  But  the 
hloharamedans,  jealous  of  this  interference  with  the  trade 
which  had  been  so  long  in  their  hands,  and  averse  to  aU  na- 
tions professing  the  Christian  faith,  soon  succeeded  in  exciting 
prejudices  against  the  Portuguese,  and  formed  plans  for  effecting 
their  ruin.  They  excited  the  superstitious  fears  of  the  Hindus  by 
predicting  approaching  ruin,  and  declared  Gama  and  all  his 


156 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


company  to  be  pirates,  who  subsisted,  by  plundering  and  destroy- 
ing ships  and  cities  wherever  they  had  been,  and  who  would 
continue  to  pursue  the  same  course  wherever  they  went. 
Gama  was  once  kept  in  arrest  as  a prisoner  for  some  time,  and 
soon  after  he  was  released,  Diaz  and  another  of  his  officers  were 
put  into  confinement.  He  at  length  effected  their  release  by  seiz- 
ing a considerable  number  of  natives  and  detaining  them  till  his 
own  men  were  restored.  He  then  left  Calicut,  forcibly  carrying 
with  him  several  of  the  men  whom  he  had  arrested.  These  he 
intended  to  take  with  him  to  Portugal,  so  that  they  might 
return  with  the  next  expedition  and  inform  their  countrymen 
of  the  power  and  glory  of  the  Portuguese  nation.  This  con- 
duct in  Gama  was  impolitic  as  well  as  unjust,  and  excited  great 
indignation  against  the  Portuguese  wherever  it  became  known 
to  the  people  of  India.  In  four  months  he  reached  the  coast 
of  Africa  at  Magadoxo,  and  passing  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  he 
reached  Lisbon  in  August,  having  been  absent  2 years  and  2 
months.  Of  the  108  mariners  he  took  with  him,  only  55 
returned  to  their  native  land.  On  reaching  Lisbon,  Gama 
and  his  men  went  to  the  same  church  in  which  religious  cer- 
emonies were  performed  previous  to  their  embarkation,  and 
they  spent  8 days  in  ceremonies,  services,  and  the  worship  of 
Mary.  He  then  made  his  public  entrance  into  Lisbon  with 
great  pomp ; the  king  bestowed  upon  him  a title  of  nobility  and 
liberal  rewards  for  his  services. 

The  return  of  Gama  and  the  accounts  he  gave  of  his  voyage 
and  of  the  wonders  he  had  seen,  produced  a strong  excitement 
through  all  Portugal.  A fleet  of  13  ships  and  carrying  1,200 
men,  was  prepared  with  all  possible  despatch.  This  expedition 
was  intrusted  to  Alvarez  Cabral,  a man  every  way  qualified  for 
such  an  important  enterprise.  The  conversion  of  the  nations 
discovered,  was  not  forgotten,  and  so  8 Franciscan  friars  accom- 
panied the  expedition,  who  were  instructed,  if  we  arc  to  believe 
Do  Barros,  “ to  carry  fire  and  sword  into  every  nation  who 
would  not  listen  to  their  preaching.”  This  armament  sailed 
in  March  of  1500,  and  on  their  way  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
proceeded  so  far  to  the  west  that  they  discovered  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  which  subsequently  became  the  most  imi)ortant  of  all 
the  Portuguese  foreign  possessions.  When  near  the  Cape  of 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


157 


Good  Hope,  he  was  involved  for  nearly  two  months  in  very 
stormy  weather ; he  lost  several  of  his  ships,  and  had  only  3 
with  him  when  he  passed  round  the  Cape.  He  followed  the 
coast  of  Africa,  like  his  predecessor,  till  he  reached  Melinda,  and 
then  proceeded  directly  to  Calicut.  He  restored  the  captives 
carried  away  by  his  predecessor,  who  were  well  clothed,  and 
gave  a wonderful  account  of  what  they  had  seen  in  Europe. 
After  some  delay  and  ti'ouble  in  arranging  preliminaries,  Cabral 
obtained  an  interview  u*ith  the  Zamorin,  who  received  him  in 
apparently  a friendly  manner,  and  gave  the  Portuguese  permis- 
sion to  establish  a factory  in  Calicut.  Thus  far  all  appeared  to 
be  promising,  but  the  Mohammedans  soon  began  in  various 
ways  to  oppose  them  and  to  embarrass  their  operations.  Cabral 
after  suffering  their  annoyance  for  some  time,  seized  one  of  their 
ships  richly  laden  with  spices,  and  transferred  its  cargo  to  his 
own  ships.  The  Mohammedans  made  their  complaints  to  the 
Zamorin,  representing  that  the  Portuguese  had  now  shown 
themselves  in  their  true  character  of  robbers  and  pirates.  The 
Zamorin  either  gave,  or  was  understood  to  give,  permission  to 
seek  redress  in  any  way  they  might  choose.  Collecting  some 
force  they  made  an  attack  upon  the  factory  so  suddenly,  that 
there  was  barely  time  to  close  the  gates  against  them.  Correa, 
who  was  in  charge,  arranged  his  men  on  the  roof  to  make  the 
best  defence  they  could,  but  while  his  force  consisted  of  only 
70  men,  their  assailants  consisted  of  several  thousands.  A part 
of  the  wall  was  battered  down,  the  assailants  entered  the  fac- 
tory, put  50  of  the  Portuguese  to  death,  and  the  rest  leaped  into 
the  sea  and  swam  to  their  boats. 

Cabral,  not  appreciating  the  provocation  he  had  given,  was 
very  indignant  at  this  loss  of  the  factory  and  so  many  of  his 
men,  and  hearing  that  the  Zamorin  was  participating  in  the 
plunder,  he  resolved  to  make  retaliation  and  reprisals.  He  seized 
10  Mohammedan  ships,  and  having  transferred  their  cargoes  to 
his  own  vessels,  arranged  them  in  order  for  greater  effect  on  the 
people,  and  set  them  on  fire.  At  the  same  time  he  opened  a 
cannonade  on  the  city,  which  set  it  on  fire  in  several  places. 
All  fui-ther  amicable  intercourse  wdth  the  king  and  people  at 
Calicut  was  at  an  end,  and  Cabral  sailed  for  Cochin.  Here  he 
had  an  audience  with  the  prince,  who  received  him  in  a Mendly 

14 


158 


I'NDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


manner.  This  prince  was  a vassal  of  the  Zamorin  of  Calicut, 
and  being  then  involved  in  some  difficulties  with  his  sovereign, 
was  probably  for  this  reason  more  ready  to  cultivate  the 
acquaintance  of  the  Portuguese.  Cabral  here  succeeded  in 
completing  his  cargoes,  and  returned  to  Lisbon.  But  of  the  13 
ships  he  took  with  him  only  6 returned  ; all  the  rest  were  lost. 

The  accounts  which  Cabral  and  his  company  gave  of  their 
adventures,  and  of  the  countries  and  nations  they  had  seen,  pro- 
duced a strong  sensation  through  the  kingdom.  Revenge  for 
supposed  injuries,  desire  of  conquest  and  of  foreign  possessions, 
zeal  for  propagating  the  Christian  faith,  and  the  hope  of  gain 
by  a profitable  commerce,  all  conspired  to  enlist  the  feehngs  of 
the  nation.  The  Pope,  too,  had  conferred  on  Portugal  the 
dominion  of  all  the  eastern  countries  which  her  fleets  might  dis- 
cover, and  so  the  long  thought  it  was  right  for  him  to  take  pos- 
session, peaceably  if  he  could,  and  if  not,  then  by  conquest,  and 
then  it  was  his  duty  to  convert  the  inhabitants  to  the  Romish 
faith.  The  king  assumed  the  lofty  title  of  “ Lord  of  the  Navi- 
gation, Conquest,  and  Commerce  of  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  Persia, 
and  Lidia.”  The  most  vigorous  measures  were  taken  to  pre- 
pare a force  that  would  be  able  to  subdue  any  opposing  power, 
and  a fleet  of  15  ships  soon  sailed  from  Lisbon,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Vasco  de  Gama.  A part  of  this  fleet  was  designed 
to  blockade  the  Red  Sea  so  effectually  as  to  stop  aU  the  trade 
carried  on  by  the  IMohammedans  between  its  ports  and  India. 
The  Mohammedans  had  so  uniformly  manifested  an  unfriendly 
spirit  towards  the  Portuguese,  and  been  apparently  the  exciting 
cause  of  their  troubles  in  so  many  different  places,  that  Gama 
appears  to  have  resolved  to  treat  them  everywhere  as  enemies. 
The  general  prejudice  which  then  pervaded  the  nation  against 
all  who  professed  this  faith,  had  probably  also  some  influence 
on  Gama  and  all  under  him.  He  had  an  opportunity  of  soon 
showing  this  spirit,  for  on  approaching  the  coast  of  India,  he 
seized  a large  IMohammcdan  vessel,  and  having  taken  out  all 
that  was  valuable,  he  shut  up  the  crew  in  the  hold  and  set  the 
ship  on  fire.  Lafiteau  says  that  300  persons  thus  perished, 
among  whom  were  many  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Mecca.  On 
arriving  at  Calicut,  and  failing  to  obtain  such  redress  as  he 
demanded,  Gama  collected  50  natives  from  ships  he  had  seized. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


159 


and  holding  an  hour-glass  in  his  hand  told  the  messenger  that 
unless  his  demands  were  satisfied  before  all  the  sand  shoxdd  run 
out,  he  would  eause  all  these  men  to  be  put  to  death.  And  no 
answer  having  been  received  witliin  the  time  specified,  the  50 
men  were  put  to  death.  lie  also  mutilated  several  natives  who 
were  then  on  board  his  ships  by  cutting  off  a hand  or  foot,  and 
then  sending  them  ashore.  One  account  says  he  treated  50 
fishermen  in  this  way.  He  then  bombarded  the  city  for  some 
time,  causing  great  destruction  of  life  and  property.  Gama 
then  proceeded  to  Cochin,  where  he  was  received  in  a friendly 
manner.  It  was  not  long  before  a brahmin  of  venerable  age 
and  appearance,  and  very  plausible  and  insinuating  in  his 
address,  arrived  at  Cochin,  with  a message  from  the  Zamorin  to 
Cabral.  The  brahmin,  having  understood  that  the  Portuguese 
were  anxious  to  convert  the  people  of  Lidia  to  their  own  faith, 
began  by  making  some  inquLies  about  Christianity,  for  which 
he  professed  to  have  great  admiration,  and  was  only  wishing  for 
some  further  instruction  before  he  would  publicly  embrace  it. 
He  then  assured  Gama  that  the  Zamorin  was  very  sorry  for  all 
that  had  occurred  at  Calicut,  that  he  was  willing  to  make  any 
redress  for  the  injuries  which  had  been  suffered,  and  to  renew 
friendly  relations  and  amicable  intercourse  with  the  Portuguese. 
By  these  means  Gama  was  induced  to  return  to  Calicut,  but 
instead  of  having  an  audience  with  the  Zamorin  as  he  expected, 
he  found  his  ship  surrounded  with  36  war  proas,  filled  with 
armed  men,  who  already  considered  him  as  their  prisoner.  Per- 
ceiving his  danger,  he  cut  the  cable  of  his  ship,  and  the  wind 
being  in  his  favor  he  succeeded  in  extricating  his  ship  from  her 
perilous  state  and  returned  to  Cochin.  He  then  cruised  about 
for  some  time,  took  and  plundered  several  ships  with  valuable 
cargoes,  and  having  stationed  part  of  his  squadron  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Red  Sea  to  intercept  the  trade  of  the  Moham- 
medans, he  returned  to  Portugal. 

As  soon  as  the  Zamorin  heard  that  Gama  and  his  fleet  had 
gone,  he  prepared  to  chastise  the  king  of  Cochin  who  was  his 
vassal,  for  receiving  and  treating  the  Portuguese  in  so  friendly  a 
manner,  and  for  assisting -them  in  procuring  cargoes,  provisions, 
etc.  He  assembled  a large  array,  and  proceeding  to  Cochin, 
demanded  that  the  Portuguese  in  charge  of  the  factory  Gama 


160 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


had  established  there,  should  be  delivered  up  to  him,  and  that 
the  king  should  engage  to  have  no  more  intercourse  or  con- 
nection with  any  of  the  Portuguese  nation.  The  king  of 
Cochin  was  determined  to  presers^e  the  alliance  he  had  formed, 
and  defended  his  city  with  luuch  gallantry.  But  he  was  over- 
powered by  the  superior  force  of  the  Zamorin,  and  with  the 
agents  of  the  factory  and  some  of  his  friends  he  w'as  compelled 
to  take  refuge  on  the  island  of  Vipeen.  This  island  was  then 
one  of  the  sacred  places  on  the  coast  and  was  easily  defended. 
The  Icing,  his  allies  and  friends,  continued  here,  though  re- 
duced to  great  distress,  tiU  they  were  relieved  by  the  arrival  of 
some  ships  from  Portugal.  The  Zamorin  seeing  the  Portuguese 
had  returned,  soon  evacuated  the  city  and  returned  to  Calicut, 
and  the  king  of  Cochin,  aided  by  the  Portuguese,  soon  recovered 
his  capital,  and  was  reinstated  in  his  dominions.  Albuquerque, 
who  had  the  charge  of  the  Portuguese  fleet,  went  to  Calicut 
and  opened  negotiations  for  peace  and  commerce  with  the 
Zamorin,  but  the  exorbitant  demands  of  the  Portuguese,  and 
the  losses,  injuries,  and  wrongs  which  the  Zamorin  and  his  sub- 
jects had  suffered,  did  not  admit  of  any  permanent  and  satisfac- 
tory adjustment.  So  Albuquerque  left  a few  hundred  men  at 
Cochin  under  Duarte  Pacheco,  to  guard  the  capital  of  his  ally, 
and  returned  to  Europe. 

The  Zamorin  now  resolved  to  make  another  attempt  to  chas- 
tise his  refractory  vassal,  and  to  prevent  the  Portuguese  from 
acquiring  any  secure  hold  in  the  country.  He  collected  his  no- 
bles and  Ills  allies,  and  many  IMohammedans  viewing  their 
interests  as  largely  involved  in  the  issue,  engaged  in  the  war. 
The  army  amounted  to  50,000  men,  and  the  vessels  to  IGO. 
Two  Italian  adventurers,  who  had  come  to  India  by  way  of  the 
Red  Sea,  undertook  to  cast  cannon,  and  introduce  into  the 
Zamorin’s  army  the  latest  improvements  of  European  warfare. 
The  force  collected  was  so  large  and  the  preparations  by  land 
and  sea  were  so  formidable,  that  the  aflairs  of  the  king  of  Co- 
chin appeared  desperate  to  his  friends  generally  as  well  as  to 
his  enemies.  In  these  feelings  the  Icing  participated,  and  inti- 
mated to  the  Portuguese  commander  that  resistance  would  be 
quite  useless,  and  the  choice  before  them  was  unconditional 
submission  or  death.  To  his  surprise  he  found  Pacheco,  instead 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


161 


of  being  discouraged,  was  confident  that  if  the  forces  of 
the  king  would  do  their  part,  he  could  repel  the  vast  army  then 
surrounding  them.  The  king  was  so  much  pleased  with  the 
spirit  which  Pacheco  showed,  that  he  intrusted  to  him  the 
entire  management  of  the  war.  Pacheco  made  a judicious  ar- 
rangement of  the  forces  under  his  command,  and  securing  for 
himself  every  advantage  which  the  state  of  the  city  and  their 
circumstances  admitted,  he  awaited  the  onset  of  the  enemy. 
The  attack  was  made  on  the  sea  and  land.  The  forces  of  the 
Idng  as  soon  as  they  saw  the  vast  army  approaching,  glittering 
with  armor  and  loudly  shouting,  were  seized  with  a panic  and 
fled  for  safety.  But  the  Portuguese  repelled  the  attack  with 
such  coolness  and  valor,  and  poured  upon  their  enemies  such  a 
destructive  fire  that  they  were  finally  beaten  and  retreated. 
Attacks  were  afterwards  made  several  times  in  which  the  Por- 
tuguese suffered  the  loss  of  several  brave  men,  but  the  loss  of 
the  Zamorin  was  fearfully  great.  His  army  becoming  dis- 
heartened, and  sickness  raging  in  his  camp,  he  gave  up  all  hope 
of  success  and  returned  to  Calicut. 

This  war,  though  of  so  short  duration,  probably  exerted 
more  influence  than  any  other  in  the  history  of  European  war- 
fare in  India.  Indeed,  it  may  be  regarded  as  having  laid  the 
foundation  of  European  empire  in  southern  Asia.  It  was  now 
manifest  that  the  vast  armies  which  oriental  sovereigns  bring 
into  the  field,  can  effect  little  in  the  way  of  conquest  or  defence, 
when  opposed  to  men  of  cool  valor,  thorough  discipline,  and 
under  the  command  of  brave  and  experienced  officers.  This 
opinion  encouraged  the  Portuguese,  and  afterwards  the  English, 
Dutch,  and  French,  in  their  spirit  of  conquest  and  daring  adven- 
ture, though  it  sometimes  led  small  bodies  of  Europeans  to 
put  themselves  in  circumstances  of  great  peril,  and  in  some 
instances,  probably,  of  certain  destruction. 

In  1505,  the  king  of  Portugal  sent  a large  fleet  under  Fran- 
cisco Almeida,  on  whom  he  conferred  the  title  of  viceroy  of 
India.  From  this  time  the  Portuguese  had  generally  a large 
fleet  in  the  Indian  seas,  and  they  became  the  terror  of  aU  places 
on  the  coast,  and  of  aU  ships  on  the  seas  which  had  sufficient 
wealth  to  be  a temptation  to  their  avarice.  The  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  who  derived  a large  revenue  from  the  trade  between 

14* 


162 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


his  dominions  and  India,  and  whose  ships  the  Portuguese  had 
often  plundered,  sent  a large  fleet  to  protect  his  trade  and  to 
inflict  merited  revenge  for  the  injuries  which  his  subjects  and 
others  of  his  faith  had  suffered.  The  Egyptian  flotilla  found  a 
squadron  of  the  Portuguese  fleet  near  Choul,  about  30  miles 
south  from  Bombay.  The  two  fleets  here  engaged  in  conflict, 
which  was  continued  for  several  days,  and  resulted  in  the  defeat 
of  the  Portuguese  and  the  death  of  their  commander,  who  was  a 
son  of  Almeida.  The  viceroy  resolved  to  avenge  the  death  of 
his  son,  and  destroy  the  Egyptian  fleet,  or  compel  the  ships  to 
return  to  the  Red  Sea.  He  had  prepared  a fleet  of  19  ships 
and  was  nearly  ready  to  sail,  when  Albuquerque  arrived  from 
Portugal  with  a large  reinforcement,  and  showed  a commission 
appointing  himself  viceroy.  Almeida  was  indignant  at  being 
thus  superseded  in  power  at  such  a time,  and  having  learned 
that  his  officers  would  support  him  in  refusing  obedience  in 
such  peculiar  chcumstances,  he  told  Albuquerque  that  he  was 
determined  to  continue  in  the  command  of  the  fleet  till  he  had 
avenged  the  death  of  his  son  and  destroyed  the  Egyptian  fleet, 
or  driven  them  all  from  the  Lidian  seas.  Albuquerque  remon- 
strated, but  all  was  in  vain,  for  he  had  no  means  to  enforce 
obedience,  and  so  Almeida  sailed  on  his  expedition.  While  on 
his  way,  learning  that  Dabool,  a place  of  large  trade  on  the 
coast,  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Egyptians,  he  made  a furi- 
ous attack  upon  it,  and  got  possession  of  the  fort  and  the  city. 
He  first  gave  up  the  whole  place  to  plunder  and  massacre,  and 
then  set  the  city  on  fire.  “ The  streets  streamed  with  blood,  the 
fire  raged  furiously,  and  in  a few  hours  there  remained  of  this 
magnificent  city  only  a pile  of  smoking  wood  and  ashes.  The 
shipping  in  the  harbor  was  also  consumed.”  * .Almeida  then 

* I’he  Jesuit  Lnfitcau  describing  the  capture  of  Dabool  says,  “ The  Portuguese 
spared  neitlicr  age  nor  sex.  The  wife  of  the  Governor  liiinself  could  not  pur- 
chase his  life  with  the  oiler  of  all  her  riches.  The  insolent  coiujueroi's  fell 
with  such  savjigc  fury  upon  the  miserable  inhabitants  that  the)'  took  pleasure  in 
tearing  children  from  the  bosom  of  their  mothers  and  dashing  their  brains  out 
against  the  walls;  so  that  their  cruelty  has  passed  into  a proverb  in  Hindustan, 
the  Hindus  in  their  imj)recations  being  accustomed  in  >^ay,  ' ^^ay  the  wrath  of 
the  FeriiKjhig  fall  upon  thee,  ns  it  full  upon  Dabool."  ^^'hen  at  length  they  were 
glutted  with  murder,  they  thought  of  notliing  but  satiating  their  avarice,  and 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


163 


proceeded  to  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  in  search  of  the  Egyptian 
fleet,  and  found  it  near  the  island  of  Diu.  The  Portuguese 
attacked  the  Egyptians,  sunk  or  seized  all  the  large  ships  and 
obtained  great  booty.  ^Umeida  compelled  the  Egyptian  ad- 
miral to  deliver  up  all  the  European  prisoners,  and  he  then  set 
sail  for  Cochin.  When  near  Cannanore,  he  ordered  a general 
massacre  of  all  the  prisoners  on  board  his  ships.  Such  wanton 
cruelty  excited  great  dread  of  Portuguese  power,  and  the  ab- 
horrence of  men  who  appeared  to  delight  in  murder  and  mas- 
sacre. 

On  returning  to  Cochin,  .tUmeida  reluctantly  resigned  his 
power  into  the  hands  of  ^Vlbuquerque,  and  soon  after  sailed  for 
Portugal.  When  passing  along  the  southern  coast  of  Africa,  he 
went  ashore  with  some  of  his  men,  who  becoming  involved  in  a 
quarrel  with  the  natives,  he  interfered  and  received  a wound 
which  soon  proved  mortal.  Albuquerque  now  duly  invested 
with  the  power  of  viceroy,  proceeded  to  carry  into  effect  the 
plans  of  conquest  he  had  formed.  He  failed  in  an  attack  on 
Calicut,  where  in  a severe  conflict  “he  was  so  stunned  by 
repeated  blows,  that  he  remained  for  some  time  apparently 
dead,  but  his  followers  carried  him  off;  he  revived  and  slowly 
recovered.”  In  1510  he  took  Goa.  The  prince  to  whom  it 
belonged,  made  vigorous  attempts  to  recover  it  and  expel  the 
Portuguese,  but  after  much  severe  fighting  and  great  loss  on 
both  sides,  Albuquerque  retained  possession  of  the  place.  He 
erected  strong  fortifications,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  all  the 
Portuguese  dominions  in  the  Indian  seas.  He  next  took  IMa- 
lacca,  then  a place  of  large  trade  with  the  eastern  arcliipelago. 
His  attempts  to  take  Aden  failed,  but  he  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing possession  of  Ormuz,  then  the  chief  emporium  of  commerce 
in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Albuquerque  greatly  enlarged  the  power  of  the  Portuguese  in 
India,  and  his  government  has  always  been  regarded  as  the 
most  successful  and  brilliant  period  in  their  eastern  history.  Suc- 
ceeding viceroys  were  animated  by  a similar  spirit,  and  were 

Almeida,  before  be  could  get  them  away,  was  obliged  to  set  fire  to  the  town  and 
thus  put  the  finishing  stroke  to  the  destruction  of  all  that  had  escaped  the 
hands  of  the  rapacious  soldiery.” 


164 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


almost  constantly  engaged  in  some  warlike  enterprise.  No  one 
of  the  European  nations  interfered  with  the  Portuguese  for  a 
century  after  they  commenced  their  conquests  in  the  East,  and 
so  they  had  only  the  native  powers  to  contend  wdth.  These 
w^ars  were  often  carried  on  wdth  great  cruelty  and  barbarity. 
The  Portuguese  were  superior  to  the  native  powers  in  the  con- 
struction and  management  of  their  ships.  They  w’-ere  also 
superior  in  the  quality  of  their  guns  and  other  materials  of  war, 
and  they  had  more  skill  in  using  them.  It  was  their  custom  to 
seize  and  plunder  aU  ships  trading  without  a license  from  them, 
and  if  any  city  or  town  refused  to  allow  them  such  privileges  as 
they  demanded,  or  to  carry  on  trade  with  them  on  such  tei-ms 
as  they  dictated,  they  attacked  and  plundered  all  such  places  as 
far  as  they  could.  In  1500,  “ they  attacked  CaKcut,  then  the 
most  commercial  city  on  the  hlalabar  coast,  seized  the  ships  of 
the  king,  burnt  many  richly  laden  in  the  harbor,  and  made 
slaves  of  the  crews.”  In  1502,  “ they  again  attacked  Calicut, 
burning  the  palace  and  many  houses,  and  seized  several  ships, 
with  rich  cargoes,  in  the  harbor.”  In  1505  “ they  again  attacked 
the  city  and  reduced  a large  part  of  it  to  ashes.  They  also  took 
Cranganore  and  burned  it.  The  king  of  Quiloa  refusing  to  pay 
them  tribute,  they  seized  and  plundered  the  town.  In  1507 
they  took  Mombas  by  storm,  and  made  slaves  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. They  also  burnt  dowm  and  destroyed  the  shipping  in  the 
harbor.”  In  1507,  “ they  took  hluscat,  and  committed  great 
ravages  on  the  towns  upon  the  coast  of  Africa,  plundering  and 
burning  aU  places  where  the  chiefs  refused  to  become  tributary.” 
In  1508,  “ Brena  was  plundered  and  burnt,  and  great  cruelties 
were  inflicted  upon  the  inhabitants.”  In  1509,  “ Calicut  was 
again  attacked,  and  was  taken,  plundered,  and  burnt.”  In 
1510,  “ Goa  w^as  attacked  and  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  but  being 
soon  after  recovered  by  its  native  sovereign,  was  again  seized, 
and  the  whole  garrison  put  to  the  sword.”  In  the  same  year 
they  also  “plundered  and  destroyed  Zanzibar.”  In  1511,  “they 
took  Malacca  by  storm,  and  plundered  the  city.”  In  1512, 
“ they  seized  and  plundered  Surat.”  In  1516,  “ Zeyla  was 
taken  and  burnt  by  them.”  In  1526  and  1527,  “ they  plundered 
and  destroyed  Doofar  and  Massowa,  and  plundered  and  burnt 
hlangalore,  Porcia,  and  Chihva.”  In  1530,  they  again  “biunt 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


1G5 


Surat  and  several  villages,”  and  the  next  year  they  “ destroyed 
Gogo,  Pate,  Mangarole,  and  most  of  the  other  towns  on  the 
coast  of  Gnjerat.” 

Such  instances  show  the  spirit  and  manner  in  which  the 
Portuguese  carried  on  their  wars  of  aggression,  wliich  were  con- 
tinued through  the  government  of  several  successive  viceroys. 
Li  1536,  a powerful  combination  was  formed  against  the  Portu- 
guese. The  kings  of  Cambay  and  Gujerat  raised  an  army  of 
more  than  20,000  men,  and  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  sent  70  galleys, 
containing  8,000  Turldsh  soldiers  and  a powerful  train  of  artil- 
lery from  Suez.  The  chief  place  of  conlUct  was  Diu,  then  in 
the  possession  of  the  Portuguese.  At  one  time  the  affairs  of 
tlie  Portuguese  appeared  to  be  desperate^  but  they  defended 
themselves  with  such  valor,  perseverance,  and  skill,  that  the 
combination  failed  to  accomplish  their  purpose,  and  Diu  re- 
mained in  the  possession  of  the  Portuguese.  In  1570,  a yet 
more  powerful  combination  was  formed  against  them  by  the 
Zamorin  of  Calicut,  Adil  Shah,  king  of  Beejapoor,  and  Nizam 
IMurtezza,  long  of  Ahmednuggur.  At  this  time  Goa  was  the  prin- 
cipal place  of  attack,  and  the  united  force  collected  against  it 
was  estimated  to  exceed  100,000  men.  This  siege  of  Goa  is 
one  of  the  most  memorable  in  the  annals  of  European  warfare 
in  India.  After  a siege  of  nearly  2 years  and  great  loss  on  both 
sides,  the  siege  was  abandoned,  and  the  native  powers  returned 
to  their  own  capitals.  The  Portuguese  at  one  time  possessed 
Sofala,  Mozambique,  and  Mombas  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa ; Aden  and  Muscat  in  Arabia ; Ormuz  and  Bussora  in 
the  Persian  Gulf;  Diu,  Damaun,  Basseen,  Salsette,  Bombay, 
Choul,  Dabool,  Goa,  Onore,  Barcelore,  IMangalore,  Cannanore, 
Cranganore,  Caheut,  Cochin,  and  Quilon  on  the  western  coast  of 
India.  On  the  eastern  coast  they  had  Negapatam,  St.  Thome, 
and  IMausalapatam,  and  they  had  several  places  in  Bengal; 
they  had  also  a considerable  part  of  Ceylon.  These  posses- 
sions were  all  subject  in  civil  and  military  matters  to  the  viceroy, 
who  lived  at  Goa.  The  archbishop  of  Goa  was  over  them 
in  aU  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

In  1580,  Portugal  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  and 
the  two  crowns  continued  united  till  1640.  During  this  time 
the  Spanish  possessions  in  America  chiefly  engaged  the  atten- 


166 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


tion  of  the  government,  and  the  possessions  acquired  by  the 
Portuguese  in  the  East  were  neglected.  From  this  time  the 
power  of  Portugal  in  the  East  declined,  and  she  gradually 
lost  most  of  her  possessions,  some  to  the  Dutch,  who  took 
Cochin,  Ceylon,  and  Nagapatam,  and  some  to  the  native 
powers.  The  Portuguese  dominions  in  the  East  are  now 
limited  to  a few  places  of  small  population  and  no  political 
importance,  and  a Portuguese  ship  is  now  seldom  seen  in  the 
Indian  seas. 

Near  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  Holland  took  its  place 
among  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  soon  acquired  the  first  rank 
as  a maritime  power.  They  first  attempted  to  proceed  to  the 
East  Indies  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  after  making  three  unsuc- 
cessful efforts,  a fleet  of  several  ships  proceeded  round  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  in  1576.  The  Dutch  were  soon  engaged  largely 
in  eastern  trade,  and  contended  with  the  Portuguese  for  suprem- 
acy in  the  Indian  seas.  This  was  the  first  interference  which  the 
Portuguese  experienced  fi'om  any  European  power,  and  the 
eastern  nations  then  saw  the  only  two  Christian  nations  of 
whom  they  had  any  knowledge,  engaged  in  violent  war  with 
each  other.  The  ships  of  each  nation  seized  and  plundered 
those  of  the  other,  wherever  they  could  be  found.  The  conflict 
was  chiefly  in  the  islands  and  places  east  and  south-east  from 
India,  where  the  Dutch  soon  gained  the  ascendency  and  still 
have  large  possessions.  They  also  took  Ceylon,  Cochin,  Nega- 
patam,  and  some  other  places  from  the  Portuguese  in  India. 

COMMERCE  AND  CONQUESTS  OP  THE  ENGLISH. 

The  first  attempts  of  English  navigators  to  reach  India  were 
made  through  the  Arctic  Ocean,  by  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  Fro- 
bisher, and  others.  In  1577,  Sir  Francis  Drake  commenced  his 
voyage  round  the  world,  passing  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan 
and  returning  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  While  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  South  America,  he  made  prizes  of  several  richly 
laden  Spanish  ships,  and  brouglit  home  with  him  great  wealth. 
His  success  produced  great  excitement,  and  a strong  spirit  for  dis- 
covery and  foreign  commerce.  Queen  Elizabeth  visited  liim  on 
board  his  ship,  and  conferred  upon  him  the  honor  of  knighthood. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


167 


In  1583,  some  enterprising  travellers  and  merchants  proceeded 
to  India  by  way  of  Aleppo,  Bagdad,  and  Ormuz.  Among  the 
places  they  visited,  were  Goa,  Beejapoor,  Golconda,  Burhanpoor, 
Agra,  Benares,  Serampore,  Malacca,  and  Ceylon.  The  descrip- 
tion they  gave  of  the  productions,  wealth,  and  commerce  of  the 
countries  they  visited,  excited  strong  desire  for  opening  commu- 
nication with  them.  In  1591,  three  ships  sailed  for  India  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  So  many  pf  the  crews  became  sickly 
on  this  voyage  that  one  ship  returned  home  with  the  invahds. 
Another  ship  disappeared  soon  after  passing  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  was  never  again  heard’of,  and  the  other  having  seized 
several  rich  prizes,  and  traded  in  different  places  with  varied  suc- 
cess, returned  home  after  an  absence  of  more  than  three  years. 
In  1599,  Queen  Elizabeth  sent  Sir  John  Mildenhall  on  an  em- 
bassy to  the  emperor  of  India,  the  Great  Mogul,  as  he  was  called. 
But  he  died  in  Persia,  on  his  way  home,  and  it  does  not  appear 
that  any  important  advantages  were  secured  by  his  embassy. 

The  nation  had  now  obtained  so  much  knowledge  of  eastern 
countries,  there  was  so  much  demand  for  the  manufactures  and 
productions  of  those  countries,  and  they  saw  the  Portuguese 
and  Dutch  obtaining  so  much  advantage  from  commerce  with 
them,  that  in  the  early  part  of  1600,  an  association  was  formed 
in  London  for  carrying  on  direct  trade  with  India,  and  on  the 
13th  of  December,  A.  D.  1600,  this  association  obtained  an  Act  of 
incorporation,  under  the  title  of  “ The  Governor  and  Company 
of  Merchants  of  London,  trading  to  the  East  Indies.”  The 
company  was  to  be  under  the  management  of  a governor  and 
24  committee-men,  all  to  be  chosen  annually.  The  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  Act  were  to  continue  for  15  years,  but  if  the 
monopoly  should  be  found  to  be  injurious  to  the  public  wel- 
fare, then  upon  two  years’  notice,  it  might  become  annulled. 
Such  was  the  origin  of  the  East  India  Company. 

Such  was  the  confidence  in  the  newly  formed  company,  that 
the  subscriptions  to  the  capital  soon  amounted  to  more  than 
£75,000,  and  in  a few  months  they  despatched  5 ships  under 
the  command  of  Captain  Lancaster,  who  some  years  before  had 
made  a voyage  to  the  East  Indies.  He  proceeded  to  Sumafra, 
Java,  and  some  other  places,  but  he  found  the  articles  he  required 
so  scarce  and  costly,  that  “ he  became  apprehensive  of  incurring 


168 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


loss,  and  what  he  seems  to  have  dreaded  stiU  more,  the  disgrace 
of  returning  home  wdthout  a cargo.  From  this  anxiety  he  was 
relieved  by  meeting  a Portuguese  vessel  of  900  tons,  of  which 
he  made  a prize,  and  found  it  so  richly  laden  with  calicoes  and 
other  valuable  goods,  that  he  not  only  occupied  aU  his  tonnage, 
but  could  have  filled  more  ships,  if  he  had  had  them.” 

For  several  years,  the  business  of  the  company  consisted  of  a 
series  of  separate  adventures,  in  which  each  subscriber  shared 
in  the  profits  on  the  final  adjustment,  in  proportion  to  the  sum 
he  had  paid.  In  1612,  it  was  resolved  to  have  a permanent  or 
fixed  capital  on  the  principle  of  a joint-stock  company  for  four 
years,  and  the  sum  of  £418,691  was  subscribed  to  it.  This 
change  gave  more  stability,  regularity,  and  responsibility  to  their 
proceedings.  Their  trade  was  embarrassed  by  the  opposition 
of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  and  in  1615,  Sir  Thomas  Koe 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Grand  Mogul.  He  remained  in 
India  several  years,  and  obtained  some  important  advantages 
for  the  company. 

In  1617,  the  period  of  four  years  having  expired,  a fresh  sub- 
scription for  four  years  more  was  opened,  and  such  was  the 
desire  to  participate  in  it  that  £1,629,040  were  subscribed. 
The  subscribers  “ consisted  of  15  dukes  and  earls ; 82  knights, 
including  2 judges ; aU  the  king’s  council,  and  5 privy-council- 
lors ; 13  countesses  and  ladies ; 26  doctors  of  divinity  and 
physic ; 18  widows  and  virgins  ; 313  merchants  and  214  trades- 
men ; 212  without  titles ; 13  merchant-strangers,  and  36  whose 
occupations  were  unknown,  maldng  in  aU  954.”  These  facts 
show  that  the  trade  with  India  had  taken  strong  hold  of  the 
feelings  of  the  nation.  The  affairs  of  the  company  were  some- 
times prosperous,  and  sometimes  embarrassed,  varying  with  the 
state  of  the  nation,  and  their  success  or  losses  in  their  conflicts 
with  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  in  the  East  Indies.  When 
England  was  at  war  with  either  of  these  nations,  each  party 
endeavored  to  seize  the  other’s  ships  engaged  in  the  Indian 
trade,  as  such  ships  had  generally  very  rich  cargoes.  And 
when  there  was  no  war  between  these  nations,  yet  if  it  was 
easier  and  cheaper  to  obtain  cargoes  by  seizing  ships  already 
laden  than  to  purchase  such  commodities,  little  scruple  was  felt 
about  seizing  and  plundering  such  ships.  Tlie  Portuguese,  the 


UISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


169 


Spanish,  the  Dutch,  and  the  English,  who  were  engaged  in  the 
Indian  trade,  were  generally  at  war  witli  each  other  when  east 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  though  the  nations  in  Europe  were 
in  a state  of  peace. 

The  first  territory  acquired  by  the  Company  in  India,  was 
Madras,  which  was  obtained  in  1640,  by  treaty  with  a native 
prince.  The  Company  erected  a fort  there,  and  called  it  St. 
George,  the  town  retaining  its  original  name.  In  1667,  this 
place  was  incorporated  by  a royal  charter.  In  1668,  the  island 
of  Bombay,  which  was  included  in  the  dowry  Charles  I.  had 
received  by  his  marriage  with  the  Infanta  of  Portugal  in  1662, 
was  ceded  by  him  to  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  1687, 
was  constituted  the  chief  seat  of  the  British  government  in  India. 

The  charter  of  the  Company  was  from  time  to  time  renewed 
and  altered,  as  experience  suggested  and  the  exigencies  of  its 
affairs  appeared  to  require.  In  1661,  the  Company’s  governor* 
and  council  in  any  of  the  factories,  were  empowered  to  exercise 
civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  according  to  the  laws  of  England. 
Also  to  export  warlike  stores,  and  to  make  peace  and  war  with 
any  princes  in  the  limits  of  their  trade,  not  being  Christians. 
Li  1670,  the  Company  employed  30  ships  with  from  60  to  100 
men  each.  Their  affairs  were  subject  to  great  fluctuations,  and 
in  1665  their  stock  in  the  market  was  70  per  cent.  In  1676  it 
rose  to  245  per  cent.,  and  in  1685  it  was  sold  for  500  per  cent. 
Soon  after  this  the  capital  was  increased,  and  in  1702,  it 
amounted  to  £2,000,000,  and  they  had  factories  in  more  than  60 
different  places.  A factory  was  originally  a house  of  agency 
for  the  sale  and  purchase  of  goods.  Some  of  these  in  the  pro- 
gress of  trade  had  become  very  large  establishments,  and  often 
contained  a great  amount  of  money  and  valuable  property. 
Such  were  generally  fortified  to  secure  them  against  the  Portu- 
guese and  Dutch,  and  also  against  native  princes  in  times  of 
anarchy  and  civil  war.  These  fortified  factories  were  often  the 
scenes  of  severe  conflict,  sometimes  taken  and  plundered,  and  at 
other  times  successfully  defended.  In  1664,  when  Shevajee,  the 
founder  of  the  INIahratta  empire,  attacked  Surat  and  plundered 
the  city,  the  agents  of  the  Company  defended  their  factory  with 
so  much  valor,  that  much  as  he  wished  to  get  possession  of  it. 
he  did  not  succeed. 


15 


170 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


The  factories  or  commercial  establishments  of  the  European 
companies  often  contained  property  of  great  value.  In  oriental 
cities,  the  police  is  generally  inefficient  and  frequently  very  cor- 
rupt. The  countries  are  often  distracted  by  civil  wars,  when 
the  parties  become  more  intent  upon  enriching  themselves  by 
plunder  than  upon  bringing  war  to  a conclusion.  In  such  cities 
every  rich  man  was  obliged  to  regard  his  house  as  his  castle, 
and  have  some  means  for  defending  it.  In  such  circumstances 
the  reasons  for  Europeans  fortifying  their  factories  are  obvious, 
but  the  native  princes  in  permitting  this  to  be  done,  supposed 
nothing  would  be  done  beyond  what  was  necessary  for  self- 
defence.  They  never  supposed  that  these  places  of  trade 
would  become  strong  forts  to  resist  their  power,  involve  them  in 
war,  subvert  their  governments,  and  bring  their  countiies  into 
subjection  to  foreign  princes.  In  these  respects  history  shows 
how  much  they  were  disappointed. 

It  was  in  Bengal,  where  the  business  of  the  Company  be- 
came most  extended,  that  they  first  attempted  to  acquire  and 
establish  political  and  military  power.  The  agents  there  com- 
plained to  the  Directors  of  the  Company  of  the  injuries  and 
losses  they  had  suffered  from  the  native  powers,  and  expressed 
their  firm  belief  that  the  only  way  of  obtaining  any  redress  for 
the  past  and  security  for  the  future,  was  by  being  put  into  cir- 
cumstances to  defend  themselves,  and  to  assert  and  maintain  their 
rights.  In  consequence  of  these  complaints  and  representations, 
the  Directors  sent  10  armed  ships,  carrying  from  12  to  70  guns 
each,  and  6 comjjanies  of  soldiers.  It  was  expected  this  military 
force  would  be  largely  increased  by  companies  or  regiments  of 
native  soldiers,  commonly  called  sepoys,  and  ready  to  fight  for 
any  power  which  will  pay  them.  The  plan  was  to  take  Chitta- 
gong, fortify  it,  and  then  make  it  the  centre  of  their  military 
operations.  The  expedition  appears  to  have  been  badly  man- 
aged. The  fleet  arrived  in  the  Ganges  at  different  times,  and 
did  not  act  in  concert.  They  made  an  attack  on  Iloogley  and 
were  repulsed.  Their  factories  at  Patna  and  Cossimbazar  were 
taken  and  plundered.  The  Nabob  assembled  all  his  army  and 
made  an  attack  upon  them.  There  was  much  severe  lighting, 
and  the  Nabob’s  forces  were  repulsed  in  several  assaults.  'J’he 
English  defended  themselves  on  the  island  of  Injellee,  which 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


171 


they  siezed  and  fortified,  while  they  took  and  plundered  Bala- 
sore,  and  burnt  40  ships  in  the  harbor.  The  next  year  a treaty 
was  made  with  the  Nabob,  and  the  English  were  allowed  to  re- 
turn to  their  former  factories.  But  through  the  indiscretion  and 
rashness  of  some  of  the  agents,  hostilities  were  soon  renewed, 
and  all  the  business  of  the  Company  in  Bengal  was  sus- 
pended. 

Aurungzcb,  the  last  of  the  great  Mogul  sovereigns,  was  then  in 
power.  He  was  much  exasperated  with  these  proceedings,  and 
also  wdth  the  measures  of  Sir  John  Child  in  Bombay  and  other 
places  subject  to  him.  The  emperor  resolved  to  expel  the  Eng- 
lish from  his  dominions,  and  issued  orders  for  a general  attack 
upon  their  factories  and  other  possessions.  Surat  and  sev- 
eral other  factories  were  taken,  and  Bombhy  was  besieged. 
Thus  threatened  and  straitened,  “ the  English  stooped  to  the 
most  abject  submissions,”  and  at  length  succeeded  in  obtaining 
a cessation  of  hostilities. 

At  this  time  the  Directors  and  many  proprietors  of  the  Com- 
pany carefully  reviewed  its  history,  and  examined  its  state  and 
prospects.  And  the  result  was  a determination  to  acquire  terri- 
torial possessions  in  India  as  well  as  to  carry  on  trade  in  the 
country.  For  pursuing  this  course  they  had  the  example  and 
experience  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  whose  territorial  pos- 
sessions in  India  and  places  east  from  it  were  large,  and  who 
were  supposed  to  realize  great  advantages  from  them.  They 
had  also  learned  by  experience  the  inefficiency  of  the  native 
armies,  when  opposed  to  the  cool  valor  and  disciplined  skill  of 
European  troops.  In  1689,  the  Directors  sent  the  following  in- 
structions to  their  governors  and  councils  in  Lidia.  “ The 
increase  of  our  revenue  is  the  subject  of  our  care  as  much  as  our 
trade  ; it  is  that  must  maintain  our  force,  when  twenty  accidents 
may  interrupt  our  trade ; it  is  that  must  make  us  a nation  in 
India.  Without  that  we  are  but  as  a great  number  of  interlo- 
pers, united  by  his  Majesty’s  royal  charter,  fit  only  to  trade 
where  no  body  of  power  thinks  it  their  interest  to  prevent  us ; 
and  upon  this  account  it  is  that  the  wise  Dutch  in  aU  their  gen- 
eral advices  which  we  have  seen,  Avuite  ten  paragraphs  con- 
cerning government,  their  civil  and  military  policy,  warfare,  and 
the  increase  of  their  revenue,  for  one  paragiuph  they  write  con- 
cerning trade.” 


172 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  JIODEEN. 


This  was  a new  object  to  be  realized,  an  object  not  contem- 
plated in  the  original  plan  of  the  Company,  and  not  avowed  till 
nearly  a century  after  the  Company  was  formed.  The  introduc- 
tion and  steady  prosecution  of  this  principle  of  policy  has 
resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Lidia,  so  that  England  now  governs 
as  large  and  perhaps  larger  population  there  than  was  ever  sub- 
ject to  any  Hindu  or  Mohammedan  sovereign  in  that  country. 

The  charter  was  regarded  by  the  directors  and  proprietors  of 
the  Company  as  exclusive,  and  securing  to  them  a monopoly  of 
aU  trade  to  places  east  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  was 
always  difficult,  and  often  found  to  be  impossible,  to  enforce 
this  monopoly,  and  as  this  trade  was  very  profitable,  many 
adventm-ers  engaged  in  it.  These  men  were  called  interlopers^ 
and  occasioned  th<?  Company  much  trouble,  as  they  reduced  the 
profits  of  the  trade,  and  interfered  with  the  treaties  Muth  native 
powers.  The  governors  and  agents  were  instructed  to  seize  all 
such  ships,  and  to  treat  all  who  were  found  in  them  as  pnates. 
Many  such  ships  were  seized,  and  the  manner  in  which  their 
officers  and  crews  were  treated,  furnished  ground  for  great  com- 
plaint against  the  Company. 

They  had  also  other  difficulties  to  contend  with.  In  1618, 
James  I.  granted  letters  patent  for  an  East  India  Company  for 
Scotland.  This  was  generally  regarded  as  an  infringement  of 
the  right  of  the  original  Company,  and  it  was  some  time  and 
not  without  mueh  trouble  and  loss  that  matters  were  restored  to 
a satisfaetory  state.  In  1635,  Charles  I.  granted  a royal  license 
to  Sir  William  Coureen  and  others  to  trade  to  the  East  Indies. 
This  was  regarded  as  an  infringement  of  the  chartered  rights  of 
the  Company,  and  it  was  some  years  before  matters  were 
adjusted. 

In  1698,  some  merchants  in  London  obtained  a charter  as  “the 
English  Company  trading  to  the  East  Indies,”  the  other  or  old 
association  being  called  the  London  Company.  These  two 
Companies  were  rivals  for  several  years.  Great  animosity 
raged  between  them,  each  being  apjiarently  as  intent  on  injur- 
ing the  other,  as  it  was  upon  seeking  its  own  advantage.  In 
1708,  the  two  Companies  were  united.  The  Company  formed  in 
1698,  had  loaned  to  the  English  government  £2,000,000,  and 
when  the  two  were  united,  they  loaned  £1,200,000  more,  mak- 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


173 


ing  £3,200,000.  This  sum  shows  that  their  resources  must 
have  been  great.* 


HISTORY  OF  BENGAL  TILL  1800. 

The  British  settlements  in  Bengal,  were  commenced  subse- 
quently to  those  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  and  in  western 
India.  In  1698,  the  English  purchased  a few  small  villages  on 
the  Iloogley,  where  Calcutta  now  is,  and  there  established  a fac- 
tory. Changes  often  took  place  in  the  ruling  princes,  and  com- 
plaints of  unjust  demands  and  unreasonable  exactions  were 
sometimes  made,  but  the  trade  here  and  at  some  other  places  in 
Bengal,  was  carried  on  with  little  interruption  for  more  than  50 
years.  On  the  death  of  Aliverdi  Khan  in  1756,  Suraja  Dowla, 
his  grandson,  became  Nabob.  This  prince  was  ignorant  and- 
licentious,  cruel  and  avaricious.  Previous  to  the  death  of  iUi- 
verdi  Khan,  on  several  occasions  he  manifested  much  dislike  of 
the  English.  As  Calcutta  was  exposed  to  be  attacked  and 
plundered  by  the  French,  the  English  began  to  erect  or  repair 
some  fortifications  around  it.  Suraja  Dowla  was  greatly 
offended  at  their  doing  this,  saying  it  showed  a distrust  of  his 
power  to  protect  them,  or  an  intention  to  rebel  against  him. 
He  began  his  march  with  a large  force  from  Bajmahal  towards 
Calcutta.  On  his  way  he  made  the  English  agents  at  Cossim- 
bazar  prisoners,  and  plundered  the  factory. 

The  English  in  Calcutta,  on  hearing  that  Suraja  Dowla  was 
on  the  way  with  a large  army  and  had  plundered  Cossimbazar, 
resolved  to  defend  the  place.  He  arrived  sooner  than  he  was 
expected,  and  commenced  a furious  attack  upon  them.  It  was 
soon  apparent  that  the  fort  could  not  be  long  defended.  The 
women,  children,  and  some  of  the  men  (among  whom  were  the 

♦ Complaints  were  made  that  the  original  Company  obtained  votes  and  favors 
by  disti-ibuting  large  sums  of  money  in  Parliament.  The  House  of  Commons 
resolved  to  inquire  into  the  ground  of  these  charges,  and  ordered  their  books  to 
be  examined.  The  charges  were  found  to  be  fully  sustained.  “ It  appeared 
that  it  had  been  the  practice  and  even  the  habit  of  the  Company  to  give  bribes 
to  men  in  power,  tliat  previous  to  the  revolution  their  annual  expenses  under 
that  head  had  scarcely  ever  exceeded  £ 1,200;  that  since  the  revolution,  it  had 
greatly  increased,  and  that  in  the  year  1693,  it  amounted  to  nearly  £90,000,”  or 
nearly  450,000  dollars. 


15* 


174 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


governor  and  2 members  of  the  council),  found  safety  on  board 
the  ships,  wMch  went  down  the  river.  The  men,  146  in  num- 
ber, remained.  There  appears  to  have  been  indiscretion,  inde- 
cision, and  mismanagement  among  those  who  went  away  in  the 
ships,  or  in  those  who  remained  behind,  or  among  all  parties, 
Suraja  Dowla  soon  obtained  possession  of  the  place,  and 
expressed  great  indignation  that  they  should  attempt  to  defend 
it  against  him,  the  ruler  of  the  country.  The  number  of  men 
who  became  prisoners  was  146.  The  confinement  and  sufier- 
ings  of  these  persons  is  a remarkable  part  of  the  history  of  the 
English  in  India.  It  occurred  in  June,  the  hottest  part  of  the 
year  in  Calcutta,  and  the  weather  was  unusually  warm  and  sul- 
try for  the  season.  The  following  is  the  most  particular  account 
of  this  hoiTid  affair  which  I have  seen.  “ The  place  fixed  on 
for  their  confinement,  was  the  common  dungeon  of  the  fortress, 
called  the  black  hole.  It  consisted  of  a space  18  feet  square, 
with  only  2 small  windows,  barred  with  iron,  opening  into  the 
close  veranda,  and  scarcely  admitting  a breath  of  air.  Into  this 
narrow  receptacle,  the  whole  of  the  officers  and  soldiers,  146  in 
number,  were  compelled  to  enter,  and  on  their  ventming  to 
remonstrate,  the  commander  ordered  every  one  who  should 
hesitate  to  be  instantly  cut  down.  Thus  were  they  forcibly 
thrust  into  this  fearful  dungeon,  into  which  the  whole  number 
could  with  difficulty  be  squeezed,  and  the  door  was  then  fast 
barred  from  without.  Their  first  impression  on  finding  them- 
selves thus  immured,  was  the  utter  impossibility  of  surviving 
one  night,  and  the  necessity  of  extricating  themselves  at  what- 
ever cost.  The  jemadars,  or  Indian  guards,  were  waUdng  before 
the  window,  and  Mr.  Holwell,  seeing  one  who  bore  on  his  face 
a more  than  usual  expression  of  humanity,  adjured  him  to  pro- 
cure for  them  a room  in  which  they  could  breathe,  assuring  him 
in  the  morning  of  a reward  of  1,000  rupees.  The  man  went 
away,  but  returned  saying  it  was  impossible.  Thinking  the 
offer  had  been  too  low,  the  prisoners  tendered  2,000  rupees.  The 
man  again  went  and  returned,  saying  the  Nabob  was  asleep  and 
no  one  durst  awake  him  ; the  lives  of  146  men  being  nothing  in 
comparison  to  disturbing  for  a moment  the  slumbers  of  a tyrant. 
Mr.  Holwell  has  described  in  detail  the  horrors  of  that  dreadful 
night,  which  are  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  annals  of  human 


HISTORY  — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD.  175 

misery.  Every  moment  added  to  their  distress.  All  attempts 
to  obtain  relief  by  a change  of  posture  from  the  painful  pressure 
to  which  it  gave  rise,  only  aggravated  their  sufi’erings.  The  air 
soon  became  pestilential,  producing  at  every  moment  a feeling 
of  suffocation ; and  while  the  perspiration  flowed  in  streams, 
they  were  tormented  with  the  most  burning  thirst.  Unfortu- 
nately, as  the  stations  near  the  windows  were  decidedly  the  best, 
the  most  dreadful  struggles  were  made  to  reach  them.  IMany 
of  the  prisoners  being  foreign  soldiers,  and  now  released  from 
all  subordination,  made  the  most  frightful  efforts,  and  the  suffer- 
ers as  they  grew  weaker,  were  in  some  instances  squeezed  or 
actually  trampled  to  death.  Loud  cries  being  raised  of  “ water,” 
the  humane  jemadar  pushed  through  the  bars  several  skins  filled 
with  that  liquid,  but  this  produced  only  an  increase  of  calamity, 
owing  to  the  very  violent  endeavors  made  to  obtain  it.  The 
sepoys  without  found  only  a savage  sport  in  witnessing  these 
contests,  and  even  brought  lights  to  the  window  in  order  to  view 
them  to  greater  advantage.  About  11  o’clock  the  prisoners 
began  to  die  fast ; six  of  ^Ir.  Holwell’s  intimate  friends  sank  at 
his  feet,  and  were  trodden  upon  by  the  survivors.  Of  those 
still  alive,  a great  portion  were  raving  or  delirious  ; some  uttered 
the  most  incoherent  prayers,  and  others  the  most  frightful  blas- 
phemies. They  endeavored  by  furious  invectives  to  induce  the 
guards  to  fire  into  the  prison  and  to  end  their  miseries,  but  with- 
out effect.  When  day  dawned,  the  few  who  had  not  expired, 
were  most  of  them  either  raving  or  insensible.  In  this  last  state 
was  the  governor  himself  when,  about  6 o’clock,  Suraja  awoke 
and  inquired  for  him.  On  learning  the  events  of  the  night,  he 
merely  sent  to  ascertain  if  the  English  chief  yet  lived,  and  being 
informed  there  were  appearances  as  if  he  might  recover,  gave 
orders  to  open  the  fatal  door.  At  that  time,  of  the  146  who 
had  been  inclosed,  there  breathed  only  23.”  * 

The  news  of  the  surrender  of  Calcutta,  and  the  dreadful  suf- 
ferings of  the  prisoners,  produced  intense  excitement  at  Madras, 
and  it  was  at  once  resolved  to  despatch  all  the  forces,  naval  and 
military,  which  could  be  spared,  to  Bengal  as  soon  as  possible ; 
the  naval  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Watson,  and  the 
military  under  Col.  Clive.  The  whole  force  of  the  expedition 


* Murray,  p.  361  and  362. 


176 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


consisted  of  900  Europeans,  and  1,500  sepoys.  On  arriving 
at  Fulda,  they  found  the  few  English  that  had  escaped  from 
Calcutta  before  it  was  surrendered.  It  was  determined  to  pro- 
ceed at  once  to  attack  Calcutta,  which  was  recovered  soon,  and 
with  but  little  loss.  The  property  of  the  East  India  Company 
was  found  entire,  having  been  reserved  for  the  Nabob,  but  pri- 
vate houses  had  been  plundered.  The  English  then  took  Hoog- 
ley,  in  which  considerable  plunder  was  obtained.  The  Nabob 
was  then  at  Moorshedabad,  his  capital,  but  on  hearing  that  the 
English  had  arrived,  he  assembled  his  army  and  began  his 
march  towards  Calcutta.  Some  efforts  at  negotiation  were 
made  on  the  way,  but  these  proving  ineffectual,  and  the  Nabob 
having  now  surrounded  Calcutta,  Clive  resolved  to  attack  his 
army.  In  this  attack  the  Enghsh  were  successful,  though  their 
loss  was  very  heavy  in  proportion  to  the  number  engaged.  A 
treaty  was  then  made,  by  which  the  English  were  permitted  to 
fortify  Calcutta,  to  carry  on  trade  and  enjoy  the  same  rights  and 
privileges  as  before.  The  Nabob  then  returned  to  Moorsh- 
edabad. 

Intelligence  having  arrived  that  war  had  commenced  between 
England  and  France,  Clive  and  Watson  united  in  making  ati 
attack  upon  the  French  settlement  of  Changanore  upon  the 
river  Hoogley.  The  garrison,  consisting  of  500  Europeans  and 
700  sepoys,  became  prisoners  of  war,  and  a great  quantity  of 
ammunition  and  military  stores  was  obtained.  But  this  attack 
upon  the  French,  who  had  not  interfered  in  the  war  between  the 
English  and  the  Nabob,  and  who  were  regarded  by  the  Nabob 
as  under  his  protection,  much  exasperated  him.  And  it  was  not 
unreasonable  for  him  to  be  thus  dissatisfied,  regarding  as  he  did, 
both  parties  as  foreigners  permitted  to  reside  in  his  dominions 
for  purposes  of  trade.  When  he  heard  what  the  English  were 
preparing  to  do,  he  sent  them  peremptory  orders  to  let  the 
French  alone,  and  he  put  his  army  in  motion  to  jjrotect  Chan- 
ganore, but  the  place  was  compelled  to  surrender  before  his 
army  could  render  any  aid.  Just  at  that  time  the  Nabob 
received  the  alarming  news  that  Ahmed  Shah  AbdaUce  had 
taken  Delhi,  and  was  preparing  to  extend  his  conquests  over  all 
parts  of  India,  which  had  formerly  composed  Ihe  Mogul  empire. 
In  these  circumstances,  while  he  protected  the  remaining  French 


niSTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


177 


factories,  he  thought  it  prudent  not  to  involve  himself  again  in 
war  with  the  English. 

But  the  fickle  disposition  of  the  Nabob,  his  hatred  of  the 
English,  his  corrupt  ministers  and  evil  counsellors,  and  the  dar- 
ing, ambitious,  and  unscrupulous  character  of  Clive,  already 
flushed  with  suceess,  all  these  gave  little  prospect  of  continued 
peace.  A plan  was  soon  formed  to  dethrone  the  Nabob,  and  in 
his  place  to  set  up  Meer  Jaffer,  who  was  paymaster-general  of 
the  army,  and  supported  himself  a very  considerable  military 
force.  “ In  manufacturing  the  terms  of  the  confederacy,”  says 
Mill,  “ the  grand  concern  of  the  English  appeared  to  be  money ; 
and  the  situation  of  Jaffer  Khan  and  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  country  made  him  ready  to  promise  whatever  they 
desired.”  The  amount  which  he  stipulated  to  pay  to  the 
agents  of  the  East  India  Company  for  their  assistance  and 
influence  in  procuring  for  him  the  office  and  dignity  of  Nabob, 
is  stated  by  Mfll  to  be  £1,238,575,  or  about  §6,000,000.  This 
sum  was  distributed  among  the  agents  of  the  Company  then 
in  Bengal,  each  one  apparently  securing  for  himself  as  large  a 
share  as  possible. 

The  suspicions  of  the  Nabob  in  respect  to  Meer  Jaffer,  for 
some  reasons,  became  excited,  and  to  remove  them  the  latter 
made  the  strongest  assmrances  of  innocence  and  faithfulness, 
and  even  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  on  the  Koran.  This  allayed 
the  fears  of  his  royal  master,  but  made  no  change  in  his  own 
purpose.  Clive,  in  accordance  with  the  plan  which  had  been 
formed,  mustered  his  force  of  3,100  men,  of  whom  only  950 
were  English,  with  10  pieces  of  cannon,  at  Chandernagore,  and 
commenced  his  march  towards  Plassey,  where  the  Nabob  was  { 
then  encamped  with  his  army,  estimated  at  35,000  infantry, 
15,000  cavalry,  and  a large  train  of  artillery.*  A part  of  this 
force  was  under  the  command  of  Meer  Jaffer,  w'ho  had  lately 
bound  himself  by  the  most  solemn  oaths  to  be  faithful  to  his 
royal  master,  and  also  promised  to  join  the  English  and  ruin 
his  master  as  soon  as  he  could  safely  do  so.  The  battle  of 
Plassey,  the  most  celebrated  and  important  in  its  consequences 
of  any  in  the  English  history  of  India,  was  fought  on  the  23d 

* Another  account  says  50,000  infantiy,  18,000  cavalry,  and  40  pieces  of 
artillery. 


178 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


of  June,  1757.  The  battle  was  commenced  by  the  Nabob, 
about  8 o’clock  in  the  morning,  and  for  some  hours  it  was  only 
a distant  cannonade.  As  soon  as  Meer  Jaffer  perceived  it  was 
safe  to  do  so,  he  began  to  move  the  force  under  his  command 
to  join  the  English.  Chve,  perceiving  this  movement,  ordered 
his  force  to  attack  the  other  part  of  the  Nabob’s  army.  These 
soon  gave  way,  and  the  rout  became  general.  The  loss  on  the 
part  of  the  English  was  only  20  Europeans  killed  and  wounded, 
16  sepoys  killed,  and  36  wounded.  The  Nabob  fled,  escorted 
by  a body  of  cavalry.  He  was  pursued,  and  soon  reduced  to  a 
state  of  great  distress.  He  disguised  himself,  and  endeavored 
to  escape  to  Patna,  but  was  discovered,  brought  back,  treated 
with  great  indignity,  and  assassinated  in  his  own  palace. 

The  next  day  after  the  battle  Meer  Jaffer  was  proclaimed  Na- 
bob, and  on  the  26th  (3  days  after  the  battle)  the  Bengal  treas- 
ury was  examined.  The  contents  were  found  to  be  much  less 
than  was  expected  ; not  sufficient  to  pay  the  stipulated  amount 
to  be  given  to  the  different  English  parties.  Stiff  the  amount 
realized,  either  according  to  previous  stipulation  or  in  the  way 
of  presents  was  large.  Clive  acknowledged  that  he  secured 
$ 800,000  for  himself.*  Meer  Jaffer  soon  found  himself  sur- 
rounded with  difficulties.  He  had  come  under  pecuniary  obli- 
gations to  the  English,  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for  his  eleva- 
tion, far  beyond  what  he  had  any  means  to  pay,  and  the  dis- 
tracted state  of  the  country  did  not  allow  of  his  realizing  so 
much  revenue  as  he  expected.  He  was  also  annoyed  that  the 
English,  on  learning  that  the  treasury  contained  so  much  less 
than  was  expected  when  the  stipulated  sums  were  agreed  upon, 
were  not  satisfied  with  what  they  then  got,  but  insisted  upon 
the  whole  being  in  some  way  realized  and  paid  to  them.  He 
thought  they  had  been  abundantly  remunerated  for  all  they  had 
done  to  raise  liim  to  power,  and  he  was  so  much  vexed  with 
their  importunate  demands,  while  his  own  troops  were  almost 
in  a state  of  mutiny  on  account  of  their  large  arrears  of  pay- 
ment, that  he  declared  to  some  of  his  friends,  “ that  if  a French 
force  would  come  into  the  province  he  would  assist  them,  unless 

♦ “ Clivo  acknowledged  to  have  secured  £ ICO, 000,  while  to  each  member  of 
council  there  fell  £21,000.”  — Murray,  p.  373. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


179 


the  English  would  release  him  from  all  their  claims  of  money, 
ten-itory,  and  exemptions.”  The  means  he  used  to  replenish  his 
treasury  made  him  unpopular,  and  he  had  reason  to  fear  assas- 
sination or  some  conspiracy  to  destroy  him. 

In  1758,  a commission  arrived  from  the  East  India  Company 
in  London  remodelling  the  government  in  Bengal.  Instead  of 
one  man  being  governor  aU  the  time,  the  office  was  to  be  filled 
by  4 men  in  rotation  for  3 months  each.  Clive  was  much  dis- 
satisfied that  no  place  was  assigned  to  him  in  the  new  estab- 
lishment, and  his  name  was  not  even  mentioned  in  the  commis- 
sion. The  reason  of  this  probably  was  that  he  was  supposed  to 
have  returned  to  Madras.  But  he  wished  to  continue  in  Ben- 
gal, and  supposed  the  importance  of  his  services  and  his  own 
desires  would  be  regarded  by  the  Directors.  When  the  govern- 
ment was  being  remodelled  according  to  the  commission,  the 
10  men  who  were  to  form  the  council,  including  the  4 of  them 
who  were  to  fill  the  office  of  governor  in  rotation,  invited  Clive 
to  take  the  place  of  President.  With  this  invitation  he  says 
“ he  hesitated  not  one  moment  to  comply.”  When  the  Court 
of  Directors  learned  that  he  still  continued  in  Bengal,  and  pre- 
vious to  receiving  these  proceedings  of  the  Council,  they  sent 
another  despatch  to  Bengal,  appointing  “ him  to  be  the  chief 
and  presiding  member.” 

Bengal,  though  it  had  become  virtually  independent,  yet  con- 
tinued nominally  a dependency  upon  the  Great  Mogul  at  Delhi, 
and  the  Nabob  was  nominally  his  deputy.  As  Meer  Jaffer  was 
a usurper  and  had  neither  been  appointed  to  the  place  nor  con- 
firmed in  the  office  he  had  assumed,  the  office  of  Nabob  was 
regarded  at  Delhi  as  vacant,  and  the  emperor  appointed  his 
oldest  son  to  be  Subadar  or  Nabob  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and 
Orissa,  and  several  native  princes  were  inclined  to  unite  in  plac- 
ing him  in  power  in  those  provinces.  In  these  circumstances 
Meer  Jaffer  solicited  the  aid  of  Clive,  who,  accompanied  by 
Meer  Jaffer’s  son,  JMeeran,  with  such  force  as  could  be  spared, 
proceeded  to  Patna.  On  arriving  at  Patna,  they  found  the 
native  princes  had  withdrawn  their  promised  aid,  and  the  son 
of  the  emperor  of  Delhi  and  the  legal  Nabob  of  Bengal,  Bahar 
and  Orissa  was  in  such  straitened  circumstances  that  he  was 
glad  to  obtain  from  Clive  a small  sum  of  money  for  his  subsist- 


180 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ence,  and  then  withdraw  from  the  province.  For  this  important 
service  he  procured  for  Clive  the  rank  of  an  omra  of  the  em- 
pire, and  bestowed  upon  him  the  whole  of  the  revenue  or  rent 
which  the  East  India  Company  were  bound  to  pay  for  the 
tenitory  which  they  held  around  Calcutta.  This  territory  is 
frequently  called  in  Indian  history  “ Clive’s  Jaghire,”  and  the 
revenue  amounted  to  the  large  sum  of  ^ 150,000  annually.  In 
the  early  part  of  1760,  Clive  resigned  his  office  in  the  govern- 
ment and  embarked  for  Europe. 

When  Lord  Clive  resigned  his  office  in  the  government,  his  in- 
fluence and  other  causes  procured  the  place  for  Mr.  Vansittart, 
then  at  Madras.  The  state  of  affairs  in  Bengal  was  distracted 
and  discouraging.  Meer  Jaff'er  had  become  unpopular  among 
aU  classes  of  people.  He  was  indolent,  voluptuous,  extrava- 
gant, and  tyrannical.  There  was  no  reason  to  expect  any  refor- 
mation in  him,  nor  any  improvement  in  the  government  of  the 
country,  while  the  power  continued  in  his  hands.*  He  owed 
his  elevation  to  the  office  of  Nabob  to  the  English,  and  it  was 
only  through  their  aid  that  he  had  been  able  to  retain  his  place. 
But  he  had  not  paid,  and  was  unwilling  to  pay  the  debts  he 
had  incurred  to  them,  while  he  was  evidently  quite  alienated 
from  them  in  feeling,  and  endeavored  to  avoid  intercourse  with 
them.  In  these  circumstances,  the  state  of  the  country  and  the 
course  to  be  pursued  were  subjects  of  much  consideration  in 
the  council  at  Calcutta,  and  it  was  resolved  to  invest  Meer 
Cossim,  a son-in-law  of  Meer  Jaff’er,  with  the  power,  if  not  with 
the  office  of  Nabob.  Meer  Cossim  became  a party  to  the 
arrangement,  and  Meer  Jaff’er,  though  very  reluctant  for  a while, 
yet  finally  resigned  his  office  and  removed  to  Calcutta. 

There  were  other  elements  in  bringing  about  this  change  in 

* “ The  situation  of  ]\Iecr  Jaffer  was  deplorable  from  the  firet.  With  an 
exhausted  treasury,  an  exhausted  country,  and  vast  engagements  to  discharge, 
he  was  urged  to  the  severest  exertions;  while  the  profusion  with  which  he 
wasted  his  treasure  upon  his  own  person  and  some  unworthy  favorites,  w’as  ill 
calculated  to  soothe  the  wretched  people  under  the  privations  to  w'hich  they 
were  reduced.  The  cruelties  of  which  he  and  Mecran,  his  son,  were  guilty, 
made  them  objects  of  general  detestation;  the  negligence,  disonlor,  and  weak- 
ness of  their  government,  exposed  them  to  contempt;  and  tlicir  troops,  always 
mutinous  from  the  length  of  tlieir  arrears,  threatened  them  every  moment  with 
faUil  extremities.” 


HISTORY  — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD.  181 

the  government,  whicli  caused  many  violent  discussions  and  dis- 
sensions in  the  council  of  the  East  India  Company  in  Calcutta. 
“ The  vast  sums,”  says  Mill,  “ obtained  by  a few  individuals 
who  had  the  principal  management  of  the  former  revolution, 
when  Meer  Jaffer  trod  down  Suraja  Dowla,  his  master,  were 
held  in  vivid  remembrance,  and  the  persuasion  that  similar  ad- 
vantages of  which  every  man  burned  for  a share,  were  now 
meditated  by  the  select  committee,  excited  the  keenest  emo- 
tions of  envy  and  jealousy.”  * 

Meer  Cossim,  aware  of  his  circumstances  and  of  what  was 
expected  from  him,  made  great  exertions  to  meet  his  pecuniary 
engagements,  and  was  soon  relieved  from  the  most  pressing 
claims.  But  a new  difficulty  soon  appeared.  The  emperor  of 
Delhi,  who  had  never  relinquished  his  claims  over  Bengal,  again 
manifested  a determination  to  assert  and  enforce  his  rights,  and 
there  were  some  indications  that  the  French  would  espouse  his 
cause.  This  gave  Meer  Cossim  great  uneasiness,  and  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Patna  to  meet  the  emperor,  who  was  then  in  that 
city.  The  emperor  invested  Meer  Cossim  in  due  form  with  the 
office  of  Nabob  over  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  and  the  latter 
engaged  to  pay  24,000,000  rupees  (nearly  §12,000,000)  annu- 
ally as  the  tribute  of  those  provinces.  Meer  Cossim  was  now 
free  from  all  anxiety  on  this  source. 

But  new  difficulties  now  claimed  his  attention.  The  inland 
trade  in  India  was  at  that  time  much  embarrassed  by  local  ex- 
actions and  transit  duties.  The  governors  of  provinces  and  the 
petty  princes  of  small  districts,  required  duties  to  be  paid  on  all 
goods  passing  through  their  territories.  The  agents  of  the 
Company  claimed  an  exemption  from  these  duties  on  the 
ground  that  the  emperor  had  given  a firman  that  no  such  duties 
should  be  required  for  goods  of  the  Company  when  being  car- 
ried under  the  Company’s  seal  from  one  place  or  factory  to 
another  wathin  the  country.  Had  tliis  privilege  or  right  been 
restricted,  as  was  intended,  and  as  it  ought  to  have  been,  to  the 
boiia  fide  goods  of  the  Company,  probably  no  serious  difficulty 
would  have  occuiTed.  But  some  of  the  agents  of  the  Company 
were  engaged  largely  in  trade  on  their  own  account,  and  they 


vol.  2,  p.  219,  4to. 
16 


182 


IKDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


misused  this  privilege  of  the  Company  for  their  own  advantage. 
And  not  only  so,  but  native  traders  under  the  protection  of  these 
agents,  or  in  partnership  with  them,  managed  to  obtain  the  same 
advantage  for  themselves.  “ Of  the  council,  a gi-eat  proportion 
was  deriving  vast  emoluments  from  these  abuses.”  By  such 
means  the  revenue  suffered  much,  and  all  regular  and  lawful 
trade  was  depressed  and  injured.  Complaints  of  these  things 
were  so  loud,  and  the  abuses  were  shown  to  be  so  many  and  so 
great,  that  IVIr.  Vansittart  made  an  agreement  with  the  Nabob 
that  the  Company’s  agents  and  the  country  traders  should  pay 
equally  the  same  duties.  This  just  and  judicious  arrangement 
was  annulled  by  a majority  of  the  council  after  the  Nabob  had 
began  to  carry  it  into  effect,  and  so  matters  were  again  in  con- 
fusion. The  Nabob  then  resolved  as  an  extreme  and  final 
measure  to  abolish  aU  the  inland  duties  which  had  occasioned 
so  much  trouble,  and  so  he  put  the  English  and  the  native 
traders  upon  an  equality.  But  “ of  this  the  English  unreasona- 
bly and  loudly  complained,  because  it  left  no  distinction  be- 
tween them  and  his  own.”  * 

Complaints  of  mutual  injuries  continued,  to  increase  till  the 
excitement  resulted  in  a state  of  open  warfare.  The  Enghsh 
again  invested  Meer  Jaffer  with  the  office  and  dignity  of  Nabob, 
who  readily  promised  whatever  they  desired.  They  then  sent  a 
force  against  Meer  Cossim,  who  was  defeated  at  Geriah.  They 
then  besieged  and  took  Monghir,  which  Meer  Cossim  had  made 
his  capital  and  fortified.  Meer  Cossim  was  greatly  enraged, 
and  declared  that  if  the  English  force  should  advance  upon 
Patna,  he  would  cause  all  the  garrison  who  had  been  taken 
prisoners  in  that  city  to  be  put  to  death.  As  soon  as  the  Eng- 
lish force  approached  Patna  he  fulfilled  his  threat.  “ The  whole 
garrison  of  Patna,  consisting  of  50  gentlemen  and  100  soldiers, 
were  put  to  death  with  the  single  exception  of  Mr.  Fullerton, 

*“  The  conduct  of  the  Company’s  servants  upon  this  occasion  furnishes  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  instances  upon  record  of  the  power  of  interest  to  exlinjiuish 
all  sense  of  justice  and  even  of  shame.  They  had  hitherto  insisted,  contrary 
to  .all  right  and  all  precedent,  th.at  the  government  of  the  country  should  exempt 
their  goods  from  duty.  They  now  insisted  that  it  should  impose  duties  upon  the 
goods  of  all  other  traders,  and  accused  it  as  guilty  of  a breach  of  peace  towards 
the  English  nation  because  it  proposed  to  remit  them.”  — Mill. 


HISTOUT — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


183 


who  was  spared  on  account  of  his  medical  skill.”  This  is  called 
in  history,  “ the  Patna  massacre.”  Patna  was  soon  besieged 
and  taken.  INIecr  Cossim  fled  to  Oude  ami  found  refuge  with 
the  Nabob,  or  vizier  as  he  is  often  called.  The  emperor  of 
Dellii  was  then  with  the  Nabob.  Tlicse  three,  namely,  the  Em- 
peror, Meer  Cossim,  and  the  Nabob  of  Oude,  united  their  forces 
and  attacked  the  British  army  then  encamped  near  Patna. 
They  were  repulsed  and  retreated  to  Oude,  but  the  Engbsh  were 
not  in  circumstances  to  pursue  them.  A spirit  of  insubordi- 
nation now  broke  out  in  the  English  army,  and  for  a while  threat- 
ened the  worst  results.  Sir  Hector  Munroe,  having  assumed 
the  command,  acted  with  great  firmness  in  this  exigency.  In  one 
battalion  that  mutinied,  24  of  the  ringleaders  were  executed  — 
blown  from  cannon  — and  order  was  generally  restored  through 
the  army.  As  soon  as  the  rainy  season  was  past.  Sir  Hector 
marched  to  attack  the  Nabob,  and  defeated  him  near  Buxar,  on 
the  Soane.  A great  quantity  of  military  stores  and  130  pieces 
of  artillery  were  taken.  The  emperor  of  Delhi  now  found  an 
opportunity  of  \vithdrawmg  from  the  Nabob,  and  he  went  over 
with  the  corps  personally  attached  to  him,  to  the  English  army. 
The  Nabob  in  connection  with  a body  of  Mahrattas  under 
Mulhar  Row  Holkar  and  Ghazee  ud  Been,  made  another  effort 
to  retrieve  his  affairs,  but  his  army. was  dispersed  almost  as  soon 
as  attacked.  When  the  army  reached  Benares,  the  Nabob  of 
Oude  offered  as  conditions  of  peace,  to  pay  $1,250,000  for 
the  expenses  of  the  war,  $1,250,000  to  the  army,  and  $400,- 
000  to  the  commander-in-chief.  But  he  refused  to  deliver  up 
certain  persons  under  his  protection,  and  whom  the  English  de- 
manded. A treaiy  was  then  made  with  the  emperor,  in  which 
he  authorized  the  English  to  obtain  possession  of  the  dominions 
of  Bulwant  Sing,  Raja  of  Benares,  and  they  engaged  to  put 
him  in  possession  of  the  dominions  of  the  Nabob  of  Oude,  and 
he  was  to  reimburse  to  them  all  the  expenses  which  this  ser- 
vice might  oblige  them  to  incur.*  Li  this  campaign  victory 
had  become  so  common  to  the  English  forces,  and  defeat  to  the 
native  annies,  that  each  party  appeared  to  look  forward  to  such 
a result.  Wherever  the  English  army  "went,  they  conquered. 

* This  part  of  the  treaty  was  strongly  disapproved  by  the  Court  of  Directors, 
and  so  was  not  carried  into  effect. 


184 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


Whatever  fort  or  city  they  attacked,  they  soon  got  possession 
of  it.  They  were  now  masters  of  the  great  central  plain  of 
India,  and  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  the  Grand  Mogul,  if  not  their 
prisoner,  was  under  their  protection,  and  in  their  camp. 

In  the  mean  time  important  events  were  taking  place  in  Cal- 
cutta. “ Meer  Jaffer  had  died,  partly  it  would  seem  of  vexation 
at  not  having  been  able  to  meet  the  enormous  pecuniary  demands 
of  the  English  rulers.”  His  son,  Nujeem  ud  Dowla,  a youth  20 
years  old,  had  been  invested  by  the  council  A^dth  the  office  of 
Nabob.  But  little  power  was  reposed  in  his  hands.  The  Court 
of  Directors  and  the  English  nation  had  become  much  dissatis- 
fied with  the  state  of  affairs  in  India,  and  having  lost  confidence 
in  the  agents  of  the  Company,  they  were  decided  in  the  opinion 
that  great  and  important  changes  were  urgently  required.  In 
these  circumstances  after  much  inquiry  and  deliberation  the 
Directors  appointed  Lord  Clive  (he  had  been  raised  to  the  peer- 
age) to  be  governor  and  comraander-in-chief  of  their  civil  and 
military  establishments  in  Bengal.  At  the  same  time  they 
passed  stringent  laws  forbidding  their  servants  to  engage  in 
future  in  any  land  of  private  trade,  and  also  forbidding  them  to 
receive  presents  from  any  natives,  whether  princes  or  common 
people. 

Lord  CUve  arrived  at  Calcutta,  in  IMay  of  1765,  and  pro- 
ceeded at  once  to  organize  the  government  on  the  new  form 
sanctioned  by  the  Court  of  Directors.  His  despatches  to  that 
body  describe  the  country  as  in  a state  of  misrule  bordering 
upon  anarchy,  and  of  great  oppression.  He  describes  the  agents 
of  the  Company,  as  negligent  of  their  public  duties,  and  intent 
only  upon  enriching  themselves.  And  the  history  of  Bengal  for 
several  years  shows  that  private  ends  and  personal  gains  had 
much  influence  in  making  peace  and  war,  and  in  setting  up  and 
then  deposing  native  princes.  Many  servants  or  agents  of  the 
Company  accumulated  large  fortunes  by  obtaining  presents  or 
donations  or  bribes  for  their  silence,  or  influence,  or  exertions  in 
these  changes  and  revolutions. 

Before  the  close  of  the  year  Clive  returned  to  Calcutta,  and 
resumed  his  seat  as  president  of  the  select  committee.  He  left 
India  for  England  early  in  1768,  so  that  his  second  residence  in 
India  was  less  than  two  years.  His  government  had  much  vigor. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


185 


but  while  rigorously  enforcing  the  laws  and  orders  of  the  Dirce- 
tors  of  the  Company  upon  the  junior  servants,  he  and  the  seleet 
eommittce  engaged  largely  in  private  trade  and  speculation,  thus 
violating  those  very  laws  whieh  were  designed  for  them  as  well  as 
others ; “ and  this  course  was  eontinued  in  defianee  of  more  than 
one  positive  prohibition.  At  length,  however,  orders  arrived 
so  peremptory  and  so  decisive,  that  they  eould  no  longer  be 
disregarded.”  Some  of  Clive’s  measures  were  very  unpopular. 
In  the  army  a conspiraey  was  formed,  embraeing  a large  j)or- 
tion  of  the  European  officers,  and  the  English  power  in  India 
was  seldom  if  ever  in  greater  danger,  than  it  was  for  a while  from 
this  souree.  Several  offieers,  including  some  of  high  rank,  were 
dismissed,  and  order  and  discipline  were  again  restored.  • The 
Nabob  Nujeem  ud  Dowla  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Syeff  ud  Dowla.  The  office  or  situation  of  Nabob  formerly  of 
so  much  power  and  dignity,  had  now  become^  and  from  this 
time  continued  to  be,  a mere  pageant,  as  the  civil  and  military 
government  of  the  provinces  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Enghsh. 
After  the  Court  of  Directors  had  peremptorily  forbidden  any  per- 
son in  their  employment  in  India  to  receive  presents  from  any 
class  of  natives,  a sum  of  money  was  given  or  left  to  Clive  by 
IMeer  Jaffer,  as  a present  or  legacy.  It  appears  to  have  been  the 
former  under  the  latter  name.  His  right  to  receive  this  in  the 
existing  circumstances  was  much  discussed,  and  he  finally  made 
it  over  to  the  East  India  Company  to  constitute  a fund  for  the 
relief  of  certain  persons  connected  with  the  Indian  army.  He 
also  appropriated  a yet  further  sum  received  from  the  succeeding 
Nabob  to  the  same  purpose.  These  two  sums,  with  the  interest 
■which  had  accumulated  upon  them,  when  paid  into  the  Com- 
pany’s treasury  in  1770,  amounted  to  ^600,000,  and  constitute 
what  is  well  known  in  Indian  history  as  Lord  Chve’s  Fund. 

The  proceedings  of  the  East  India  Company  now  began  to 
excite  much  attention  in  Parliament,  and  through  the  kingdom. 
They  presented  the  remarkable  fact  of  a company  of  merchants 
originally  associated  in  London  for  purposes  of  trade,  acquiring 
a territory  larger  than  the  united  kingdom,  maintaining  a large 
army,  making  war  and  peace  ■with  independent  nations,  and  set- 
ting up  and  deposing  at  their  pleasure,  independent  sovereigns 
and  princes.  The  large  fortunes  accumulated  in  India  gave 

16* 


186 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


extravagant  ideas  of  the  wealth  of  the  country.  The  price 
of  the  stock  of  the  Company  on  exchange,  rose  to  263  per 
cent.,  and  the  court  of  proprietors  voted  a dividend  of  12  per 
cent.  The  feelings  of  the  English  nation  were  much  excited. 
Parliament  interfered  and  passed  an  act  hmiting  the  dividend  to 
10  per  cent,  for  a certain  time,  and  requiring  the  Company  to 
pay  $2,000,000  annually  into  the  public  treasury  for  their  char- 
tered privileges.  This  Act  was  afterwards  somewhat  modified, 
and  the  period  prolonged.  The  time  had  now  come  for  some 
important  changes  in  the  government  of  India,  and  there  were 
many  earnest  debates  in  Parliament,  and  in  the  Court  of  Direc- 
tors in  respect  to  the  changes  required,  and  how  far  the  affairs  of 
the  Company  in  Lidia  should  be  put  under  the  control  of  com- 
missioners or  officers  appointed  by  the  crown.  At  length  three 
men,  namely,  Messrs.  Vansittart,  Scrafton,  and  Ford,  who  had 
formerly  been  in  the  employment  of  the  Company  in  India,  were 
appointed  commissioners  or  supervisors,  and  saded  from  London 
for  Calcutta,  but  neither  the  ship  nor  any  one  on  board  was 
heard  of  after  sailing. 

In  1772,  a select  committee  was  appointed  in  the  House  of 
Commons  to  inquire  into  the  affairs  of  the  East  India  Company. 
Their  affairs  were  now  so  much  involved  that  they  applied  to 
Parliament  for  a large  loan  and  obtained  it.  Important  changes 
were  now  made  in  the  constitution  of  the  Company.  A propri- 
etor of  stock  must  own  £1,000  to  have  one  vote;  one  who 
owned  £3,000,  could  have  2 votes;  one  who  owned  £6,000, 
could  have  3 votes,  and  one  who  owned  £10,000,  or  more,  could 
have  4 votes.  A governor  was  to  be  appointed  over  Bengal 
with  a yearly  salary  of  £25,000,  and  4 councillors  mth  £8,000 
each.  A superior  court  of  judicature  was  to  be  established  in 
Calcutta,  consisting  of  a chief  justice  with  a yearly  salary  of 
£8,000,  and  3 other  judges  with  £6,000  each. 

The  following  resolutions,  which  were  passed  by  the  House 
of  Commons,  show  how  the  proceedings  of  the  Company  were 
regarded  by  that  body. 

“ 1.  That  aU  acquisitions  made  under  the  military  force  or 
treaty  with  foreign  princes,  do  of  right  belong  to  the  State. 

“ 2.  That  to  appropriate  acquisitions  so  made  to  the  private 
emolument  of  persons  intrusted  with  any  civil  or  military  power 
of  the  State,  is  illegal. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


187 


“ 3.  That  very  great  sums  of  money  ami  other  valuable  prop- 
erty have  been  acquired  in  Bengal,  from  princes  and  others  of 
tlrat  country,  by  persons  intrusted  with  the  civil  and  military 
powers  of  the  State,  by  means  of  such  powers,  which  sums  of 
money  and  valuable  property  have  been  appropriated  to  the 
private  use  of  such  persons.” 

These  resolutions,  though  violently  opposed  by  the  Court  of 
Directors  and  their  partisans,  were  yet  passed  by  a large  major- 
ity. They  involved  important  principles,  which  if  enforced, 
would  put  an  end  to  usages  and  practices  by  w^hich  many  large 
fortunes  had  been  accumulated,  and  great  oppression  had  been 
exercised  in  India.  We  now  come  to  a period  of  Indian  history, 
which  excited  more  interest  and  acquired  more  notoriety  than 
any  period  before  or  since  that  time. 

Warren  Hastings,*  who  had  acejuired  so  much  notoriety  in  the 
history  of  India,  and  in  the  proceedings  of  Parliament,  was  the 
first  governor-general  of  India.  The  members  of  council  were 
General  Clavering,  Col.  Monson,  IMr.  Barwell,  and  Mr.  Francis, 
who  could  not  be  removed  within  the  time  (5  years)  for  which 
they  had  been  appointed,  except  by  the  king  upon  representa- 
tion of  the  Court  of  Directors.  The  salaries  of  the  men  thus 
placed  over  the  affairs  and  interests  of  the  East  India  Company 
in  India,  will  show  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  Company. 
Mr.  Hastings’s  salary  was  ^£25,000,  or  nearly  0125,000  yearly. 
General  Clavering,  who  was  commander-in-chief,  had  £16,000, 
or  080,000,  and  the  other  3 members  of  council  had  £8,000,  or 
040,000  each. 

The  state  of  Lidia  was  very  distracted  when  INL.  Hastings 
assumed  the  administration  of  affairs,  and  vigorous  measures 
were  required  to  restore  order  and  system.  One  of  the  meas- 

*Mr.  Hastings  was  the  son  of  a clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England.  He 
went  to  India  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  in  1749,  being  then  in 
his  1 7th  year.  He  filled  various  situations  in  different  places  in  Bengal,  till  he 
returned  to  England  in  1 7G5.  In  1768,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Court  of  Direc- 
tors a member  of  council  at  Madras,  where  he  remained  till  he  proceeded,  in 
1772,  to  Calcutta,  to  become  governor-general  of  India,  a situation  of  greater 
honor,  power,  and  responsibility,  than  had  ever  been  conferred  on  any  European 
in  that  countrj-.  For  instance,  his  salary  was  £25,000,  or  $125,000  yearly. 
This  has  been  the  salary  of  the  governor-general  of  India  for  more  than 
80  years  past. 


188 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ures  adopted  at  this  time  has  often  been  the  subject  of  severe 
and  just  animadversion.  It  was  a change  in  the  tenure  of  the 
land  to  obtain  a greater  amount  of  taxes.  It  is  thus  described  by 
the  best  authorities.  “ There  was  not  a field  in  Bengal,  Bahar, 
or  Orissa,  which  was  not  the  property  of  some  owner,  and  these 
owners  were  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the  occupants  and  cultiva- 
tors. And  yet  it  was  resolved  to  divide  aU  the  land  in  these 
provinces  into  small  districts,  and  then  sell  them  to  the  highest 
bidder,  to  the  man  who  would  pay  the  government  the  highest 
tax  or  rent  for  them.  The  specified  period  was  for  5 years,  but 
it  was  generally  expected  it  would  theji  be  made  permanent. 
This  act  has  rarely  been  equalled  in  point  of  iniquity  under 
any  government  in  ancient  or  in  modern  times.  The  justice  of 
a law  which  went  to  dispossess  such  proprietors  of  their  right  in 
order  that  their  rulers  might  enjoy  a greater  amount  of  land-tax, 
need  not  be  discussed.  The  measure  was  as  arbitrary  as  it  was 
cruel.” — “ It  was  an  innovation  by  which  the  whole  property  of 
the  country,  and  along  with  it  the  administration  of  justice 
were  placed  upon  a new  foundation.  It  was  a change  far 
greater  than  if  aU  the  existing  tenures  of  land  in  England, 
Avhether  temporary  or  perpetual,  were  aU  at  once  abolished,  and 
new  tenures  of  a very  different  description,  new  possessors  in 
many  instances,  and  a new  administration  of  justice  were  intro- 
duced.” The  changes  involved  in  this  measure  w^’ere  many  and 
great,  and  instead  of  producing  order  and  system,  the  result 
was  disorder  and  confusion  as  w’^eU  as  complaining  and  suffer- 
ing. But  however  wanting  the  government  might  be  in  moral 
principle  and  sympathy  with  the  native  population,  it  was  not 
deficient  in  efficiency,  energy,  and  perseverance,  and  so  its 
obnoxious  measures  were  enforced,  though,  as  was  soon  appar- 
ent, without  realizing  the  expected  advantages. 

For  no  part  of  his  adminish'ation  has  Mr.  Hastings  been 
more  censured  than  for  the  part  lie  performed  in  what  is  called 
the  Rohilla  war.  The  Nabob  of  Oude  was  very  anxious  to 
add  to  his  dominions  the  territory  belongmg  to  the  Rohilla 
chiefs,  called  Rohilcund.  But  as  they  were  brave  and  had  a 
w'cll  disciplined  anny,  he  w'as  not  able  to  wTest  it  from  them  in 
w'ar.  The  English  had  at  this  time  a large  and  efficient  military 
force,  which  w'as  not  in  active  service.  The  Nabob  offered  to 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


189 


pay  for  the  aid  of  this  force  to  subdue  the  Rohillas ; all  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war,  and  also  40  lacks  of  rupees  (about  ^2,000,- 
000),  to  be  paid  into  the  Company’s  treasury.  In  this  way  the 
expenses  of  this  part  of  the  army  would  be  paid  while  thus  em- 
ployed, and  also  a large  sum  of  money  be  obtained  for  other 
purposes.  On  these  conditions  Mr.  Hastings  supplied  the  Na- 
bob with  the  force  he  required.  War  was  made  upon  the 
Rohillas  ; they  were  defeated  in  battle  ; their  country  laid  waste 
and  plundered  with  a barbarity  and  cruelty  seldom  known  even 
in  Indian  warfare,  till  “ every  one  who  bore  the  name  of  Rohilla, 
was  either  put  to  death,  or  sought  safety  by  flight.” 

The  affairs  of  the  emperor  also  came  under  the  consideration 
of  Mr.  Hastings  while  at  Benares.  When  the  emperor  gave  the 
dewany  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa  to  the  English,  it  was 
stipulated  that  he  should  receive  26  lacks  of  rupees  ($1,300,- 
000)  as  his  tribute.  But  his  putting  himself  into  the  power  of 
the  Mahrattas  to  be  placed  by  them  on  the  throne  of  his  ances- 
tors at  Delhi,  was  made  the  occasion  of  withholding  from  him 
the  stipulated  tribute ; and  not  only  so  but  “ his  districts  of  Alla- 
habad and  Corah,  which  the  English  occupied  on  the  pretext  of 
possessing  them  for  him,  were  dishonestly  sold  to  the  vizier  (the 
Nabob  of  Oude)  for  the  sum  of  50  lacks  of  rupees  ($2,500,- 
000).  Thus  was  the  honor  of  the  country  cooUy  bartered 
away  for  gold,  and  two  of  the  grossest  acts  of  injustice  com- 
mitted that  had  yet  blotted  the  annals  of  British  authority  in  the 
East.” 

The  new  constitution  framed  by  Parliament  for  the  East  India 
Company  was  to  go  into  operation  in  August,  1774.  The  gov- 
ernment consisted  of  Mr.  Hastings,  who  was  governor-general, 
and  Mr.  BarweU  member  of  council,  both  in  India  when 
appointed,  and  of  General  Clavering  who  was  commander-in- 
chief, with  a seat  in  council,  and  Colonel  JMonson  and  Mr.  Fran- 
cis, members  of  council,  from  England.  It  was  soon  manifest 
that  there  was  not  likely  to  be  harmony  in  their  opinions  and 
proceedings.  The  members  who  lately  arrived  from  England, 
instituted  inquiry  into  some  proceedings  which  were  commenced 
before  their  arrival,  and  were  yet  in  an  unfinished  state.  Mr. 
Hastings  resisted  such  inquiry  and  refused  to  give  the  informa- 
tion they  demanded,  wlfile  he  strenuously  opposed  some  meas- 


190 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ures  which  they  proposed.  The  council  was  generally  divided 
in  opinion,  hlr.  Barwell  concurring  with  Mr.  Hastings,  and  the 
other  three  members  opposing  him.  Among  the  matters  that 
came  before  them,  were  charges  against  hlr.  Hastings  for  obtain- 
ing large  sums  of  money  from  princes  and  others  for  his  official 
inffuence  and  favors,  and  then  appropriating  them  to  his  own 
use.  He  denied  the  right  of  the  council  to  inquire  into  such 
matters,  but  a majority  of  them  believed  that  to  investigate  such 
charges  when  properly  brought  before  them  was  clearly  within 
the  province  of  their  duty.  These  dissensions  were  sometimes 
so  violent,  that  Mr.  Hastings  would  declare  the  council  dissolved, 
quit  the  chair  and  go  out.  The  majority  would  then  vote  the 
first  member  into  the  chair  and  continue  the  proceedings.  Raja 
Nuncomar,  a native  of  high  rank  and  great  influence,  offered  to 
produce  proof  of  such  charges  before  the  council  to  a great 
amount.  But  Mr.  Hastings  and  his  friends  caused  him  to  be 
prosecuted  for  forgery,  and  he  was  condemned  and  executed. 
These  proceedings  produced  the  most  intense  excitement,  and 
was  regarded  in  India  and  in  England  as  the  most  exceptiona- 
ble and  atrocious  act  of  Ms  whole  administration.* 

In  1776,  Colonel  Monson,  one  of  the  members  of  the  council, 
died,  and  from  this  time  Mr.  Hastings,  by  having  the  privilege 
of  the  casting  vote,  had  the  direction  of  the  government,  though 
debates  and  dissensions  were  as  violent  as  they  previously  had 
been.  Matters  of  revenue  and  changes  in  the  laws  and  modes 
for  the  administration  of  justice,  were  almost  constantly  under 
the  consideration  of  the  council,  but  the  difficulties  which  beset 
these  subjects  were  so  many,  and  the  difference  of  opinions  and 
plans  was  so  great,  that  but  little  progi-css  was  made  or  improve- 
ment effected.  The  Directors  in  several  instances  severely  cen- 
sured Mr.  Hastings’  proceedings,  and  he  in  return  treated  their 

* The  autlior  of  the  History  of  the  British  Empire  in  India,  remarks  as  fol- 
lows, concerning  these  proceedings  : “ To  the  eternal  disgrace  of  all  concerned, 
a man  who  was  not  legally  amenable  to  the  court  that  tried  him,  who  committed 
the  offence  before  English  law  was  established  in  India,  according  to  the  usages 
of  whose  native  courts  forgery  is  not  a capital  crime,  and  against  whom  the  evi- 
dence. was  far  from  conclusive,  that  man  in  defiance  of  the  respect  due  to  the 
feelings  of  the  whole  native  population,  suffered  death  by  the  hands  of  the  exe- 
cutioner. There  is  not  among  .all  the  acts  of  Mr.  Hastings’  administration,  one 
which  h.as  left  so  deep  a stain  upon  his  memory  as  this.” 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


191 


opinions  and  instructions  with  little  respect ; in  some  instances 
he  deliberately  disobeyed  them.*  The  opposition  bchv'ecn  Mr. 
Hastings  and  i\Ir.  Francis  became  at  length  so  personal  and  bit- 
ter that  it  resulted  in  a duel,  in  which  the  latter  was  wounded. 
Soon  after  this  he  embarked  for  Europe. 

Li  1781,  Mr.  Hastings  made  a visit  to  Benares,  Oude,  and 
some  other  places  in  the  upper  provinces.  He  was  invested  by 
the  council  with  the  full  power  of  the  government,  and  the 
means  he  used  while  at  these  places  to  extort  large  suras  of 
money  from  the  Raja  of  Benares,  the  Nabob  of  Oude,  and  the 
two  Begums  (Princesses)  were  much  censured,  and  they  were 
among  the  charges  brought  against  him  after  his  return  to  Eng- 
land. By  these  means,  (among  which  several  innocent  persons 
were  severely  tortured,  to  compel  them  to  surrender  treasure,  or 
give  information  where  it  could  be  found,)  he  obtained  for  him- 
self or  for  the  East  India  Company,  several  millions  of  dollars. 
At  Benares,  Mr.  Hastings  arrested  the  Raja  and  imprisoned  him 
in  his  own  house  under  a military  guard.  The  government  of 
the  Raja,  as  well  as  of  his  father  before  him,  had  given  the  peo- 
ple uncommon  justice  and  protection.  So  his  people  were  pros- 
perous, his  government  was  popular,  and  himself  and  family 
much  respected.  When  the  circumstances  of  the  Raja  and  the 
treatment  he  was  suffering  became  known,  the  people  rushed 
together  in  great  numbers,  overpowered  the  guard  and  set  the 
Raja  at  liberty.  Mr.  Hastings  was  for  a while  in  much  danger, 
being  a prisoner  and  surrounded  by  an  enraged  population. 
But  he  found  means  to  escape.  “ He  secretly  quitted  the  city 
after  it  became  dark,”  and  fled  to  Chunar,  a strong  fort  then  in 
possession  of  the  English.  Here  he  remained  tiU  he  had  col- 
lected a force  sufficiently  large  to  enable  him  to  return  to  Be- 
nares, and  put  down  aU  opposition. 

When  IVL'.  Hastings  entered  upon  his  duties  as  governor-gen- 
eral, a majority  of  the  council  was  opposed  to  his  policy,  and  so 
he  could  but  very  imperfectly  carry  out  his  plans.  But  in  about 
2 years  Colonel  Monson,  one  member  of  the  council  died,  and 
Mr.  Hastings  then,  by  the  casting  vote,  had  the  government  gen  - 
eraUy  in  his  own  hands.  IMr.  Wheeler  who  succeeded  Colonel 

* The  Court  of  Directors  in  one  despatch  to  Mr.  Hastings,  say,  “ We  have 
read  with  astonishment,  your  formal  resolution  to  suspend  our  orders,”  etc. 


192 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


Monson  in  councU,  was  also  opposed  to  Mr.  Hastings’  policy, 
but  as  General  Clavering  then  died,  the  power  stiU  continued  in 
Mr.  Hastings’  hands.  After  Mr.  Francis’  return  to  Europe 
(wounded  in  a duel  with  Mr.  Hastings),  he  appears  to  have 
devised  and  carried  into  effect  whatever  plans  he  pleased  in  the 
name  and  with  the  fuU  power  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
India. 

Mr.  Hastings  resigned  the  government  early  in  1785  after  an 
administration  of  more  than  12  years.  Some  measures  of  his 
administration  and  the  part  he  had  personally  performed  in 
them,  had  excited  much  attention  in  England,  and  been  often 
referred  to  in  Parliament.  He  had  authorized  agents  and  nu- 
merous friends  to  take  his  part,  and  to  maintain  his  cause  in  Par- 
liament and  in  the  English  journals,  but  the  dethroned  princes 
and  suffering  people  of  India  had  neither  agents  in  England  to 
write,  nor  representatives  in  Parliament  to  speak,  for  them. 
This  subject  was  taken  up  with  greater  earnestness  after  Mr. 
Hastings’  amval  in  England,  and  brief  as  our  sketch  of  Indian 
history  must  be,  it  must  yet  contain  some  notice  of  Mr.  blast- 
ings’ celebrated  trial  for  maladministration  while  he  was  gover- 
nor-general in  India. 

The  impeachment  of  Mr.  Hastings  was  a measure  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  . The  articles  were  prepared  and  the  pros- 
ecution was  managed  by  a committee,  of  whom  the  celebrated 
Edmund  Burke  was  chairman.  The  impeachment  was  before 
the  House  of  Lords,  as  the  high  court  of  judicature  of  the  king- 
dom. Long  preparations  were  made,  and  the  trial  commenced 
in  February  of  1788.  “ So  great  was  the  interest  which  these 

proceedings  against  Mr.  Hastings  had  excited,  that  persons  of 
the  highest  rank  assembled  to  witness  the  scene.*  The  opening 
address  was  made  by  Mr.  Burke,  and  occupied  4 days.  The 
trial,  partly  from  its  novelty  and  for  want  of  precedents  and 
usages  to  guide  the  proceedings,  and  partly  from  the  difliculty 
of  procuring  evidence  which  was  known  to  exist  but  was  con- 
cealed and  withheld  as  much  as  possible,  and  also  from  the 
rejection  of  evidence  of  different  kinds  on  account  of  Icga. 

♦ “ The  (hi«cn,  the  riinee  of  Wales,  and  .3  of  the  royal  princesses  were  in 
the  gallery.  The  Prince  of  Wales  and  3 of  the  royal  dukes  with  their  trains 
followed  the  Chancellor.” 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


193 


technicalities  and  formalities,  proceeded  slowly.  The  Directors 
of  the  East  India  Company,  though  they  had  often  severely 
censured  Mr.  Hastings,  and  strongly  condemned  the  very  actions 
set  forth  in  the  charges  against  him,  yet  now  apparently  regard- 
ing their  own  character  as  involved  in  the  trial  of  their  governor- 
general,  had  a large  interest  in  procuring  his  acquittal,  and 
exerted  all  their  influence  in  his  favor.  The  trial  was  adjourned 
from  time  to  time,  partly  on  account  of  the  peculiar  difficulties 
which  embarrassed  and  delayed  the  proceedings,  and  partly 
because  other  and  urgent  matters  claimed  the  attention  of  Par- 
liament. Thus  year  after  year  passed  away.  Mr.  Hastings, 
his  counsel,  and  his  friends  comjdained  of  this  delay,  but  it  was 
shown  that  this  delay  had  been  chiefly  caused  by  them,  and  not 
by  the  managers  of  the  prosecution.  It  was  apparent,  also,  that 
this  delay  and  the  complaints  of  Mr.  Hastings  and  his  friends 
were  exerting  a strong  influence  on  public  sympathy  in  his  favor, 
and  against  the  managers  of  the  prosecution,  so  that  he  and 
not  they  had  an  interest  in  prolonging  it.  The  trial  was 
extended,  notwithstanding  aU  the  managers  could  do  to  hasten 
it  forward,  from  February  in  1788  to  April  in  1795,  a period  of 
more  than  7 years,  and  it  occupied  the  House  of  Lords  for  145 
days.  The  verdict  of  the  court  was  given  on  the  23d  of  April, 
and  Mr.  Hastings  was  acquitted  by  a majority  of  the  judges  on 
all  the  charges  preferred  against  him. 

The  East  India  Company’s  charter,  unless  renewed,  was  to 
expire  in  1783.  This  circumstance  and  the  excitement  pro- 
duced by  the  proceedings  of  Mr.  Hastings  in  India,  necessarily 
brought  the  affairs  of  the  Company  in  England  and  in  India 
before  Parliament.  The  proceedings  of  the  supreme  court  in 
Calcutta  having  caused  great  dissatisfaction  to  both  Europeans 
and  natives,  an  act  was  passed,  defining  its  powers  and  prov- 
ince. This  act  was  one  of  much  importance  to  all  classes  of 
the  people.  Several  plans  and  schemes  were  discussed  for  the 
better  government  of  India.  Mr.  Dundas,  chairman  of  a select 
committee  in  the  House  of  Commons,  on  Indian  affairs,  pre- 
pared a biU,  but  a change  of  the  ministry  then  occurring,  he 
dropped  the  subject.  Mr.  Fox,  then  in  power,  proposed  his  plan 
for  governing  India,  but  it  was  lost  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
Mr.  Pitt  having  succeeded  to  power,  brought  forward  his  plan> 

17 


194 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


The  principal  feature  of  this  biU  or  of  the  change  introduced  by 
it,  was  the  creation  of  a Board  of  Control,  to  consist  of  6 mem- 
bers of  the  Privy  Council,  of  whom  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  and  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State  were  to  be  two, 
and  the  senior  of  the  other  four  was  to  be  the  President  of  the 
Board.  This  was  essentially  making  a new  Secretary  of  State 
for  India,  with  a committee  or  council  under  him.  The 
Board  of  Control  thus  became  a part  of  the  ministry  for  the 
time  being,  and  this  biU  made  them  to  a great  extent  the  con- 
trolling and  governing  power  over  India.  The  biU  specified 
what  powers  belonged  to  this  Board,  and  also  what  powers  and 
privileges  stiU  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Directors  and  Pro- 
prietors. This  biU  made  some  important  changes  in  the  form 
and  constitution  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  it  has  been 
continued  to  the  present  time. 

The  Court  of  Directors  had  appointed  Lord  Macartney,  who 
was  then  governor  of  Madras,  to  succeed  Mr.  Hastings  as 
governor-general  in  Bengal.  But  as  Mr.  Hastings  wished  to 
leave  Bengal  sooner  than  was  expected,  and  Lord  Macartney 
had  not  arrived,  he  resigned  his  office  into  the  hands  of  the 
senior  member  of  councU,  Mr.  Macpherson.  Lord  Macartney 
soon  after  proceeded  to  Calcutta,  but  the  state  of  his  health  was 
such  that  he  did  not  assume  the  office  of  governor-general. 
After  remaining  a few  days  he  sailed  for  England. 

The  first  governor-general  appointed  under  the  new  consti- 
tution was  Lord  CornwaUis,*  who  arrived  in  Calcutta  and 
assumed  the  reins  of  government  in  September  of  1786.  The 
first  object  which  claimed  his  attention,  was  the  state  of  the 
Nabob  of  Oude.  Mr.  Hastings’  proceedings  at  Oude  formed  a 
prominent  part  of  the  charges  preferred  against  him  at  his  trial. 
As  soon  as  the  Nabob  heard  of  the  arrival  of  Lord  Cornwallis 
in  India,  he  proposed  to  come  himself  to  Calcutta,  and  if  not 
aUowcd  to  do  so,  he  begged  that  he  might  send  his  minister. 
Lord  CornwaUis  investigated  the  affairs  of  the  Nabob,  and 
MiU  says,  “ it  appeared  that  for  during  the  9 preceding  years 
the  Nabob  had  paid  to  the  Company  under  different  titles  at 


* The  same  who  had  recently  acted  so  conspicuous  a part  in  the  war  between 
the  United  States  and  England,  and  surrendered  the  Ilritish  anny  at  Yorktown. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


195 


tlie  rate  of  8,400,000  rupees  (nearly  $4,200,000)  per  annum, 
though  by  the  treaty  of  1775  he  had  bound  himself  to  the 
annual  payment  of  only  3,121,000  rupees,  and  by  the  treaty  of 
1781  to  that  of  3,420,000  rupees.  It  was  agreed  that  5,000,000 
rupees  should  be  the  annual  payment  of  the  Nabob,  and  that 
this  sum  should  embrace  every  possible  claim.  The  governor- 
general  declared  that  this  was  sufficient  to  indemnify  the  Com- 
pany for  all  the  expense  which  it  was  necessary  for  them  to 
incur  in  consequence  of  their  connection  with  the  Nabob.  In 
other  words,  he  declared  that  for  the  9 preceding  years  unjusti- 
fiable extortion  to  the  amount  of  3,400,000  rupees  annually  had 
been  practised  on  that  dependent  prince.” 

The  administration  of  Lord  Cornwallis  in  Bengal,  was  chiefly 
remarkable  for  some  measures  connected  with  the  revenue.  In 
India,  from  the  earhest  authentic  history,  the  sovereigns  obtained 
their  revenue  chiefly  from  the  produce  of  the  land.  And  in 
the  early  and  more  rude  state  of  society,  the  sovereigns  took 
their  part  in  kind.  The  cultivator  was  the  owner  of  the  land ; 
he  could  alienate  it,  or  it  could  be  taken  and  sold  by  a legal 
process  for  his  debts,  and  it  descended  to  his  heirs.  But  who- 
ever had  possession  of  it,  he  was  bound  to  pay  the  propor- 
tion claimed  by  the  government,  and  if  he  failed  to  do  this, 
government  could  enforce  its  claim  by  taking  possession  of 
the  land  and  vesting  it  in  others.  The  proportion  claimed 
by  the  government  varied  in  different  provinces,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  different  kinds  of  soil  and  produce.  It  has  gen- 
erally varied  from  one  half  to  one  fourth.  In  the  provinces  of 
Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  the  committee  on  Indian  affairs 
assumed  or  deterinined  that  two  fifths  was  the  proportion  of 
the  produce  for  the  cultivators,  and  three  fifths  for  the  govern- 
ment. And  as  the  Mohammedan  government  in  these  prov- 
inces, instead  of  taking  their  proportion  of  the  produce  in 
kind,  had  for  some  time  required  its  estimated  value  in  money, 
the  committee  determined  that  the  same  course  should  be  pur- 
sued. K the  case  of  the  cultivators  was  hard  when  they 
were  required  to  give  three  fifths  of  their  produce  to  the  gov- 
ernment, it  became  yet  harder  when  they  were  required  to  pay 
the  government  the  estimated  value  of  the  three  fifths  in  money. 

The  native  government  for  realizing  the  revenue,  had  caused 


196 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

the  country  to  be  divided  into  districts,  and  appointed  a coUec 
tor  over  each  district.  The  collectors,  commonly  called  Zem- 
indars, received  a certain  percentage,  generally  one  tenth  of  the 
amount  collected.  They  were  merely  the  agents  of  govern- 
ment, with  no  right  in  the  soil,  but  as  they  were  seldom  re- 
moved so  long  as  they  gave  satisfaction,  and  the  office  fre- 
quently continued  in  the  same  family  two  or  three  generations, 
it  came  often  to  be  regarded  as  a kind  of  hereditary  property. 
There  is  a strong  feeling  in  India  to  make  every  thing  hered- 
itary. If  a man  holds  any  situation  till  he  dies,  his  family 
win  always  feel  that  they  have  a claim  to  the  same  place. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  in  the  administration  of  l\Ir. 
Hastings,  the  land  was  divided  into  districts,  and  sold  to  the 
highest  bidder  for  5 years.  The  purchasers  were  generally  the 
collectors  of  the  taxes  or  rents,  and  they  made  the  purchases 
with  the  expectation  that  at  the  close  of  5 years,  some  further 
settlement  would  be  made.  But  as  the  English  government 
had  not  fixed  on  any  system,  the  collectors  generally  contin- 
ued in  charge  on  such  terms  as  could  be  agreed  upon  with  the 
government.  But  all  parties  were  in  a dissatisfied  state.  Lord 
Cornwallis  appears  to  have  had  strong  aristocratical  prejudices, 
and  believed  the  country  could  be  best  governed  and  improved 
by  creating  a landed  aristocracy.  So  the  Zemindars,  who  were 
all  natives  of  the  country,  were  declared  to  be  the  landlords,  or 
proprietors  of  their  respective  districts,  upon  condition  of  jiaying 
•to  the  government  annually  a certain  specified  amount  of  taxes 
or  rents,  and  the  cultivators  were  all  declared  to  be  the  ten- 
ants of  the  Zemindars.  Thus  in  provinces  containing  a pop- 
ulation of  30,000,000  of  people,  the  cultivators  of  the  land,  in 
whose  possession  it  had  been  for  many  generations,  and  whose 
right  to  it  had  never  been  questioned,  were  made  the  tenants 
of  landlords  (the  Zemindars)  who  had  previously  no  right 
whatever  in  the  soil  by  inheritance,  occupation,  or  purchase. 
It  was  intended  at  first,  that  this  arrangement  or  settlement 
should  continue  for  only  10  years,  and  then  be  made  per- 
manent, if  approved  by  the  Court  of  Directors,  and  the  results 
should  be  such  as  were  anticipated.  But  Lord  Cornwallis, 
after  some  delay,  resolved  to  make  this  settlement  permanent, 
and  so  it  was  made. 


niSTORT — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


197 


This  was  the  greatest  change  yet  made  by  any  English  ad- 
ministration in  India.  Indeed,  so  great  a change  was  proba- 
bly never  made  in  the  state  of  any  country  by  the  mere 
enactment  and  operation  of  law.  And  probably  no  change  ever 
produced  more  unhappy  consequences  — unhappy  to  the  East 
India  Company  in  its  effects  upon  their  revenue,  and  the  im- 
provement of  the  country ; unhappy  upon  the  Zemindars,  many 
of  whom  became  involved  and  insolvent ; and  yet  more  unhappy 
upon  the  cultivators,  who  were  oppressed  and  impoverished,  and, 
to  a fearful  extent,  ruined.  Such  is  the  general  testimony  and 
opinion  of  numerous  writers  upon  this  settlement.  The  au- 
thor of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  British  Power  in  India, 
whose  principal  aim  appears  to  have  been  to  seek,  in  all  the 
proceedings  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  of  their  gover- 
nors and  ageftts,  for  what  he  could  praise,  and  for  circum- 
stances and  reasons  to  excuse  what  he  could  not  commend, 
says,  “this  attempt  to  create  a landed  aristocracy  out  of  the 
hereditary  contract  agency  in  managing  the  land  revenue, 
was  attended  by  a vast  subversion  of  individual  property  and 
the  loss  of  a considerable  portion  of  revenue  to  the  State, 
without  securing  that  rehef  to  the  cultivator  of  the  soil  which 
formed  one  of  the  principal  objects  contemplated  on  the  intro- 
duction of  the  system.”  * And  Sir  H.  Strachey,  who  was  for 
many  years  one  of  the  Company’s  magistrates  in  Bengal,  de- 
clared, “that  an  almost  universal  destruction  had  overtaken 
the  Zemindars,  and  that  if  any  survived,  they  were  reduced  to 
the  same  condition  and  placed  at  an  equal  distance  from 
their  masters  (the  Enghsh),  as  the  lowest  ryots  (cultivators).” 
Another  historian  of  British  India  says : “ It  is  impossible  to 
read  the  accounts  given,  by  the  Company’s  most  intelligent 
agents,  of  the  state  of  the  country,  and  of  the  causes  of  its 
moral  decline,  without  receiving  a full  conviction  that  with 
the  best  intentions  in  the  world.  Lord  Cornwallis,  by  his 
financial  changes  brought  more  injury  upon  British  India,  than 
had  been  brought  by  all  his  predecessors  put  together.”! 

A reform  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  rather  the  introduction 
and  estabhshment  of  a judicial  system  was  not  less  required 

* Auber,  vol.  2,  p.  83.  f Gleig,  vol.  3,  p.  132. 

17* 


198 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


than  changes  in  the  revenue.  The  revenue  concerned  the 
government ; the  administration  of  justice  concerned  all  classes 
of  people.  The  country  was  divided  into  districts,  and  a series 
of  courts,  with  appeals  from  the  lower  to  the  higher,  was 
arranged.  Europeans  connected  with  the  army  were  of  course 
subject  to  military  laws.  Europeans  in  the  other  departments 
of  government,  and  those  unconnected  with  the  government, 
were  amenable  to  the  Supreme  Court  in  Calcutta.  In  respect 
to  the  native  population  generally,  where  both  parties  were 
Hindus,  the  matters  in  question  were  to  be  decided  in  accord- 
ance with  Hindu  laws,  as  defined  and  interpreted  by  the  Hindu 
law-officers  of  the  courts.  So  where  both  parties  were  INIoham- 
medans,  the  decision  was  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  estab- 
lished principles  of  Mohammedan  law.  And  where  the  parties 
were  of  different  creeds,  then  the  law  of  the  defendant  was  to 
govern  the  decision.  In  the  application  of  these  general  princi- 
ples, much  must  have  remained  for  the  discretionary  consid- 
eration and  decision  of  the  magistrates. 

The  great  mistake  in  framing  this  system,  and  one  which 
greatly  embarrassed  its  operations,  was  the  introduction  of 
tedious  and  technical  forms  in  conformity  with  English  courts 
and  usages.  Here,  as  in  the  matters  of  revenue,  the  governor- 
general,  though  a man  of  great  ability,  and  with  the  best  inten- 
tions, appears  to  have  been  misled  by  his  admiration  of  every 
thing  English,  and  by  his  not  being  sufficiently  acquainted  with 
the  character,  the  history,  and  the  habits  of  the  native  popula- 
tion, to  see  that  such  a system  was  not  suited  to  them.  So  in 
the  administration  of  justice  among  the  people  as  well  as  of 
revenue  for  the  government,  Lord  Cornwallis’s  measures,  in- 
stead of  producing  the  good  effects  which  were  expected  from 
them,  became  the  cause  of  great,  complicated,  and  long  contin- 
ued evils.  These  two  measures,  one  concerning  the  land  rev- 
enue, and  the  other  concerning  the  judiciary,  were  the  greatest 
errors  ever  made  by  the  English  in  their  government  of  India. 

In  October,  of  1793,  Lord  Cornwallis  embarked  for  England, 
having  been  governor-general  for  5 years.  The  East  India 
Company  gave  him  an  annuity  of  X5,000  for  20  years,  to  com- 
mence from  the  time  he  quitted  India,  and  to  be  continued  to 
his  family  in  the  event  of  his  death.  His  salary  had  been 
£25.000  annually,  while  in  office. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


199 


Sir  John  Shore,  subsequently  Lord  Teignmouth,  then  became 
governor-general,  and  held  the  office  till  1798.  He  had  previ- 
ously been  many  years  in  India,  and  so  had  much  experience  in 
the  afl’airs  of  government.  His  administration  gave  general 
satisfaction  in  India  as  well  as  in  England. 

HISTORY  OF  MADRAS  TILL  1800. 

Madras  is  the  oldest  of  the  English  possessions  in  India.  It 
was  obtained  by  the  East  India  Company  in  1640,  from  a native 
prince,  who  had  then  some  possessions  on  the  Coromandel 
Coast.  The  territory  acquired,  consisted  of  only  a fe\^  square 
miles.  The  English  here  erected  a fort  and  called  it  St.  George. 
The  village  or  town  has  retained  its  original  name  Madras,  or 
Madraspatam,  the  town  of  Madras.  It  was  soon  made  the  seat 
of  the  East  India  Company’s  government  and  agency  on  that 
coast,  and  has  ever  since  retained  its  preeminence,  having 
increased  from  a native  village  to  a city  of  half  a million  of 
inhabitants. 

With  the  close  of  the  17th  century  the  difficulties  of  the  East 
India  Company  in  England  terminated,  and  with  the  18th 
century  a new  era  commenced.  The  two  rival  companies  which 
had  so  long  contended  for  the  trade  of  India,  had  become  united 
in  one  corporation  to  manage  their  affairs  midcr  legislative  sanc- 
tion. Their  charter  gave  them  the  exclusive  right  to  the  trade 
with  all  places  east  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  power  to 
seize  and  punish  any  of  their  nation,  who  should  interfere  with 
it.  They  had  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  in  the  courts  they 
had  established.  They  had  resolved  to  extend  their  power  and 
to  increase  their  revenue  by  acquiring  territorial  possessions. 
They  had  determined  that  “ independence  was  to  be  established 
in  India ; ” and  to  become  “ a nation  in  India.”  And  what  was 
of  great  importance,  they  had  aU  the  experience  acquired  by  the 
management  of  their  extensive  and  complicated  affairs,  for  more 
than  a century.  They  knew  the  character,  the  power,  and  the 
weakness  of  the  native  princes  and  governments,  and  by  obser- 
vation, social  intercourse,  and  transactions  of  business,  they  had 
become  well  acquainted  with  the  character,  circumstances,  and 
habits  of  aU  classes  of  the  native  population. 


200  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Arrangements  were  made  in  London  for  managing  the  affairs 
of  the  Company  in  a manner  far  superior  to  any  that  had  be- 
fore existed.  The  proprietors  assembled  in  due  form  for  busi- 
ness, were  called  “ the  Court  of  Proprietors,”  and  to  take  a 
part  in  the  proceedings  of  this  body,  a proprietor  must  own 
£500  of  stock.  The  proprietors  chose  24  of  their  body  to  be  a 
committee  of  management ; these  were  called  the  Directors,  and 
when  assembled  for  business,  “ the  Court  of  Directors.”  But  no 
one  could  become  a Director,  who  did  not  possess  £2,000  of 
stock. 

In  India  the  Company  had  3 presidencies,  namely,  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay.  A presidency  consisted  of  a president 
or  governor,  and  council,  aU  appointed  by  the  Directors  in  Lon- 
don. Subordinate  to  these  presidencies,  were  80  factories  scat- 
tered in  all  the  considerable  seaports  and  cities  in  India  and 
other  parts  of  southern  Asia.  Some  of  these  factories  were 
strongly  fortified  and  garrisoned. 

For  some  years  little  of  historical  interest  occurred  in  the 
affairs  of  the  English  in  India.  In  1715,  a physician  by  the 
name  of  Hamilton,  who  accompanied  an  embassy  to  Delhi, 
cured  the  emperor  of  a disease  which  had  baffled  the  native 
physicians.  For  this  service  the  emperor  gave  liberal  presents 
to  Hamilton ; he  also  gave  3 villages  near  IMadras,  and  37  vil- 
lages near  Calcutta,  to  the  East  India  Company.  He  also  gave 
permission  for  their  agents  to  transport  their  goods  through  his 
dominions  to  some  places  without  paying  duty.  The  trade  of 
the  Company  was  generally  prosperous.  In  1717,  they  paid 
dividends  of  10  per  cent,  upon  a capital  of  £3,194,030,  and 
this  appears  to  have  been  the  rate  of  dividend  for  10  or  12 
years. 

In  1721,  Indian  calicoes  were  so  much  used  in  England  that 
they  were  considered  “ a great  detriment  and  obstruction  to  the 
woollen  and  sUk  manufactures  of  the  kingdom,  and  occasioned 
several  riots  and  tumults  among  the  weavers  in  London,”  in 
consequence  of  which  Parliament  passed  an  act,  which  “ pro- 
hibited the  wear  of  Indian  printed  calicoes  under  a penalty  of 
£5  for  each  offence  on  the  wearer,  and  £20  on  the  seller.”  This 
was  rather  a singular  way  of  protecting  domestic  manufactures. 

The  Company  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  a renewal  of 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


201 


their  charter  in  1730.  Among  the  means  used  for  effecting  this 
was  the  reduction  of  the  interest  upon  the  sums  they  had  loaned 
to  the  English  government  from  5 to  4 per  cent.,  and  also  the 
payment  of  a bonus  of  £200,000  to  the  public  service.  The 
charter  thus  renewed  was  to  continue  till  1766,  and  if  not  then 
renewed,  the  3 years’  notice  required  would  extend  the  period  till 
1769.  In  1744,  when  the  English  nation  was  engaged  in  an 
expensive  war,  the  Company  offered  to  loan  to  the  government 
£1,000,000  upon  3 per  cent,  interest,  provided  their  exclusive 
privileges  should  be  extended  to  1780,  or  with  the  3 years’  notice 
to  1783.  On  these  conditions  a new  act  to  extend  the  charter 
was  passed.  The  object  of  this  measure  on  the  part  of  the 
Company  appears  to  have  been  to  allay  complaints  in  the  public 
mind,  and  conciliate  the  good-will  of  the  government;  for  the 
same  act  in  order  to  enable  them  to  make  this  loan  to  the  gov- 
ernment authorised  them  to  borrow  the  same  amount  upon 
their  bonds. 

The  Company  now  became  involved  in  war  on  a larger 
scale,  more  severe  in  its  character,  and  more  perilous  to  their 
interests  than  ever  before. 

The  French  did  not  engage  in  trade  to  the  East  Indies  until 
nearly  half  a century  after  the  English  East  India  Company 
had -been  formed.  Their  first  endeavors  were  to  form  a settle- 
ment on  Madagascar,  but  this  island  does  not  yield  any  com- 
modities in  sufficient  quantity  for  any  considerable  exportation 
to  any  European  market.  The  inhabitants  are  ferocious  and 
warhke,  and  very  unlike  in  their  habits  and  character  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  southern  parts  of  Asia  and  its  islands.  The  French, 
after  much  harassing  warfare  and  suffering,  were  compelled  to 
leave  Madagascar,  and  the  survivors  chiefly  settled  in  Mauritius 
and  Bourbon.  The  French  East  India  Company  then  turned 
their  attention  to  India,  and  established  several  factories  in  dif- 
ferent places.  Among  these  Pondicherry  held  the  first  place. 
It  was  fortified ; its  trade  much  increased,  and  its  state  was  pros- 
perous. The  French  eastern  possessions  at  this  time  consti- 
tuted two  presidencies ; namely,  INIauritius  which  included 
Bourbon,  and  Pondicherry  which  included  the  factories  in  India. 

In  1744,  England  and  France,  which  had  for  some  time  been 
engaged  in  war  on  opposite  sides  as  auxiliaries,  came  to  mutual 


202 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


declarations  of  war  with  each  other.  This  war  soon  extended 
to  their  possessions  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  1746,  Labour- 
donnais,  a man  of  great  talent  and  energy,  who  had  previously 
been  governor  of  Mauritius,  and  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
state  of  India,  collected  a small  fleet  and  attacked  Madras. 
This  city  was  the  first  place  acquired  by  the  Engfish  in  India, 
and  had  been  the  capital  of  their  possessions  on  the  Coromandel 
Coast  for  more  than  100  years.  The  territory  was  small,  extend- 
ing about  5 miles  along  the  shore  and  1 mile  inland.  The  pop- 
ulation was  estimated  at  250,000.  The  English  amounted  to 
only  300,  of  whom  200  were  soldiers  belonging  to  the  garrison. 
The  city  was  bombarded  for  5 days,  during  which  a few  persons 
were  killed,  and  2 or  3 houses  demolished.  The  people  fearing 
an  assault,  became  anxious  for  capitulation,  and  the  city  was 
surrendered,  Labourdonnais  promising  that  it  should  be  restored 
again  after  a stipulated  period  and  for  a fixed  ransom.  The 
inhabitants  were  protected  and  aU  private  property  respected, 
but  the  French  took  possession  of  the  warehouses  and  maga- 
zines of  the  East  India  Company,  and  appropriated  them  to 
their  own  use.  Having  thus  taken  the  capital  of  all  .the  Eng- 
lish possessions  on  the  Coromandel  Coast,  Labourdonnais 
returned  to  Pondicherry  without  the  loss  of  a single  man.  But 
here  he  found  to  his  surprise  that  his  gallant  conduct,  instead  of 
being  appreciated  and  approved  as  he  expected,  was  severely 
censured.  Dupleix,  then  governor  of  Pondicherry,  an  aspiring 
and  ambitious  man,  apparently  jealous  of  his  fame  and  influence, 
opposed  him  in  all  his  plans  and  treated  him  with  so  much  con- 
tumely that,  unable  any  longer  to  endure  it,  he  sailed  for  France. 
There  too,  the  misrepresentations  of  Dupleix  had  preceded  him. 
One  of  Dupleix’s  brothers  was  a director  in  the  French  East 
India  Company,  and  had  much  influence.  Labourdonnais  was 
thrown  into  the  Bastile,  where  he  remained  in  confinement  for  3 
years,  and  died  soon  after  he  was  released. 

It  was  never  Dupleix’s  intention  to  fulfil  the  terms  of  the 
capitulation  made  by  Labourdonnais  to  restore  Madras  again 
to  the  English,  and  the  Nabob  of  Arcot,  becoming  fully  satisfied 
of  this,  and  exasperated  by  his  deceitful  and  faithless  conduct, 
espoused  the  part  of  the  English  and  sent  an  army  of  10,000 
men  under  his  son  to  take  Madras  from  the  French.  The  gar- 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


203 


rison  at  that  time  consisted  of  about  1,200  Europeans,  who 
encountered  the  Nabob’s  army,  astonished  them  with  the  rapid- 
ity and  destructive  fire  of  their  artillery,  routed  them  and  gained 
a decided  victory.  A century  before  this  battle  was  fought,  the 
Portuguese  had  shown  on  several  occasions  the  superiority  of  a 
small  body  of  Europeans  w'ith  their  cool  valor  and  disciplined 
skill  in  the  time  of  conflict  over  the  numerous,  disorderly,  and 
undisciplined  armies  which  the  princes  of  India  bring  into  the 
field.  But  these  victories  of  the  Portuguese  had  apparently 
been  forgotten,  and  the  English  and  French,  not  having  yet 
learned  their  own  superiority  from  experience,  were  accustomed 
to  look  upon  the  emperors  of  India  as  mighty  monarchs,  and 
their  armies  as  brave  and  formidable.  This  spell  was  again  dis- 
sipated, and  the  consequent  estimation  of  the  native  armies 
opened  before  both  nations,  scenes  of  future  conquest  and 
power  scarcely  yet  thought  of.  The  opinion  which  they  now 
began  to  form  of  their  own  power,  soon  led  to  very  important 
results  in  their  wars  with  the  native  governments. 

DupleLx,  who  was  now  in  charge  of  the  French  interests  in 
Lidia,  was  a man  of  great  ambition,  energy,  and  talent.  He 
had  previously  filled  several  important  situations  with  much 
credit  to  himself  and  advantage  to  the  public  interests.  He 
now  formed  plans  of  conquest  and  power  for  himself  and  his 
nation  not  inferior  to  those  of  any  of  the  great  conquerors,  who 
in  different  ages  have  invaded  India.  Possessing  an  ample  pri- 
vate fortune  as  well  as  the  liberal  salary  of  an  Indian  governor, 
he  adopted  the  style  of  living  and  frequently  the  costume  of  an 
oriental  prince,  and  the  government  house  in  Pondicherry,  in  its 
ceremonies,  pomp,  and  gorgeous  splendor  resembled  the  palace 
and  court  of  a Nabob  or  Emperor.  The  first  step  Dupleix  took 
in  pursuing  his  scheme  was  to  retain  the  advantage  already 
acquired  over  the  English,  and  proceed  to  expel  them  from  aU 
their  possessions  on  the  Coromandel  Coast.  Accordingly  he 
sent  orders  to  the  officer  in  charge  of  Madras  to  declare  publicly 
that  the  treaty  of  restoration  for  a ransom  had  been  annulled, 
and  to  take  possession  of  aU  magazines  and  aU  articles  of  prop- 
erty, except  the  clothes  which  people  wore,  the  furniture  of  their 
houses,  and  the  jewels  of  their  women.  These  orders  were  car- 
ried into  effect  with  great  severity.  The  EngUsh  governor  and 


204 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  most  respectable  men  were  carried  prisoners  to  Pondi- 
cherry. 

Duplelx  next  laid  siege  to  the  fort  of  St.  David,  which  was 
12  miles  south  of  Pondicherry.  The  fort  was  small  but  strongly 
fortified,  and  the  territory  connected  with  it,  was  larger  than  the 
territory  of  Madras.  He  had  but  just  commenced  the  siege, 
when  the  army  of  the  Nabob  of  Arcot,  appeared  in  sight  to 
assist  the  English.  The  French  force  retreated,  but  not  without 
some  loss.  Great  efforts  were  made  to  gain  over  the  Nabob  to 
the  French  interests,  and  he  was  at  last  induced  to  jom  them. 
The  siege  of  St.  David  was  revived  and  prosecuted  with  vigor, 
but  without  the  expected  success,  and  Dupleix  was  compelled  to" 
abandon  it.  In  1748,  a fleet  of  9 ships  of  the  royal  navy,  and 
11  ships  of  the  East  India  Company  with  1,400  men  arrived, 
which  added  to  those  already  in  India,  made  the  largest  Euro- 
pean force  ever  in  the  country.  The  English  were  now  in  a 
state  to  commence  offensive  operations,  and  they  resolved  to 
besiege  Pondicherry,  the  chief  seat  of  the  French  power  in 
India.  They  were  now  in  high  spirits  expecting  soon  to  see 
Pondicherry  taken,  and  the  French  power  humbled,  if  not  anni- 
hilated. The  siege  was  commenced,  but  was  badly  managed, 
the  rainy  season  began,  sickness  broke  out  in  the  camp,  and  the 
English  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  place,  a measure  not  more 
painful  to  them  than  joyful  to  the  French.  Soon  after  the  siege 
was  raised,  and  before  offensive  operations  could  be  again  com- 
menced, news  arrived  from  Europe  that  peace  had  been  made 
between  England  and  France,  one  condition  of  which  was  that 
Madras  should  be  restored  to  the  Enghsh.  This  restoration  put 
each  nation  in  possession  of  the  same  places  and  territories  in 
India,  which  they  had  when  the  war  commenced.  Such  was 
the  result  of  several  years  of  hard  fighting  and  great  expendi- 
ture of  treasure  and  of  life.  No  events  of  any  importance 
occurred  during  the  war  in  the  other  presidencies.  In  Bengal 
the  viceroy  of  the  emperor  forbid  the  English  and  French  to 
carry  on  any  hostilities  with  each  other  in  his  dominions,  and 
the  French  had  no  possessions  in  the  Bombay  j)residency. 

The  peace  between  England  and  France  produced  a cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  between  the  English  and  French  in  India,  and 
left  each  party  in  possession  of  the  territories  they  possessed 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


205 


previous  to  the  war.  But  both  parties  were  left  in  circumstances 
unfavorable  to  continued  peace.  While  the  war  was  in  prog- 
ress, they  had  received  large  reinforcements  from  Europe,  and 
they  had  now  a much  larger  force  than  was  necessary  for  de- 
fence in  a time  of  peace.  This  force  must  return  to  Europe,  or 
live  on  reduced  pay,  or  find  some  employment  in  the  country. 
They  had  learned  their  superiority  over  the  native  armies  in 
valor  and  discipline.  Personal  and  official  intercourse  with  the 
native  princes  and  courts  had  disclosed  their  weakness,  fickle- 
ness, duplicity,  and  corruption.  And  there  were  among  the 
English  and  the  French  many  restless,  ambitious,  and  aspiring 
men,  who  were  anxious  for  opportunities  to  achieve  great  things 
for  themselves,  for  their  party,  and  for  their  nation.  Such  men 
were  unwilling  to  return  to  Europe,  or  to  remain  idle  in  India. 

In  these  circumstances  it  is  easy  to  see  that  peace  was 
not  likely  to  be  of  long  continuance,  and  that  if  hostilities 
should  again  commence,  they  would  be  managed  on  a larger 
scale,  and  in  a different  manner,  and  would  involve  other  parties 
and  have  greater  ultimate  objects  in  view  than  ever  before. 
The  English  were  the  first  to  disturb  the  general  tranquillity  by 
taking  part  in  the  affairs  of  Tanjore,  a small  Hindu  principality, 
about  200  miles  nearly  south  from  Madras.  Sahujee,  the  Raja 
of  Tanjore,  had  been  expelled  from  his  throne,  and  he  applied 
to  the  English  to  reinstate  him,  promising  to  give  them  the  fort 
and  district  of  Devacotta.  Their  first  attempt  to  obtain  posses- 
sion of  the  fort  was  a failure.  The  second  attempt  was  suc- 
cessful. The  second  attack  was  led  by  Lieut  Clive,  -who 
afterwards  became  so  conspicuous  in  the  affairs  of  India.  A 
treaty  was  soon  made  with  the  reigning  Raja  of  Tanjore,  who 
ceded  the  fort  and  district  to  the  English,  and  they  abandoned 
the  cause  of  Sahujee. 

In  the  mean  time  DupUex  was  concerting  plans  to  procure 
for  the  French  the  ascendency  in  the  southern  parts  of  India. 
At  this  time  the  principal  Mohammedan  princes  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  peninsula,  were  the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad,  sometimes 
called  the  Subadar  of  the  Deckan,  and  the  Nabob  of  Arcot, 
sometimes  called  the  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic.  These  persons 
were  originally  subordinate  to  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  but  in  the 
state  of  anarchy  which  ensued  upon  the  invasion  of  India  bjr 

18 


206 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


Nadir  Shah,  they  had  become  gradually  independent.  Nazir 
Jung  was  now  Nizam,  but  the  office  or  throne  was  claimed  by 
another  member  of  the  family,  called  Murzapha  Jung.  Anwur 
ud  Been  was  now  Nabob,  but  the  place  was  claimed  by  a man 
called  Cfiunda  Sahib.  Dupliex,  having  become  acquainted  with 
the  state  of  parties  in  these  native  governments,  saw  that  he 
might  act  an  important  part  among  them,  and  perhaps  raise  the 
French  power  to  a state  of  supremacy  over  them  all.  Mur- 
zapha Jung  and  Chunda  Sahib,  having  united  their  influence 
and  forces  to  prosecute  their  claims,  assembled  an  army  and 
approached  the  Carnatic.  The  native  princes  had  become 
aware  of  the  superior  valor  and  discipline  of  European  troops, 
and  were  anxious  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  Dupliex ; and  he 
saw  that  by  espousing  their  cause,  he  might  obtain  the  highest 
advantage  for  himself  and  his  nation.  So  he  promised  them 
assistance,  and  sent  a considerable  force  under  M.  de  Auteuil 
to  their  aid.  The  forces  being  united,  they  marched  to  attack 
Anwur  ud  Been,  who  was  then  at  Amboor,  50  miles  west 
from  Arcot.  The  first  and  second  assaults  were  repulsed,  but 
the  third  was  successful.  Anwur  was  killed,  his  eldest  son  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  his  second  son,  Mohammed  Ali,  with  the 
remains  of  his  army,  fled  to  Trichinopoly,  of  which  fort  he 
was  governor.  Murzapha  Jung,  and  Chunda  Sahib,  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Arcot,  and  afterwards  to  Pondicherry,  where  Dupliex 
entertained  them  in  oriental  magnificence,  and  received  from 
Chmida  Sahib  the  cession  of  81  villages  in  that  province.  They 
next  went  to  Tanjore,  and  demanded  a large  sum  of  money,  as 
arrears  of  tribute  due  to  the  Nabob  of  Arcot,  or  the  Carnatic. 
While  thus  engaged,  they  heard  that  Nazir  Jung  was  on  his 
march  with  a very  large  force  to  attack  them.  They  were  much 
disconcerted  at  this  news,  and  breaking  up  their  camp,  returned 
to  Pondicherry.  The  state  of  matters  now  called  forth  the  tal- 
ent of  Dupliex  for  engaging  in  Indian  politics.  lie  exerted  aU 
liis  art  and  persuasion  to  encourage  them  ; he  lent  them  £50,000 
(nearly  $250,000),  saying  he  would  let  them  have  more  if  they 
required  it,  and  he  increased  the  French  forces  to  2,000.  Still 
he  was  fearful  of  the  power  of  Nazir  Jung,  whose  army  was 
described  as  amounting  to  300,000  men,  and  so  he  endeavored 
to  negotiate  a second  treaty  with  him.  The  English  had  also 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


207 


ensTfiffed  in  secret  negfotiation  for  some  time  with  Nizam  ul 
MuUc  and  Nazir  Jung,  endeavoring  to  prejudice  them  against 
the  French,  and  secure  favor  for  themselves.  They  had  assisted 
Mohammed  Ali,  by  sending  some  small  aid  to  Tanjore  and  to 
Trichinopoly.  When  they  were  informed  of  Nazir  Jung’s  ap- 
proach with  a large  army.  Major  Lawrence  proceeded  to  join 
him  with  600  men.  Some  difficulties  about  this  time  occurred 
in  the  French  force,  and  13  officers  resigned  in  one  day.  Their 
commander,  D’AuteuU,  becoming  embarrassed  and  discouraged, 
returned  with  his  division  of  the  force  to  Pondicherry.  Mur- 
zapha  Jung  and  Chunda  Sahib  now  lost  all  confidence  in  their 
army.  The  former  surrendered  and  was  cast  into  prison,  and 
the  latter  took  refuge  in  Pondicherry. 

Thus  frustrated  in  his  plans  and  calculations,  Dupliex  had 
recourse  to  other  expedients.  In  his  negotiations  with  Nazir 
Jung,  he  had  learned  that  some  Afghan  chiefs,  who  had  the  com- 
mand of  some  regiments  of  their  countrymen  in  his  arrr>y,  had 
conspired  to  dethrone  him.  He  opened  a communication  with 
these  conspirators,  and  engaged  to  assist  them  in  carrying  their 
plan  into  effect.  D’ Auteuil,  leaving  Pondicherry,  attacked  Nazir 
Jung’s  camp  in  the  night,  and  made  great  slaughter,  when,  sup- 
posing no  enemy  near,  they  were  quite  unprepared.  The  French 
also  took  Mausalapatam,  the  principal  seaport  on  that  coast. 
Major  LawTence,  who  commanded  the  English  force,  becoming 
dissatisfied  with  the  Nizam’s  conduct,  withdrew  from  his  army, 
and  so  left  an  open  field  for  the  French.  D’ Auteuil  now  sent  a 
force  to  take  Gingee,  a moimtain  fort,  strongly  fortified  and  cel- 
ebrated in  Indian  history,  and  they  seized  it  in  the  night  with 
but  little  loss.  Nazir  Jung,  who  had  been  spending  his  time  at 
Arcot  in  his  favorite  sport  of  hunting,  and  in  the  harem,  was 
now  roused  to  action  and  took  the  field,  but  unable  for  some 
time  to  accomplish  any  thing  decisive,  and  wishing  to  return  to 
the  Deckan,  he  opened  negotiations  with  the  French.  Duphex 
prolonged  this  negotiation,  and  kept  up  his  friendly  communica- 
tion with  the  dissatisfied  Afghan  chiefs,  till  their  plans  for  de- 
throning the  Nizam  were  matured.  At  length  they  informed 
the  French  commander  in  Gingee  of  their  concerted  plans.  He 
proceeded  at  once  to  attack  the  camp  of  the  Nizam  in  the  night, 
and  in  the  confusion  that  followed,  the  Nizam  was  killed  by 


208 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

one  of  the  Afghan  chiefs.  Murzapha  Jung,  who  had  remained 
in  confinement  since  he  surrendered  liimself,  was  now  brought 
out  and  proclaimed  to  be  the  Nizam,  or  Subadar  of  the  Dec- 
kan. 

By  this  sudden  revolution  Murzapha  Jung,  instead  of  being  a 
prisoner  of  State,  became  the  sovereign  of  a territory  at  that 
time  larger  in  population  than  England  or  France.  The  treas- 
ure of  Nazir  Jung,  of  which  he  acquired  possession,  exceeded 
^12,000,000.  This  change  in  the  subaship,  or  government, 
greatly  increased  the  French  influence.  Murzapha  Jung  visited 
Pondicherry,  where  he  was  received  with  great  pomp  and 
installed  on  the  tlirone  of  the  Deckan,  and  Dupleix  in  return 
was  created  governor  and  collector  in  all  the  districts  on  the  river 
Kistna,  a territory  larger  than  France.  Murzapha  Jung  ceded 
several  districts  to  France  in  perpetuity,  and  paid  Dupleix 
^250,000  for  the  expenses  of  the  war.  But  he  soon  found  his 
new  situation  to  be  surrounded  witli  difficulties.  The  Afghan 
chiefs  made  heavy  demands  for  the  part  they  had  performed  in 
raising  him  to  power.  Dupleix  exerted  his  influence  for  some 
satisfactory  adjustment  of  these  claims,  but  without  effect,  and 
Murzapha  Jung  left  Pondicherry  for  the  Deckan,  accompanied 
by  M.  Bussy  with  a body  of  French  troops.  After  a few  days’ 
march,  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  Afghan  chiefs  resulted  in  an 
open  revolt,  in  which  Murzapha  Jung  was  killed.  Sulabat  Jung, 
a brother  of  Murzapha  Jung,  was  now  proclaimed  and  installed 
Subadar.  He  promised  the  French  to  fulfil  the  engagements 
made  by  his  predecessor,  and  the  army  proceeded  on  the  way  to 
the  Deckan. 

The  apathy  and  indifference  with  which  the  English  contem- 
plated these  proceedings,  appear  not  less  surprising  than  the 
remarkable  success  of  the  French.  They  were  at  lengtli  roused 
to  make  some  efforts  to  retrieve  their  circumstances.  They 
made  an  attack  upon  Madura,  but  were  rej)ulsed.  They  were 
defeated  at  Valiconda,  and  retreating  on  tlie  approach  of  the 
enemy  at  Utatoor  and  at  Pitchonda,  took  refuge  in  Trichin- 
opoly,  where  they  were  soon  besieged  by  the  united  forces  of 
Chunda  Sahib  and  the  French.  This  sad  state  of  the  English 
was  further  increased  by  an  unhappy  contention  among  their 
officers.  While  their  affairs  were  in  this  discouraging  state,  a 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


209 


new  actor  appeared  on  the  stage.  Mr.  Robert  Clive,  afterwards 
so  celebrated  in  the  history  of  India,  arrived  at  Madras  in  1748, 
in  the  capacity  of  a writer  of  the  East  India  Company.  When 
the  promised  restoration  of  Madras  was  violated,  he  escaped  to 
fort  St.  David  in  the  dress  of  a Mohammedan.  When  the  siege 
of  Trichinopoly  was  undertaken,  he  was  permitted  to  enter  the 
army  as  an  ensign.  Here,  on  several  other  occasions,  he  exhib- 
ited great  intrepidity  and  knowledge  of  military  tactics.  When 
the  expeditions  for  which  he  joined  the  army  were  finished,  he 
returned  to  Madras  to  his  own  department  of  the  government. 
But  when  he  saw  the  distracted  and  discouraging  state  of  the 
English  affairs,  he  again  joined  the  army,  and  having  obtained  a 
force  of  500  men,  of  whom  only  200  were  Europeans,  he  made 
an  attack  on  Arcot  the  Nabob’s  capital.  The  Nabob’s  troops, 
seeing  the  approach  of  this  force,  evacuated  the  place  without 
making  any  resistance.  It  was  not  long  before  a detachment 
of  4,000  or  5,000  men  arriving  from  Trichinopoly,  he  was 
besieged  in  the  fort  he  had  taken.  He  repelled  their  attacks 
mth  great  vigor  and  ability  during  a siege  of  50  days,  when  the 
enemy  becoming  discouraged,  raised  the  siege  and  withdrew 
from  the  place.  He  pursued  them  for  some  distance,  and  hav- 
ing gained  some  advantages  over  them  and  taken  several  small 
forts,  he  returned  to  Madras. 

The  siege  of  Trichinopoly  was  stiff  continued.  But  very 
considerable  reinforcements  now  arrived  from  England.  Mo- 
hammed Ali  succeeded  in  obtaining  aid  from  the  Raja  of  Mysore, 
who  sent  a force  of  20,000  men.  The  Raja  of  Tanjore  was 
also  induced  to  send  a force  of  5,000  men.  In  these  circum- 
stances the  English  resolved  to  attack  the  French  in  their  camp, 
but  the  French  seeing  the  force  arranged  to  attack  them,  aban- 
doned Trichinopoly  and  took  possession  of  Seringham,  an  island 
in  the  river  Coleroon.  This  place  was  soon  attacked  with  vigor, 
and  unable  to  make  any  further  defence  and  suffering  for  pro- 
visions, Chunda  Sahib  surrendered  to  the  Raja  of  Tanjore,  and 
the  French  surrendered  to  the  English.  The  Raja  of  Tanjore 
gave  Chunda  Sahib  a promise  of  protection,  but  he  was  soon 
put  to  death. 

The  state  and  prospects  of  the  English  were  now  encourag- 
ing beyond  any  former  period,  and  those  of  the  French  in  turn 

18* 


210 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


were  uncertain  and  discouraging.  But  Dupleix  was  not  to  be 
easily  disheartened,  and  began  to  form  plans  yet  more  extensive. 
M.  Bussy,  his  agent,  having  placed  Sulabat  Jimg  on  the  throne 
of  the  Deckan,  proceeded  with-  him  to  Golconda  and  Auranga- 
bad, when  the  Subadar  entered  upon  his  government  with  great 
parade  and  pomp.  But  he  found  a rival  in  Ghazee  ud  Been, 
another  son  of  Nizam  ul  Mulk,  and  Sulabat  Jung  soon  saw 
that  he  must  rely  upon  the  French  to  sustain  him  in  the  office, 
which  through  their  aid  he  had  acquired.  So  he  retained  his 
power  under,  the  direction  of  M.  .Bussy.  In  the  Carnatic,  Du- 
pleix resolved  if  possible  to  restore  the  ascendency  of  the  French 
by  taking  the  advantage  of  the  ficldeness  and  weakness,  the 
fortunes  and  misfortunes  of  the  native  princes.  He  had  learned 
much  of  the  native  character,  and  he  turned  this  experience  to 
great  advantage.  While  the  English  were  yet  rejoicing  in  the 
success  of  their  arms  and  allies  in  raising  the  siege  of  Tricliin- 
opoly,  they  were  surprised  to  learn  that  the  Nabob,  Mohammed 
Aii,  had  promised  to  cede  this  city  and  the  territory  around  it  to 
the  Raja  of  Mysore,  as  the  reward  of  the  assistance  he  had 
given.  He  admitted  that  he  had  made  the  promise,  but  refused 
to  fulfil  it.  Much  negotiation  followed,  and  the  matter  was  pro- 
fessedly adjusted,  but  strong  dissatisfaction  was  stiU  cherished 
and  certain  soon  to  manifest  itself. 

The  next  measure  of  the  English  was  the  reduction  of  Gin- 
gee,  which  was  garrisoned  by  the  French,  and  was  the  strongest 
fort  in  the  Carnatic.  A force  supposed  to  be  sufficient  to  take 
the  fort  was  sent  for  this  purpose,  but  it  was  defeated,  and  so 
the  expedition  failed.  Dupleix  also  seized  a company  of  Swiss 
who  were  in  the  English  service  and  on  the  way  to  Madras. 
The  French,  elated  with  their  success  in  different  places,  rein- 
forced their  victorious  army  with  as  much  force  as  they  could 
send  into  the  field.  Major  LawTcnce  made  his  arrangements  to 
encounter  the  Frencli  force  as  soon  as  possible.  His  force  con- 
sisted of  400  Europeans,  and  1,700  sepoys  in  the  service  of  the 
English,  and  4,000  sepoys  belonging  to  the  Nabob,  and  9 pieces 
of  cannon.  The  French  force  consisted  of  450  Europeans, 
1,500  sepoys,  and  500  cavalry.  They  met  and  fought  at  Bahoor. 
The  English  were  victorious,  but  the  eagerness  of  the  Nabob’s 
troops  to  plunder  the  French  camp,  prevented  the  English  from 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


211 


realizing  the  full  advantages  of  the  victory.  The  rainy  season 
now  setting  in,  compelled  both  parties  to  withdraw  their  armies 
from  the  field. 

In  tlitt  mean  time  the  siege  of  Trichinopoly  was  pressed  by 
Nundraj,  the  commander  of  the  Mysore  troops.  He,  as  well  as 
the  Raja  of  Tanjore  and  some  Mahratta  chiefs,  then  in  the  Car- 
natic with  considerable  force,  were  ready  to  join  the  English  or 
the  French,  according  as  one  or  the  other  of  these  parties  from 
time  to  time  appeared  to  have  the  ascendency.  A treaty  having 
been  negotiated  between  Nundraj  the  commander  of  the 
Mysore  troops,  and  Dupleix,  the  latter  sent  a French  force  to 
assist  in  pressing  the  siege  of  Trichinopoly.  The  garrison  was 
also  soon  after  reinforced  by  a body  of  English  troops.  This 
siege  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  the  history  of  Indian 
warfare,  and  continued  for  a year  and  a half. 

"While  these  transactions  were  taking  place  in  the  Carnatic, 
M.  Bussy  was  active  in  promoting  the  French  interest  in  the, 
Deckan.  His  influence  in  the  councils  of  Sulabat  Jung  was 
felt  to  be  humiliating  to  the  great  men  at  court,  and  excited  their 
united  opposition  against  him.  They  took  the  advantage  of 
his  temporary  absence  to  diminish  his  influence,  and  to  embar- 
rass his  position.  His  troops  did  not  receive  their  pay  according 
to  the  terms  of  their  service,  and  they  were  separated  into 
detachments  and  stationed  in  different  places.  But  on  his  return 
he  soon  collected  them  together.  There  was  then  fear  of  an 
invasion  by  the  Mahrattas,  which  would  make  the  assistance  he 
could  render  in  such  case  very  important.  This  probable  want 
of  his  aid,  added  to  the  injury  it  was  in  his  power  to  do  them, 
enabled  him  to  take  higher  ground  and  exert  more  power  than 
he  had  ever  done  before.  He  insisted  that  those  who  had  shown 
themselves  to  be  his  enemies,  should  be  excluded  from  the  coun- 
cil, and  to  make  up  the  arrears  of  pay  and  to  prevent  any  such 
delay  or  delinquency  in  future,  he  obtained  the  cession  of  a large 
extent  of  territory  in  the  Carnatic.  This  territory,  added  to  the 
districts  which  the  French  previously  possessed,  gave  them  more 
than  600  miles  of  sea-coast,  and  an  annual  revenue  of  $4,500,- 
000.  The  revenue  of  aU  the  possessions  acquired  by  the  Eng- 
lish during  this  long  and  arduous  struggle,  did  not  exceed 
$500,000  annually. 


212 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


The  English  and  the  French  East  India  Companies,  dissatis- 
fied with  the  expenses  of  these  wars  in  India,  and  unable  to 
approve  of  the  proceedings  of  their  agents,  urged  them  to  adjust 
their  mutual  difficulties.  With  a view  to  such  a settlement  they 
commenced  examining  and  comparing  their  respective  titles  to 
the  territories  they  claimed.  It  was  soon  found  that  no  progress 
could  be  made  in  bringing  their  difficulties  to  a satisfactory  con- 
clusion in  this  way,  as  each  party  declared  the  titles,  papers,  etc., 
produced  by  the  other  to  be  forged.  Other  proposals  and  offers 
were  made,  but  nothing  satisfactory  to  either  party  could  be 
done. 

This  severe  and  long-continued  contention  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  in  India,  occasioned  earnest  discussion  between 
their  respective  governments  in  Europe.  There  was  more  dis- 
satisfaction in  France  concerning  what  the  agents  of  their  East 
India  Company  were  doing,  than  in  England  concerning  what 
their  Company’s  agents  had  done.  Large  reinforcements  were 
also  preparing  in  London  to  proceed  to  India.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances it  was  agi-eed  between  the  twm  governments  that 
Commissioners  should  be  appointed  to  investigate  all  the  mat- 
ters of  difference,  and  make  an  adjustment  of  them  upon  such 
principles  of  equity  as  would  be  mutually  satisfactory.  On  the 
part  of  the  French  Company,  M.  Godheu  was  appointed  Com- 
missioner, wdth  power  civil  and  military  over  all  the  French  pos- 
sessions in  India,  and  on  the  part  of  the  English  Company,  IVIr. 
Sanders,  their  governor  or  president  in  council  in  Madras,  was 
appointed.  M.  Godheu  arrived  at  Pondicherry  in  1754,  and 
superseded  Dupleix.  An  armistice  of  3 months  was  agreed 
upon,  and  before  the  close  of  the  year  a provisional  treaty,  sub- 
ject to  the  ratification  of  their  respective  companies,  was  signed 
by  the  Commissioners.  In  this  treaty  the  places  and  temtories 
which  each  party  was  to  retain,  were  specified.  Each  party 
engaged  to  withdraw  from  aU  interference  in  the  affairs  of  the 
native  princes,  and  never  again  to  interfere  in  any  wars  or  dis- 
sensions that  might  occur  among  them.  All  hostUifies  were  to 
cease,  and  the  possessions  of  each  party  to  remain  as  they  were, 
till  the  decision  of  the  respective  companies  in  Euro])c  should 
be  known. 

Dupleix,  as  might  be  supposed,  was  exceedingly  dissatisfied 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


213 


with  the  appointment  of  these  Commissioners,  reflecting  as  it 
did  upon  his  conduct,  and  arresting  his  schemes  for  extending 
the  French  power  in  India.  On  the  arrival  of  M.  Godheu,  he 
resigned  all  power  into  his  hands.  lie  delivered  up  his  accounts 
with  the  French  Company,  and  showed  that  he  had  paid  for 
the  expenses  of  the  war,  .£400,000,  nearly  $2,000,000,  out  of 
his  own  private  fortune.  In  October  1754,  he  embarked  for 
Europe.  On  his  arriving  in  France,  the  French  East  India 
Company  declared  that  in  much  of  what  he  had  done  in  India, 
he  had  acted  without  any  orders  from  them,  and  often  contrary 
to  their  avowed  principles  and  known  purposes.  They  refused 
to  reimburse  any  part  of  what  he  had  expended  from  his  own 
property  on  their  account.  He  appealed  to  the  French  govern- 
ment, but  they  refused  to  interfere  further,  than  “ by  granting 
him  letters  of  protection  against  any  prosecution  which  might 
be  raised  by  his  creditors.”  lie  published  a statement  of  liis 
services  and  the  treatment  he  had  received  in  return,  which, 
excited  much  attention  and  sympathy,  and  his  case  was  gener- 
ally regarded  as  one  of  great  hardship  and  injustice. 

This  treaty  was  regarded  by  all  parties  as  favorable  to  the 
English  interests,*  and  as  the  French  East  India  Company  had 
manifested  a strong  desire  for  peace  in  proposing  to  refer  mat- 
ters of  difference  to  a commission,  and  also  in  the  adjustment 
of  such  matters  in  the  treaty,  there  appeared  to  be  reasons  for 
hoping  that  the  agents  of  the  respective  Companies  would  now 
quietly  pursue  the  objects  for  wliich  they  had  professedly  gone 
to  India.  Such  was  the  prospect  when  the  commissioners  San- 
ders and  Godheu,  soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  em- 
barked for  Europe.  But  such  expectations  were  of  short  con- 
tinuance. The  English  soon  began  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic,  and  sent  a force  to  assist  him  in 
reducing  the  districts  of  Madura  and  TinneveUy  to  submission. 
The  French  exclaimed  against  these  proceedings  as  a violation 
of  the  treaty  just  made.  And  when  they  saw  that  their  remon- 
strances were  disregarded,  they  began  to  follow  the  example  of 

*“By  this  treaty,  every  thing  for  which  they  had  been  contending  was  gained 
by  the  English;  every  advantage  of  which  they  had  come  into  possession  was 
given  up  by  the  French.”  — Mill. 


214 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  English,  and  sent  a body  of  troops  against  the  Raja  of 
Terrore.  Each  party  soon  appeared  as  intent  and  as  unscrupu- 
lous in  endeavoring  to  secure  every  possible  advantage,  as  they 
were  before  the  treaty  was  made.  Thus  matters  soon  became 
as  much  involved  and  hostilities  again  were  as  severe,  as  they 
had  been  before  the  treaty  was  ratified.  Whatever  might  be 
the  state  of  England  and  France  towards  each  other,  war  ap- 
peared likely  to  be  continued  between  the  two  nations  in  India, 
as  long  as  they  should  be  able  to  support  it. 

Such  was  the  state  of  matters  in  India,  when  war  commenced 
between  England  and  France  in  1756.  The  French,  now  bet- 
ter informed  in  respect  to  the  state  of  India,  resolved  to  acquire 
and  then  maintain  their  ascendency  there,  and  with  this  view 
despatched  a large  force  under  the  command  of  Count  Lally,  an 
officer  who  had  distinguished  himself  on  several  occasions  by 
great  intrepidity  and  valor.  The  day  LaUy  arrived  at  Pondi- 
cherry, he  despatched  a force  to  take  St.  Davids,  then  the  strong- 
est and  most  important  of  the  English  possessions  on  that  coast. 
The  whole  besieging  force  at  St.  Davids  consisted  of  2,500 
Em-opeans,  exclusive  of  officers,  and  about  as  many  sepoys. 
The  garrison  consisted  of  800  Europeans  and  1,600  sepoys. 
The  siege  was  urged  on  with  great  vigor,  and  in  5 weeks  the 
fort  was  compelled  to  surrender.  The  garrison  became  prison- 
ers of  war,  and  the  fortifications  were  all  demolished.  He  then 
sent  a detachment  against  Devacotta,  which  the  garrison  imme- 
diately abandoned.  He  then  returned  with  his  army  to  Pon- 
dicherry in  triumph,  and  caused  Te  Deum  to  be  celebrated. 
Elated  with  his  success,  Lally  resolved  to  follow  up  his  plan, 
and  to  expel  all  the  English  from  the  country  without  delay. 
But  he  was  much  embarrassed  for  want  of  funds,  and  he  re- 
solved to  enforce  some  old  claims  against  the  Raja  of  Tanjore, 
who  was  reported  to  possess  much  hoarded  wealth.  So  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Tanjore  and  laid  siege  to  the  fort.  But  before  he  was 
able  to  get  possession  of  it,  news  was  brought  that  an  English 
fleet  had  arrived  on  the  coast,  when  in  accordance  with  the  ad- 
vice of  a council  of  war,  he  raised  the  siege.  He  next  proceeded 
to  take  Arcot,  and  several  smaller  forts,  where  his  wants  were 
partially  supplied.  He  next  made  arrangements  to  lay  siege 
to  Madras,  where  he  arrived  in  January  of  1758,  with  an 


niSTOUY  — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


215 


army  of  3,500  Europeans,  and  4,000  natives.  The  garrison 
consisted  of  1,758  Europeans,  and  2,220  natives.  When  the 
siege  had  continued  for  2 months,  an  English  fleet  arrived  with 
a large  reinforcement.  Lally  then  raised  the  siege  and  returned 
to  Pondicherry.  The  French  army  suflered  much,  while  carry- 
ing on  the  siege,  for  want  of  provisions  and  other  things.  For 
the  first  5 weeks,  the  officers  and  soldiers  received  only  half-pay, 
and  for  the  last  3 weeks  they  received  no  pay.  For  some  time 
they  w'ere  nearly  in  a state  of  mutiny,  and  ready  to  desert,  or 
to  go  over  to  the  English. 

When  the  French  were  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of  Ma- 
dras, and  every  way  embarrassed  for  w^ant  of  funds,  the  English 
thought  the  time  favorable  for  them  to  regain  what  they  had 
lost,  and  to  extend  their  power  and  influence.  “ But  they 
also  found  their  operations  cramped  by  the  narrowness  of  their 
funds,”  and  so  could  not  improve  the  advantages  before  them. 
And  considering  the  spirit  that  animated  both  parties,  it  was 
W’^ell  for  the  native  princes  and  for  the  general  peace  of  the  coun- 
try, that  both  the  English  and  the  French  had  not  the  means  to 
gratify  their  desires,  and  prosecute  their  ambitious  schemes  of 
power  and  conquest.  Each  party  was  earnestly  engaged  with 
such  resources  as  they  could  command  in  extending  or  defend- 
hig  their  possessions,  and  both  were  waiting  anxiously  for  ex- 
pected aid  from  Europe. 

The  reinforcement  from  England  having  arrived  at  Madras, 
the  English  were  now  in  circumstances  to  enter  upon  more  ac- 
tive operations.  They  were  under  the  command  of  Sir  Eyre 
Coote,  who  subsequently  acquired  much  celebrity  in  Indian 
warfare.  After  many  marches  and  manaeu\Tes,  the  chief  force 
of  the  two  armies  met  at  Wandewash.  Accounts  differ  in  re- 
spect to  the  amount  of  their  force.  The  most  probable  account 
says  that  the  English  force  consisted  of  1,900  Europeans,  2,100 
sepoys,  and  125  native  cavalry ; and  that  the  French  consisted 
of  2,250  Europeans,  and  1,300  sepoys.  In  this  battle  the 
French  w^ere  defeated,  and  suffered  great  loss.  This  victory  de- 
cided the  supremacy  of  the  English  pow’^er  over  the  French  in 
India.  The  English  continued  their  course  of  success  by  taking 
some  smaller  forts  and  extending  their  power  over  the  Carnatic, 
till  Pondicherry  was  the  only  place  on  the  coast  which  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  French. 


216 


'INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

The  English,  having  received  several  large  reinforcements, 
and  the  French  not  having  received  any  for  a long  time.  Sir 
Eyre  Coote  made  arrangements  for  besieging  Pondicherry.  In 
September,  the  place  was  closely  besieged,  and  all  supplies  were 
cut  off.  In  January,  the  garrison  being  no  longer  in  a position 
to  offer  any  effectual  resistance,  and  much  straitened  for  pro- 
visions, the  city  was  surrendered  to  Sir  Eyre  Coote.  The  gar- 
rison then  consisted  of  2,072  Europeans.  In  the  fort  were  500 
pieces  of  cannon,  100  mortars  and  howitzers,  and  a great  quan- 
tity of  ammunition  and  military  stores. 

Thus  fell  Pondicherry,  which  had  long  been  the  capital  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India.  Their  few  remaining  forts  soon 
surrendered,  and  in  a few  months  nothing  was  left  to  them  of 
the  territories,  which  only  a few  years  before  had  extended  for 
600  miles  on  the  sea-coast,  and  yielded  a yearly  revenue  of 
$4,500,000. 

Three  days  after  the  surrender  of  Pondicherry,  LaUy  sailed  for 
Europe.  He  had  been  in  bad  health  for  some  time.  He  was 
worn  out  with  vexation  and  anxiety,  and  exhausted  with  exer- 
tion and  fatigue.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  in  India  had  been 
one  continual  series  of  disappointments,  losses,  and  misfortunes. 
And  yet  greater  trials  and  sufferings  awaited  liim  on  his  arrival 
in  France.  Public  feeling  had  become  much  exasperated  by  the 
loss  of  possessions,  and  of  national  character  in  India.  The 
idea  of  a great  Indian  empire,  as  set  forth  in  the  aspirations  and 
plans  of  Labourdonnais,  Dupliex,  and  LaUy,  had  been  too  fondly 
cherished  to  be  given  up  without  feelings  of  strong  indignation 
and  revenge  against  some  party,  and  circumstances  now 
directed  the  chief  force  of  this  excitement  against  the  late 
governor-general.  Conscious  of  having  used  his  best  exertions 
for  the  honor  of  his  country,  and  the  interest  of  the  French  East 
India  Company,  LaUy  vindicated  himself  with  energy,  and  im- 
prudently accused  Bussy  and  some  others,  who  in  return  retal- 
iated, by  charges  against  him.  “ These  charges  were  vague 
and  frivolous,  and  nothing  whatsoever  was  proved  against  him, 
except  that  his  conduct  did  not  come  up  to  the  very  perfection 
of  prudence  and  wisdom,  and  that  he  did  display  the  greatest 
ardor  in  the  service,  the  greatest  disinterestedness,  fidelity,  and 
perseverance,  with  no  common  share  of  military  talent  and 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


217 


mental  resources.”  And  yet  he  was  thrown  into  the  Bastile, 
and  a sentenee  of  death  was  procured  against  him.  Conscious 
of  his  innocence,  he  was  confidently  expecting  an  honorable  ac- 
quittal, and  when  the  sentence  of  death  was  read  to  him  in  the 
prison,  he  exclaimed  with  astonishment,  “ Is  this  the  reward  of 
45  years’  service  ? ” and  attempted  to  kill  himself  with  a pair  of 
compasses  with  which  he  had  been  sketching  the  coast  of  Coro- 
mandel. He  was  carried  to  the  place  of  execution  in  a com- 
mon cart,  and  a gag  was  forced  into  his  mouth,  lest  he  should 
address  the  people. 

The  struggle  between  the  English  and  the  French  for  ascen- 
dency in  India,  closed  with  the  fall  of  Pondicherry.  Labourdon- 
nais,  Dupliex,  Bussy,  and  Lally  were  men  of  great  ambition  and 
great  ability.  Their  views  and  plans  extended  to  the  creation 
of  a great  empire  in  India,  subject  to  France; — such  an  empire 
as  we  now  see  subject  to  England,  though  it  appears  not  then 
to  have  been  thought  of  by  any  of  the  English  governors,  officers, 
or  agents,  who  carried  on  these  wars  with  the  French.  Dupliex 
for  some  time  adopted  the  dress  and  manners,  the  style  and 
pomp  of  an  oriental  Nabob.  To  him  has  been  ascribed  the 
origin  and  successful  experiment  of  enlisting  native  regiments 
under  European  officers,  training  them  in  European  discipline, 
and  so  making  them  efficient  for  permanent  service; — a practice 
which  the  English  soon  began  to  imitate,  and  wliich  is  yet  the 
system  of  their  army  in  India.  Had  the  French  government 
and  their  East  India  Company  supported  their  interest  in  India 
as  vigorously  and  liberally  as  the  English  government  and  East 
India  Company  supported  their  interests,  the  French  apparently 
might  have  sustained  the  ascendency  which  they  at  one  time 
possessed,  might  have  expelled  the  English  from  India;  the  am- 
bitious aspirations  and  schemes  of  Labourdonnais,  Dupliex,  and 
Lally  might  then  have  been  realized,  and  aU  India  now  be  as 
subject  to  France,  as  it  is  to  England. 

These  wars  between  the  English  and  the  French  in  India, 
though  they  occupy  no  prominent  place  in  general  history,  and 
even  in  the  history  of  the  country  appear  small  when  compared 
with  the  great  armies  engaged,  and  the  great  battles  fought  in 
the  wars  betw'^een  the  English  and  Hyder  AJi,  Tippoo  Sultan, 
the  Mahrattas,  the  Afghans,  and  the  Sikhs,  yet  when  considered 

19 


218 


IKDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


in  their  consequences,  were  the  most  important  wars  in  the 
European  history  of  the  coimtry.  These  wars,  though  limited 
to  the  Carnatic,  were  yet  in  reality  a severe  and  long-continued 
struggle  for  ascendency,  and  for  the  government  of  India.  The 
issue  of  these  wars  was  to  be  no  other  than  whether  the 
English  or  the  French  should  be  the  governing  power  of  the 
country,  whether  India  should  become  a dependency  of  England, 
or  of  France.  Such  was  the  view  of  Labourdonnais,  DupUex, 
and  LaUy,  and  had  the  French  power  in  India  been  supported 
by  their  own  country,  they  might  have  kept  the  ascendency  they 
had  acquh-ed  and  for  some  time  held,  and  they  might  have  ex- 
pelled the  English  from  the  country.  But  France  failed  to  sup- 
port her  cause  in  India,  and  censured  and  punished,  even  with 
imprisonment  and  death,  the  distinguished  men  who  had  done 
their  utmost  to  support  her  cause  and  extend  her  power,  while 
England  supported  her  cause  with  great  vigor,  supplying 
money,  men,  and  aU  the  materials  of  war,  and  rewarding  those 
who  distinguished  themselves  in  her  service  (as  Clive,  Hastings, 
Cornwallis,  and  others),  with  wealth  and  honors.  And  the  con- 
sequences of  this  different  course  of  policy  were,  the  French 
were  expelled,  their  power  annihilated,  and  India  has  long  been 
included  in  the  foreign  possessions  of  England. 

In  view  of  this  whole  subject,  we  cannot  but  feel  some  satis- 
faction in  looking  at  the  result.  Had  the  French  succeeded  in 
their  object  of  becoming  the  controlling  power  of  India,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  they  would  have  pursued  a course  of  conquest 
in  ways  and  by  means  at  least  as  rmscrupulous  as  the  English 
have  used.  The  French  have  never  succeeded  so  well  as  the 
English  in  governing  their  foreign  possessions,  and  there  is  rea- 
son to  believe  that  the  state  of  India  has  been  better  under  the 
government  of  England  than  it  would  have  been  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  France.  Had  France  become  the  governing  power 
of  India,  the  religion  of  the  European  population  in  it  would 
have  been  Roman  Catholic,  and  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
French  policy  in  their  foreign  possessions,  no  other  form  of 
religion  would  be  tolerated  ; or  if  tolerated,  they  would  allow  no 
means  to  be  used  for  propagating  any  other  form  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  so  all  the  inhabitants  would  be  shut  up  to  receive 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  or  to  contmue  in  their  present  re- 


niSTOKT  — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


219 


ligious  state  of  ignorance,  superstition,  bigotry,  and  idolatry. 
There  is  reason,  therefore,  in  contemplating  the  present  religious 
state  and  prospects  of  India,  for  thankfulness  to  Him  who  rules 
among  the  nations,  and  disposes  of  countries  and  kingdoms  ac- 
cording to  his  pleasure,  that  this  country  with  its  vast  popula- 
tion has  come  under  the  government  of  England,  rather  than  of 
France  or  any  other  European  nation. 

The  overthrow  of  the  French  power  in  the  Carnatic,  left  the 
English  in  the  possession  of  paramount  influence  in  that  part 
of  India.  The  Nabob  -was  the  generally  acknowledged  sover- 
eign of  the  country,  but  he  owed  his  elevation  to  the  English, 
and  he  had  no  means  of  successfully  resisting  any  demands 
which  they  might  make  upon  him.  Previous  to  the  taking  of 
Pondicherry,  he  had  offered  to  pay  certain  sums  towards  the 
expenses  of  the  war,  if  certain  advantages  in  return  were  con- 
ceded to  him,  and  he  pretended  to  believe  that  his  offers  had 
been  accepted.  But  it  was  not  so  understood  by  the  English. 
After  much  negotiation,  and  after  being  assisted  by  them  in 
exacting  large  sums  of  money  from  some  native  princes  in  his 
territories,  he  engaged  to  pay  them  50  lacks  of  rupees,  ( $2,500,- 
000).  But  the  English  wanted  something  besides  money  for 
expenses  already  incurred.  It  was  important  in  their  view  to 
reduce  his  power  of  troubling  them  in  future,  and  they  wanted 
the  means  of  supporting  a much  larger  military  force  than  they 
now  had.  So  they  demanded,  and  he  was  compelled  to  cede  to 
them  4 districts.  The  governor  of  Madura  had  paid  no  tribute 
for  several  years,  and  in  the  distracted  state  of  the  country,  was 
gradually  acquiring  independence.  On  his  refusing  to  pay  the 
amount  demanded  of  him,  the  Nabob  and  the  English  united 
their  forces  in  attacking  him.  He  defended  his  territory  and 
fortress  with  great  ability,  and  the  war  unexpectedly  cost  a great 
amount  of  treasure  and  of  life.  And  at  last  it  was  only  by 
treachery  that  they  obtained  possession  of  his  person  and  ter- 
minated the  struggle. 

The  war  between  the  English  and  the  French  closed  in  India 
A\dth  the  surrender  of  Pondicherry,  but  it  was  some  time  before 
it  ceased  between  France  and  England.  In  the  treaty  of  peace 
between  the  two  nations  in  1763,  it  was  agreed  that  each  nation 
should  restore  to  the  other  the  possessions  acquired  in  India 


220 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


during  the  war,  while  France  renounced  all  right  to  any  con- 
quests she  had  made  there  in  the  war.  So  by  this  treaty  France 
recovered  some  of  her  former  possessions  on  the  Coromandel 
Coast,  but  these  were  small  when  compared  with  those  which 
remained  in  the  possession  of  England. 

But  the  Carnatic  was  not  to  enjoy  any  long  repose.  In  1761, 
Nizam  Ali  found  means  to  imprison  his  brother  Sulabat  Jung, 
then  Subadar  of  the  Deckan,  and  assumed  the  office  and  dig- 
nity. After  keeping  his  brother  in  prison  for  2 years,  he  caused 
him  to  be  put  to  death.  In  1765,  he  collected  a large  army  and 
marching  into  the  Carnatic,  plundered  and  laid  waste  the  coun- 
try. The  Nabob  and  the  English  united  their  forces  and  pro- 
ceeded to  meet  him.  But  he  had  no  wish  to  risk  an  engage- 
ment, and  so  retreated  hastily  into  the  Deckan.  This  invasion 
and  the  means  by  which  Nizam  Ali  had  acquired  Ms  power, 
clearly  showed  his  character,  and  were  calculated  to  make  the 
English  watchful  about  his  future  course.  Just  at  that  time 
Lord  Clive  called  at  Madras  on  his  way  from  England  to  Ben- 
gal. On  learning  the  state  of  affairs  at  Madras  and  in  the  prov- 
inces which  then  constituted  the  Madras  presidency,  he  resolved 
to  use  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  then  in  a state  of  dependence  upon 
the  Enghsh,  to  increase  their  power  and  tenltory.  So  he  ob- 
tained two  firmans  from  the  emperor,  one  ceding  the  provinces 
called  the  Northern  Circars  to  the  Enghsh,  and  the  other 
appointing  Mohammed  Ali  to  be  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic.  The 
Enghsh  proceeded  to  take  possession  of  the  newly  acquired 
provinces.  Nizam  Ali  was  greatly  offended  at  these  proceedings, 
and  declaring  that  the  Northern  Circars  were  a part  of  his  own 
territory,  and  that  the  Nabob  owed  fealty  to  him  and  not  to  the 
emperor,  he  began  to  make  great  preparations  to  attack  the 
Nabob  and  the  Enghsh.  The  governor  and  council  at  hlachas 
were  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  such  a war  in  the  exhausted 
state  of  their  treasury,  and  opened  negotiations  with  Nizam  Ah. 
A treaty  of  peace  was  made,  in  which  the  Enghsh  engaged  to 
pay  a large  annual  tribute  to  the  Subadar  for  the  Circars,  and 
to  assist  him  with  troops  in  the  event  of  a war.  This  treaty  was 
severely  censured  by  the  Court  of  Directors,  especiaUy  the  engage- 
ment to  assist  the  Subadar,  as  this  was  likely  to  involve  them 
with  other  native  powers.  And  it  was  when  assisting  the 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


221 


Subadar,  in  accordance  with  this  treaty,  that  the  English  first 
came  in  conflict  with  Hyder  Ali,  the  most  powerful  enemy 
they  ever  encountered  in  their  wars  in  India. 

Hyder  Ali,  who  acquired  so  much  notoriety  in  the  history  of 
Lidia,  was  descended  from  ancestors  who  came  from  the  north- 
ern provinces,  and  settled  in  Mysore.  He  passed  his  youth  in 
• destitute  circumstances,  and  having  enjoyed  no  advantages  of 
education  he  was  never  able  to  read  or  to  WTite.  On  entering  the 
army  at  the  age  of  27,  he  soon  distinguished  himself  in  various 
ways,  and  became  the  captain  of  an  organized  company  of  free- 
■ hooters,  who  were  authorized  to  rob  and  plunder  in  any  provinces 
of  the  enemy  upon  condition  of  paying  to  their  prince,  a certain 
part  of  what  they  realized.  In  this  way  he  became  rich,  and  ac- 
quired a high  character  for  the  daring  valor  and  ability  with 
which  he  managed  and  achieved  whatever  he  undertook.  Such 
qualities  in  the  armies  of  India  soon  attract  attention,  and  when, 
animated  by  an  ambitious  and  aspiring  spirit,  secure  rapid  pro- 
motion. In  a few  years  Hyder  had  the  command  of  10,000  men, 
and  stood  high  in  the  confidence  of  the  Raja  of  hlysore.  It 
became  evident  that  he  was  determined  to  acquire  as  much 
influence,  rank,  and  power  as  he  could,  and  that  he  would  have 
no  scruples  in  respect  to  using  any  means  for  accomplishing  his 
purpose.  At  that  time  the  Raja  of  IMysore  was  young  and 
effeminate,  and  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  managed  by 
tw’^o  brothers,  Devraj  and  Nundraj.  The  former  soon  died,  and 
the  latter  being  profligate  and  unpopular,  Hyder  managed  to 
obtain  the  command  of  the  army.  By  a long  course  of  intrigue, 
duplicity,  treachery,  and  treason,  such  as  compose  a large  part 
of  the  history  of  eastern  courts  and  princes,  Hyder  became  the 
sovereign  of  Mysore,  only  allowing  to  the  Raja  an  annual  sum 
for  his  personal  and  family  expenses. 

The  ambitious  and  restless  spirit  of  Hyder  could  not  long 
remain  quiet,  and  he  soon  began  to  enlarge  his  dominions  by 
conquest,  and  replenish  his  treasury  wnth  plunder.  In  Bednore, 
the  plunder  he  obtained,  was  estimated  at  ,£12,000,000,  or  nearly 
^60,000,000.  The  Mahrattas,  then  the  terror  of  aU  India,  made 
a sudden  invasion  into  Mysore,  defeated  Hyder,  and  could  only 
be  turned  back  by  a cession  of  territory,  and  the  payment  of  a 
large  sum  of  money.  Stiff  Hyder  continued  his  attacks  on  the 

19* 


222 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 

princes  around  Mysore.  Among  these  was  the  Zamorin  of 
Calicut,  so  distinguished  in  the  early  wars  of  the  Portuguese  in 
India.  This  prince,  rather  than  endure  the  disgrace  and  suffer- 
ings that  awaited  him  from  Hyder,  set  fire  to  his  house  and  per- 
ished in  the  flames. 

The  ambitious  spirit  of  Hyder  and  the  success  of  his  plans, 
excited  the  larger  powers  of  southern  India,  and  a confederacy 
of  the  Mahrattas,  the  Nizam,  and  the  English  was  formed 
against  him.  The  Mahrattas  arrived  on  the  confines  of  Mysore 
two  months  before  the  other  confederates.  Hyder  endeavored 
to  prevent  their  further  advance  “ by  causing  all  the  grain  to  be 
buried,  the  wells  to  be  poisoned,  the  forage  to  be  consumed,  and 
the  cattle  to  be  driven  away.”  These  means  did  not  prevent 
their  progress,  and  finding  they  would  soon  penetrate  the  heart 
of  his  dominions,  he  resolved  if  possible  to  separate  them  from 
the  confederacy,  and  sent  a messenger  to  negotiate  a treaty.  In 
this  attempt  he  was  successful,  and  the  Mahrattas  agreed,  for  a 
certain  sum  of  money  (^6,750,000),  to  return  to  the  Deckan.  In 
the  mean  time  the  Nizam  and  the  English  force  under  Col. 
Smith,  had  entered  Mysore.  It  was  soon  apparent  that  the 
Nizam  was  not  cordial  in  his  feelings  towards  the  English,  and 
some  events  which  occurred  about  this  time  increased  his  disaf- 
fection. Hyder  becoming  aware  of  the  feelings  of  the  Nizam, 
commenced  a secret  correspondence  with  him  which  soon 
resulted  in  a treaty  of  union  against  the  English.  The  Nizam, 
when  remonstrated  with  for  such  conduct,  consented  to  Colonel 
Smith’s  quietly  retreating  towards  Madras  before  he  should  be 
molested.  The  forces  of  the  Nizam  and  Hyder,  when  united  to 
attack  the  retreating  English,  consisted  of  43,000  horse  and 

28.000  foot,  while  Colonel  Smith  had  only  0,000  infantry  and 

1.000  cavalry.  They  had  also  the  advantage  of  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  country,  and  of  the  cooperation  of  the  inhab- 
itants for  want  of  which  Colonel  Smith  suffered  mueh.  Still 
he  was  able  to  repel  all  their  attacks,  and  to  their  astonishment 
he  found  means  to  sustain  his  force  and  continue  his  retreat,  not- 
withstanding all  their  efforts  to  reduce  him  to  straits  and  compel 
him  to  surrender.  The  Nizam  seeing  this  unexpeeted  state  of 
affairs,  and  hearing  that  his  own  dominions  wore  invaded  by  an 
English  force  from  Bengal,  entered  into  a treaty  with  the  Eng- 


niSTORT — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


223 


lish  and  withdrew  to  his  own  territory.  Tlie  hostile  parties  now 
were  the  English  and  Hyder,  and  the  war  was  proseeuted  with 
vigor  on  both  sides,  the  English  generally  acting  on  the  defen- 
sive for  2 years,  when  “ a treaty  was  concluded  in  April,  17G9, 
on  the  condition  of  placing  the  possessions  of  both  parties  with 
scarcely  an  exception  on  the  same  footing  as  before  the  war.” 
This  confederacy  of  the  English  wdth  the  Mahrattas  and  the 
Nizam  against  Hyder  cost  a great  amount  of  treasure  and  life 
for  wliich  they  gained  nothing,  while  Ilyder  was  left  at  the  close 
of  the  war  more  powerful  than  he  was  when  it  commenced. 

One  reason  wliich  induced  Hyder  to  desire  peace  with  the 
English,  was  some  apprehension  of  another  invasion  by  the 
Mahrattas.  Nor  was  this  apprehension  without  cause,  for  they 
soon  entered  his  dominions  in  much  larger  force  than  before, 
and  under  able  commanders.  Hyder’s  efforts  to  impede  their 
progress  and  to  resist  them  in  the  open  field  proved  unavailing,- 
and  they  proceeded  to  besiege  his  capital,  Seringapatam.  But 
the  Mahrattas  had  not  skill  sufficient  for  such  a strong  fortress, 
and  soon  became  weary  of  carrying  it  on.  Hyder  was  gradu- 
ally collecting  his  strength  against  them,  and  at  length  after 
gaining  some  advantages  over  them,  he  offered  such  terms  of 
peace  that  the  Mahrattas  were  glad  to  accept  them  and  return 
to  their  owm  country.  Hyder  thus  relieved,  continued  to  enlarge 
his  dominions  by  subduing  and  plundering  the  petty  native 
princes  with  the  usual  barbarity  and  cruelty  of  Lidian  warfare. 
The  manner  in  which  the  fort  of  Chittledroog  was  defended, 
shows  the  fearful  and  debasing  superstition  of  the  Hindus.  On 
the  highest  part  of  the  fort  they  had  erected  a temple  to  Karlee 
or  Doorga,  the  Hindu  goddess  of  destruction,  and  they  believed 
that  so  long  as  the  goddess  was  propitiated,  the  place  could  not 
be  taken.  At  fixed  times  the  goddess  -was  worshipped  with 
solemn  rites  (that  is,  these  rites  were  performed  before  her 
image),  and  then  a bugle  was  blown  and  the  garrison  rushed 
forth,  shouting  the  names  of  the  goddess  to  procure  human 
heads  to  be  suspended  before  her  image,  and  thus  propitiate  her. 
These  attacks  were  made  with  so  much  fury,  frenzy,  and  success, 
that  if  such  bloody  offerings  could  have  preserved  the  place,  it 
would  have  been  secure.  'When  this  fort  was  taken,  2,000 
human  heads,  aU  which  had  been  offered  to  Karlee,  were  piled 
up  before  her  temple. 


224 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Hyder  was  now  advanced  in  years,  supposed  to  be  nearly  80. 
He  had  long  been  intemperate  in  his  habits,  and  as  might  be 
expected,  had  become  capricious,  irritable,  and  self-willed.  He 
had  for  some  years  been  becoming  more  prejudiced  towards  the 
English,  and  had  endeavored  to  form  a treaty  with  the  Mahrat- 
tas  to  expel  the  hated  foreigners  from  India.  The  war  between 
England  and  France,  consequent  upon  the  war  between  the 
North  American  colonies  (now  the  United  States)  and  England 
having  commenced,  the  English  proceeded  at  once  to  take  aU 
the  French  possessions  in  India.  This  gave  offence  to  Hyder, 
who  was  inclined  to  the  French  interests.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  Schwartz,  the  Danish  missionary,  was  sent  by  the  governor 
and  council  of  Madras,  on  a mission  to  Seringapatam.  Hyder, 
who  was  previously  acquainted  with  his  character,  received  him 
kindly,  and  on  his  return  intrusted  to  him  a letter  containing  a 
list  of  the  wrongs  he  had  suffered  from  the  English,  and  added, 
“ I have  not  yet  taken  my  revenge.”  In  June,  1780,  Hyder 
mustered  his  forces  at  Seringapatam,  consisting  of  23,000  horse, 
53,000  foot  of  various  kinds,  2,000  rocketmen,  5,000  pioneers, 
and  about  400  Europeans.  He  caused  prayers  to  be  offered  in 
all  the  mosques,  and  religious  ceremonies  in  aU  the  Hindu  tem- 
ples, for  the  success  of  his  expedition.  He  then  proceeded  into 
the  Carnatic,  plundered  the  inhabitants  and  laid  waste  the  coun- 
try.* This  attack  found  the  Madras  government  quite  unpre- 

* The  following  is  Mr.  Burke’s  graphie  deseription  of  this  invasion,  and  gives 
a striking  view  of  the  barbarities  of  wars  in  India,  when  carried  on  by  the 
native  princes. 

“ Wien  at  length  Hyder  found  that  he  had  to  do  wdth  men  who  would  sign 
no  convention,  whom  no  treaty  and  no  signature  could  bind,  and  who  were  the 
determined  enemies  of  liuman  intercourse  itself,  he  determined  to  make  the 
country  possessed  by  these  incorrigible  and  predestined  criminals  a memorable 
e.xample  to  mankind.  He  resolved,  in  the  gloomy  recesses  of  a mind  capable  of 
such  thing.s,  to  leave  the  wliole  Carnatie  an  everlasting  monument  of  vengeance, 
and  to  put  perpetual  desolation  as  a barrier  between  him  and  those  against 
whom  the  faith  which  holds  the  moral  elements  of  tl>e  world  together,  was  no 
protection.  He  became  at  length  so  confident  of  his  force  and  so  collected  in 
his  might,  that  he  made  no  secret  whatever  of  his  dreadful  resolution.  Having 
tenninated  his  disimtes  with  every  enemy  and  every  rival,  who  buried  their 
mutual  animosities  in  their  common  hatred  against  the  creditoi's  of  the  Nabob 
of  Areot,  he  drew  from  every  (piarter  wliatever  a savage  feiwity  could  add  to 
his  new  rudiments  in  the  art  of  destruction,  and  compounding  all  the  materials 


niSTORT — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


225 


pared.  Embarrassed  for  want  of  money  and  distracted  in  eoun- 
cil,  they  made  no  well-arranged  and  effectual  resistance  to 
Hyder’s  career  of  conquest  and  devastation,  till  Sir  Eyre  Coote 
arrived  from  Bengal  with  considerable  force  and  treasure,  to  take 
the  command.  No  officer  then  in  India  enjoyed  so  high  a repu- 
tation, or  had  so  much  experience  of  Lidian  warfare,  as  Sir 
Eyre  Coote,  and  his  presence  and  arrangements  soon  inspired 
the  army  with  new  courage.  Hyder  was  soon  compelled  to 
raise  the  siege  of  several  places.  As  the  country  had  been  laid 
waste,  the  English  suffered  much  for  want  of  jirovisions,  and 
also  for  means  to  remove  their  military  stores,  etc.,  with  them. 
After  much  desultory  and  harassing  warfare.  Sir  Eyre  Coote 
defeated  Ilyder  in  two  or  three  partial  engagements,  and  the 
war  began  to  assume  a less  discouraging  aspect.  But  there 
were  other  difficulties  besides  the  war.  The  depredations  of 
Hyder,  and  the  large  military  forces  spread  over  the  Carnatic, 
had  destroyed  or  consumed  the  crops,  and  a severe  famine  in 
several  provinces  was  the  consequence.  In  no  place  was  this- 
famine  so  dreadful  as  at  Madras,  where  many  thousands  died 

of  fury,  havoc,  and  desolation  into  one  black  cloud,  he  bung  for  a while  on  the 
declivities  of  the  mountains.  "While  the  authors  of  all  these  evUs  were  idly  and 
stupidly  gazing  on  this  menacing  meteor,  which  blackened  all  their  horizon,  it 
suddenly  burst  and  poured  down  the  whole  of  its  contents  upon  the  plains  of  the 
Carnatic.  Then  ensued  a scene  of  woe  the  like  of  which  no  eye  had  seen,  no 
heart  conceived,  and  which  no  tongue  can  adequately  describe.  All  the  horrors 
of  war  before  known  or  heard  of,  were  mercy  compared  with  this  new  havoc. 
A stonn  of  universal  fire  blasted  every  field,  consumed  every  house,  and  de- 
stroyed every  temple.  Tlie  miserable  inhabitants,  flying  from  the  flaming  vil- 
lages, in  part  were  slaughtered;  others  without  regard  to  sex  or  age,  to  the 
respect  of  rank  or  the  sacredness  of  function,  parents  torn  from  children,  and 
husbands  from  their  wives  enveloped  in  a whirlwind  of  cavalry,  amid  the  goad- 
ing spear’s  of  drivers  and  the  trampling  of  pursuing  horses,  were  swept  into  cap- 
tivity in  an  unknown  and  hostile  land.  Those  who  were  able  to  evade  this 
tempest,  fled  to  the  walled  cities ; but  escaping  from  fire,  sword,  and  exile,  they 
fell  into  the  jaws  of  famine.  For  18  months  without  intermission  this  destruc- 
tion raged  from  the  gates  of  Madras  to  the  walls  of  Tanjore.  And  so  com- 
pletely did  these  masters  in  their  art,  Ilyder  and  his  ferocious  son,  absolve  them- 
selves from  their  impious  vow  that  when  the  British  armies  traversed  as  they 
did  the  Carnatic,  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  all  directions  through  the  whole  line 
of  their  march,  they  did  not  see  a man,  or  a woman,  or  a cliild,  or  a four-footed 
beast  of  any  description.  One  dead  universal  silence  reigned  over  the  whole 


region. 


226  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

of  starvation.  Sir  Eyre  Coote  now  became  too  feeble  to  super- 
intend the  affairs  and  direct  the  operations  of  the  army,  and 
returned  to  Calcutta.  This  was  a severe  stroke  to  the  Enghsh, 
but  its  force  was  somewhat  mitigated  by  the  death  of  Hyder. 
The  death  of  the  heads  of  both  parties  suspended  active  opera- 
tions for  some  time.  Hyder’s  son  Tippoo,  who  had  aheady  dis- 
tinguished himself  for  his  military  talents,  succeeded  his  father 
and  urged  on  the  war  with  vigor.  The  government  of  Bombay 
attacked  the  dominions  of  Tippoo  on  the  Malabar  Coast,  with 
so  much  vigor  and  success  that  he  withdrew  from  the  Carnatic 
to  the  western  provinces,  where  Ms  presence  was  more  needed. 
The  war  between  England  and  France  still  continued,  and  a 
French  fleet  more  than  once  left  a considerable  force  on  the 
coast  wMch  joined  the  army  of  Tippoo.  These  greatly  strength- 
ened him  and  discouraged  the  English,  when  to  their  great  joy 
they  heard  that  peace  had  been  made  between  France  and  Eng- 
land. Negotiations  were  opened  with  Tippoo,  but  peace  was 
not  obtained  for  more  than  a year,  and  then  “ it  was  on  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  a mutual  restitution  of  conquests.” 

Tippoo,  often  called  in  the  history  of  India  Tippoo  Sultan,  was 
ambitious,  intriguing,  superstitious,  and  cruel.  Hyder  professed 
the  Mohammedan  faith,  as  Ms  forefathers  for  many  generations 
had  done,  but  he  was  tolerant  towards  Christians  and  Hindus, 
and  not  disposed  to  molest  them  wMle  quietly  foUowdng  their 
own  religion.  Tippoo  was  as  earnest  and  as  unscrupulous  in 
propagating  the  faith  of  Mohammed,  as  he  was  in  enlarging 
Ms  dominions.  In  the  western  provinces  of  his  dominions  were 
many  Roman  Catholics,  who  had  been  converted  from  heathen- 
ism by  the  Portuguese  and  other  Romish  missionaries.  He 
collected  these  together  to  the  number  of  60,000,*  compelled 
them  to  be  circumcised,  and  then  distributed  them  in  his  army 
and  his  garrisons.  In  the  province  of  Coorg,  he  compelled  70,- 
000  Hindus  to  submit  to  the  same  rite,  and  profess  the  faith  of 
Mohammed. 

Tippoo’s  restless  spirit  and  growing  power  soon  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  Mahrattas,  who  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Nizam,  and  uniting  their  forces,  they  invaded  his  domimons. 


* Abbe  Dubois,  who  was  then  In  Jlysorc. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


227 


But  they  found  a far  more  formidable  enemy  than  they  ex- 
pected, and  after  suflering  some  reverses,  they  made  peace  with 
him,  and  returned  to  their  own  territories.  The  successful  issue 
of  tills  war  greatly  increased  the  fame  of  Tippoo.  He  was  now 
at  liberty  to  extend  his  dominions,  and  to  propagate  the  Moham- 
medan laith.  His  father  had  conquered  the  country  lying  be- 
tween the  Ghat  mountains  and  the  sea,  and  Tippoo  now 
resolved  to  convert  the  inhabitants  to  his  own  religion,  declaring 
that  “ they  were  all  born  in  adultery,  and  more  shameless  in 
their  connections  than  the  beasts  of  the  forests.”  They,  on  the 
other  hand,  had  a great  abhorrence  of  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
and  many  of  them  fled  from  their  country  rather  than  submit  to 
circumcision  and  eat  beef.  He  carried  on  this  war  of  proselyt- 
ism  till  he  boasted  that  he  had  destroyed  3,000  temples  with  all 
their  idols.  In  extending  his  dominions,  he  made  an  attack 
upon  the  kingdom  of  Travancore,  which  was  in  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula.  The  ruler  of  this  province  had 
some  time  before  entered  into  a treaty,  offensive  and  defensive, 
with  the  English,  and  by  this  attack,  Tippoo  incurred  their  dis- 
pleasure. In  his  first  attack  upon  the  fortified  posts  of  Travan- 
core, Tippoo  was  repulsed  with  great  loss.  He  was  near  being 
taken  prisoner,  and  lost  his  weapons,  seals,  etc.  Chagrined  at 
being  thus  repulsed  by  an  enemy  he  despised,  Tippoo  was 
greatly  enraged,  and  collecting  aU  his  forces,  prosecuted  the  war 
with  great  vigor  and  barbarity,  and  soon  overrun  the  whole 
province. 

The  Marquis  Cornwallis,  at  this  time  the  governor-general  of 
India,  on  hearing  of  this  attack  of  Tippoo  upon  Travancore, 
resolved  to  commence  hostilities  as  soon  as  possible,  and  with 
this  view  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Nizam  and  the  Mahrat- 
tas  against  the  Sultan.  The  command  of  the  English  force 
was  intrusted  to  General  Medows.  The  campaign  was  com- 
menced in  June,  1790.  Dindigul,  Paulgaut,  and  several  other 
forts  were  taken,  and  the  English  force  penetrated  far  into  My- 
sore, but  the  disasters  and  reverses,  originating  chiefly  in  the 
severity  of  the  monsoon  and  in  ignorance  of  the  country,  soon 
compelled  them  to  retreat  with  much  loss.  In  the  mean  time, 
Tippoo,  wdth  a large  body  of  cavalry,  invaded  the  Carnatic, 
lajing  waste  the  country,  or  levying  extreme  contributions  upon 


228  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

the  inhabitants.  He  also  proceeded  to  Pondicheny,  and  at- 
tempted to  form  an  alliance  with  the  French.  The  governor- 
general,  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  manner  in  which  the  war 
was  carried  on,  resolved  to  take  the  command  himself.  He 
arrived  at  Madras  early  in  1791,  and  having  made  the  requisite 
arrangements  proceeded  by  rapid  marches  to  Bangalore,  which 
was  strongly  fortified  and  contained  the  Sultan’s  harem  and 
treasury.  These  Tippoo  found  means  to  remove  before  the 
English  could  invest  the  place.  The  governor-general,  having 
taken  Bangalore,  resolved  to  proceed  with  as  little  delay  as  pos- 
sible to  attack  Seringapatam,  the  Sultan’s  capital.  When  the 
English  force  reached  Seringapatam,  Tippoo,  who  had  in  vain 
endeavored  to  arrest  their  progress,  resolved  to  hazard  a general 
battle.  The  English  were  victorious,  but  the  country  around 
having  been  laid  waste  and  all  means  of  support  destroyed  or 
removed,  they  were  soon  in  so  great  want  of  provisions  and 
in  such  a sickly  state,  that  Cornwallis  was  compelled  to  retreat 
to  Bangalore,  leaving  behind  him  much  of  his  baggage  and 
the  battering  train  which  he  had  prepared  to  besiege  Seringapa- 
tam. 

Cornwallis  remained  at  Bangalore  for  some  time,  making 
arrangements  again  to  proceed  to  Seringapatam.  All  the  re- 
sources of  the  English  power  in  aU  parts  of  India,  were  now 
brought  into  requisition.  The  Nizam’s  force  of  15,000  cavalry, 
and  Purseram  Bhow  with  a yet  larger  force  of  Mahrattas  had 
arrived,  but  aU  these  were  so  deficient  in  weapons  and  discipline 
that  they  added  but  Little  to  the  strength  of  the  army.  When 
the  preparations  for  proceeding  to  Seringapatam  were  completed, 
the  force  under  the  command  of  Cornwallis  amounted  to  30,000. 
If  to  these  the  forces  of  the  Nizam  and  of  the  Mahrattas  are 
added,  the  invading  army  will  appear  to  be  large.  On  arriving 
in  sight  of  Seringapatam  the  army  of  Tippoo,  estimated  at 
45,000  infantry  and  5,000  cavalry,  was  seen  encamped  near  it. 
Arrangements  were  made  to  attack  this  force  in  the  night.  The 
loss  of  Tippoo  was  great,  and  the  state  of  his  capital  and  the 
position  of  the  English  force  soon  became  sucli  that  he  earnestly 
sued  for  peace.  After  some  days  of  negotiation  a treaty  was 
made  in  which  Tippoo  agreed  to  cede  about  half  of  his  domin- 
ions, to  pay  a large  sum  of  money  ($16,500,000),  and  deliver 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


229 


up  two  of  his  sons  as  hostages.  The  eonditions  of  this  treaty 
were  fullilled  on  the  part  of  the  Sultan  in  due  time,  and  his 
sons  returned  to  him.  For  several  years  he  was  engaged  ehiefly 
in  attending  to  the  internal  aflairs  of  his  own  kingdom,  a longer 
period  of  peace  than  had  been  known  in  the  peninsula  for  a long 
time. 

In  1798,  the  Earl  of  Mornington,  subsequently  the  Marquis 
of  \Yellesley,  became  governor-general  of  India.  He  was  in- 
structed, when  appointed  to  this  responsible  situation,  “ not  to 
engage  if  possible  in  hostilities  with  any  native  power,  and  yet 
he  waged  deadly  war  with  every  one  of  them.”  Soon  after 
reaching  India,  he  learned  that  Tippoo  had  negotiated  a treaty 
with  the  governor  of  ^Mauritius,  in  which  it  was  stipulated  that 
a large  French  force  should  be  sent  to  India  to  assist  Tippoo  in 
regaining  his  lost  dominions.  As  Tippoo  was  deceived  by 
a French  adventurer  who  induced  him  to  send  an  embassy  to 
IMauritius,  and  the  governor  had  no  authority  to  make  any 
such  treaty,  nor  power  to  carry  it  into  effect,  the  whole  affair  ’ 
showed  the  disposition  of  Tippoo  more  than  any  cause  of  dan- 
ger to  the  English  power  in  India.  But  the  governor-general 
regarded  this  conduct  as  “ a public,  unqualified,  and  unambigu- 
ous declaration  of  war,”  and  his  decided  opinion  w’as,  that  “ an 
immediate  attack  should  be  made  upon  Tippoo  Sidtan.”  It 
was  also  believed,  if  not  fully  proved,  that  Tippoo  had  endeav- 
ored to  excite  the  iMahrattas  and  the  Nizam  against  the  English, 
and  that  he  had  also  sent  an  embassy  to  Zeman  Shah,  the  ruler 
of  Cabul,  then  contemplating  an  invasion  of  India.  In  these 
circumstances,  the  governor-general  resolved  to  deprive  Tippoo 
of  those  means  and  resources  which  made  him  so  formidable  an 
enemy  to  the  English  power  in  India.  Some  correspondence  of 
a peculiar  character  and  with  mutually  unsatisfactory  results, 
was  carried  on  for  a whUe  betu’een  the  governor-general  and  the 
Sultan.  In  the  mean  time  a large  force  under  General  Harris, 
was  prepared  at  Madras  to  proceed  to  IMysore,  and  there  cooper- 
ate ’^ith  another  force  from  Bombay  under  General  Stuart.  The 
Sultan  fully  aware  of  the  force  and  plans  of  his  enemies,  en- 
deavored first  to  encounter  the  army  on  the  way  from  Bombay, 
and  a severe  battle  was  fought  in  which  he  claimed  the  victory, 
though  his  loss  was  much  greater  than  that  of  the  English. 

20 


230 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


The  main  army  (the  force  from  Madras)  reached  Seringapatam 
in  April  of  1799.  For  some  time  the  Sultan  had  been  discour- 
aged,* and  having  been  disappointed  by  several  movements  of 
the  English  force,  he  at  last  resolved  to  take  refuge  in  the  city 
and  defend  it  to  the  last  extremity.  The  siege  was  urged  for- 
ward with  all  possible  vigor,  and  aU  attempts  at  negotiation  hav- 
ing failed,  the  place  was  attacked  on  the  4th  of  May,  and  the 
English  became  masters,  though  not  without  suffering  severe 
loss  and  committing  dreadful  carnage  of  the  Mysore  troops  and 
inhabitants.  The  Sultan’s  body  was  found  among  the  slain, 
and  all  his  family  were  made  prisoners.  The  treasures  of  the 
Sultan,  amounting  to  nearly  ^5,000,000,  became  the  prize  of  the 
conquerors. 

With  the  fall  of  Seringapatam  aU  resistance  ceased,  and  the 
war  closed.  The  English  took  possession  of  the  kingdom,  gave 
pensions  to  the  members  of  the  royal  family,  allotted  some  dis- 
tricts to  the  Mahrattas  and  to  the  Nizam,  took  the  sea-coasts 
and  some  other  districts  for  themselves,  and  placed  a descendant 
of  the  original  Edndu  sovereigns  over  several  internal  districts 
under  the  title  of  the  Raja  of  Mysore.  This  descendant  was  a 
child  only  5 years  old,  and  as  the  English  retained  aU  the  essen- 
tial powers  of  government  in  their  own  hands,  he  and  his  party 
had  little  but  the  name  and  pageantry  of  rank  and  dignity.  Still 
the  change  from  the  state  of  poverty  in  which  the  family  had 
lived  for  some  years  to  the  honor  conferred  upon  them,  was  great, 
and  conciliated  the  native  population  to  other  important  changes 
now  to  be  introduced.  The  war  with  Tippoo  was  the  last 
great  struggle  of  the  English  for  ascendency  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula.  The  remaining  native  princes  had  not  suf- 
ficient power  to  make  much  resistance,  if  disposed,  and  they 
generally  submitted  to  such  terms  as  were  dictated  to  them. 

The  Nizam  became  now  more  than  ever  fearful  of  the  power 
of  the  Mahrattas,  and  a treaty  was  made  between  him  and  the 
governor-general,  in  which  he  ceded  to  the  English  all  the  terri- 
tory which  he  had  lately  acquired  from  the  Mysore  kingdom, 

* “He  assembled  his  principal  officers  in  council,  and  closed  his  address,  say- 
ing, ‘ Wo  have  arrived  at  our  last  stage,  >vliat  is  your  determination  ? ’ ‘ To  die 

along  with  j’ou,’  was  the  univei’sal  reply.  All  were  deeply  affected,  and  some 
•could  not  refrain  from  weeping.” 


UISTORY — TUE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


231 


yielding  $3,000,000  annually,  and  they  in  return  engaged  to 
support  a certain  specified  force  in  his  dominions,  and  to  defend 
him  from  all  aggressions  from  the  Mahrattas  or  others.  This 
subsidiary  force  the  English  were  at  liberty  to  use  as  they  might 
have  occasion  in  the  event  of  any  war.  In  such  case  he  also 
bound  himself  to  assist  them  with  his  own  troops. 

HISTORY  OF  BOMBAY  TILL  1800. 


In  1662,  Charles  II.  married  the  Infanta  Catharine  of  Portu- 
gal, and  obtained  the  island  of  Bombay  as  part  of  her  dowry. 
The  king  of  England  claimed  Salsette  as  a dependency  of  Bom- 
bay, but  the  king  of  Portugal  refused  to  allow  the  claims.  In 
1668,  Charles  ceded  Bombay  to  the  East  India  Company,  and 
they  soon  removed  their  cliief  agency  on  the  western  coast  of 
India  from  Surat  to  Bombay.  The  island  was  easily  defended, 
and  its  excellent  harbor  made  it  important  as  a naval  station. 
It  was  once  besieged  by  the  admiral  of  the  Mogul  fleet,  but  the  • 
island  has  never  been  taken  by  any  hostile  power  since  it  first 
became  an  English  possession.  Salsette  and  Bassein  continued 
in  the  possession  of  the  Portuguese  till  1739,  when  they  were 
taken  by  the  Mahrattas,  who  had  possession  of  the  coast  oppo- 
site to  Bombay  for  several  hundred  miles.  This  native  power 
first  became  prominent  in  the  history  of  India  in  the  reign  of 
Aurungzeb.  When  the  Mogul  empire  fell  into  a state  of  anar- 
chy on  the  death  of  this  emperor,  the  Mahrattas,  who  for  some 
years  had  been  struggling  for  independence,  commenced  an 
aggressive  warfare  on  aU  sides,  and  soon  became  the  most  for- 
midable native  power  in  India.  For  half  a century  they  were 
united  in  one  government  under  Sevajee,  their  first  prince  and 
his  descendants.  They  then  separated  under  diflerent  chiefs, 
who  divided  the  original  and  acquired  territories  among  them. 
Each  of  these  chiefs  was  independent  in  the  affairs  of  his  oum 
territory,  and  made  war  and  peace  with  those  around  him  as  he 
pleased.  But  they  stiU  continued  united  under  one  nominal  head, 
and  though  often  at  war  among  themselves  yet  like  the  Greek 
republics  of  old,  they  were  ready  to  jom  their  forces  as  often  as 
there  was  any  occasion  for  doing  so  against  a common  enemy. 

One  of  these  Mahratta  chiefs,  Conajee  Angiia,  had  possession 


232 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


of  the  Concan,  the  territory  between  the  Ghats  and  the  sea 
south  from  Bombay,  and  had  nominally  the  rank  of  admiral.  As 
his  situation  was  unfavorable  for  carrying  on  any  aggressive  war- 
fare on  land,  he  commenced  plundering  such  ships  as  he  could 
seize.  He  had  a fleet  of  ships  built  for  this  purpose,  and  he 
plundered  the  vessels  of  aU  nations  without  distinction.  These 
ships,  if  attacked  by  any  force  too  powerful  for  them,  would  run 
into  some  of  the  creeks  or  harbors  on  the  coast,  where  they  were 
protected  by  his  forts.  He  took  several  vessels  with  rich  cargoes, 
and  became  so  powerful  that  in  1754,  he  took  and  plundered  a 
squadron  of  3 Dutch  ships,  one  of  50  guns,  one  of  36  guns,  and 
one  of  18  guns.  Such  depredations  could  no  longer  be  endured, 
and  the  government  of  Bombay  resolved  to  put  a stop  to  them. 
Conajee  Angria  was  at  this  time  at  variance  with  the  other  IMah- 
ratta  powers,  and  so  when  Commodore  James  proceeded  to 
blockade  his  forts  by  sea,  a Mahratta  force  proceeded  from  the 
Deckan  to  besiege  them  by  land,  and  in  this  way  2 or  3 of  his 
forts  were  reduced.  The  next  year  Admiral  Watson  and  Colonel 
Clive,  (afterwards  Lord  Clive,)  having  arrived  at  Bombay,  a 
more  powerful  expedition  proceeded  against  Conajee  Angria. 
Admiral  Watson  took  command  of  the  ships,  and  Colonel  Clive 
of  the  land  forces.  They  succeeded  in  taking  Gheriah,  his  prin- 
cipal fort,  with  a large  amount  of  treasure,  naval  and  military 
stores,  and  other  property  of  various  lands.  This  property,  which 
was  of  great  value,  became  prize-money  and  was  divided  among 
the  captors. 

The  aggressive  warfare  carried  on  by  the  different  INIahratta 
chiefs  upon  aU  the  native  powers  not  belonging  to  their  con- 
federacy, greatly  enlarged  their  dominions.  In  1760,  the  reve- 
nue paid  by  the  people,  was  estimated  at  ^45,000,000,  though 
it  was  supposed  that  not  more  than  ^35,000,000  entered  the 
treasury  so  as  to  be  available  for  any  of  the  purposes  of  the 
government.  Their  army,  collected  at  the  great  and  disastrous 
battle  of  Panniput,  consisted  of  55,000  cavalry  in  regular  pay, 
15,000  irregular  horse,  15,000  infantry,  and  an  eflicient  body  of 
artillery  with  200  guns.  Their  revenue,  their  army,  and  their 
military  character,  made  them  the  first  native  power  in  India. 

In  1772,  Madu  Row,  the  Peishwa  and  nominal  head  of  the 
Mahratta  empire,  died  without  leaving  any  issue,  and  he  was 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


233 


succeeded  by  Narayan  Row,  a younger  brother,  who  was  soon 
after  assassinated.  After  his  death,  two  parties  contended  for  the 
succession.  Ragoba,  who  was  uncle  to  the  late  Peishwa,  and 
one  of  the  claimants  to  be  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Mah- 
ratta  empire,  made  application  to  the  government  of  Bornbay 
for  assistance.  The  Court  of  Directors  had  long  been  anxious 
to  obtain  the  islands  of  Salsette  and  Bassein,  and  had  instructed 
their  governor  in  Bombay  to  obtain  them  in  any  lawful  and 
proper  way.  The  government  of  Bombay,  now  made  a treaty 
with  Ragoba,  who  ceded  Salsette,  Bassein,  and  some  possessions 
of  the  Mahrattas  in  Gujerat  to  the  English,  in  consideration  of 
receiving  certain  assistance  to  enable  him  to  obtain  the  office  of 
Peishwa.  And  having  heard  that  the  Portuguese  government 
in  Goa  was  preparing  to  make  an  effort  for  recovering  these 
islands,  the  government  of  Bombay  at  once  took  possession  of 
them.  The  governor-general  and  supreme  council  in  Bengal 
now  interfered,  and  expressing  their  strong  disapprobation  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  government  of  Bombay,  sent  an  embassy 
from  Calcutta  to  Poona.  And  soon  after  this,  despatches  from 
the  Court  of  Directors  were  received  by  the  Bombay  govern- 
ment, in  which  they  approved  of  the  treaty  made  with  Ragoba. 
It  was  finally  compromised  that  the  English  should  retain  Sal- 
sette, and  the  Mahrattas  should  have  Bassein. 

But  this  peace  was  of  short  duration.  Neither  the  govern- 
ment of  Bombay,  nor  of  Calcutta,  nor  the  Court  of  Directors, 
were  satisfied  with  the  terms  on  which  matters  had  been  ad- 
justed. The  state  of  parties  among  the  Mahrattas  was  contin- 
ually changing,  and  a man  named  St.  Lubin  having  arrived  at 
Poona  in  the  pretended  character  of  an  ambassador  from 
France,  great  anxiety  began  to  be  felt  by  the  English,  on  ac- 
count of  supposed  French  influence  among  the  Mahrattas. 
These  circumstances  soon  led  to  a renewal  of  hostilities,  and  it 
was  resolved  that  a force  should  proceed  fi-om  Bengal  to  Poona, 
there  to  meet  one  which  was  to  proceed  from  Bombay.  The  force 
from  Bombay  amounting  to  about  4,000  men,  proceeded  into 
the  Deckan,  and  on  reaching  TuUagaum,  18  miles  from  Poona, 
they  found  an  army  of  50,000  men  to  oppose  their  further  pro- 
gress. Some  skirmishing  took  place,  and  the  English  feeling 
unable  to  contend  with  such  a force,  formed  the  purpose  to 

20* 


234 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


return  to  Bombay.  No  sooner  had  they  commenced  their 
retreat,  than  furious  attacks  were  made  upon  their  rear,  and  300 
men  and  15  Enghsh  officers  were  soon  killed.  They  had  now 
no  resource  but  negotiation,  which  resulted  in  an  agreement 
called  the  Convention  of  Wurgaum,  and  they  were  permitted  to 
return  quietly  to  Bombay,  thus  terminating  the  most  unhappy 
expedition  hitherto  in  the  history  of  British  India. 

The  army  which  was  proceeding  from  Bengal  into  the  Dec- 
kan  under  Gen.  Goddard,  met  with  some  unexpected  difficulties 
and  delays,  and  on  hearing  that  the  force  which  was  to  proceed 
from  Bombay  to  cooperate  with  them  had  returned  back,  Gen. 
Goddard  proceeded  into  Gujerat.  Here  he  took  Ahmedabad 
and  several  other  large  places,  and  surprised  and  routed  the 
united  forces  of  Scmdia  and  HoUcar,  two  Mahratta  chiefs. 
He  then  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Bassein,  which  surrendered 
before  the  close  of  the  year.  Hostilities  having  commenced  be- 
tsveen  Hyder  All  and  the  English  in  the  southern  part  of  Lidia, 
it  became  important  to  bring  the  war  with  the  Mahrattas  to  a 
close  as  soon  as  possible.  In  these  circumstances.  General  God- 
dard resolved  to  proceed  into  the  Deckan  with  his  army.  He 
marched  as  far  as  the  Bhore  Ghat,  about  50  miles  east  from 
Bombay,  but  finding  greater  difficulties  and  more  discouraging 
circumstances  than  he  expected,  he  returned  to  Bombay,  though 
not  without  sufl'ering  considerable  loss  -from  attacks  on  his  rear. 
But  in  some  other  parts  of  the  Mahratta  country,  the  English 
were  eminently  successful.  Major  Pophara,  with  a force  of 
2,400,  proceeded  from  Bengal  into  the  territory  of  Scindia,  and 
took  the  fort  of  Lahar  after  a severe  struggle.  He  then 
resolved  upon  the  yet  more  adventurous  enterprise  of  attempting 
to  take  Gwalior,  one  of  the  strongest  forts  in  India.  This  fort 
is  erected  on  the  top  of  a mountain  of  rock,  and  is  supposed  to 
be  inaccessible  on  all  sides.  It  had  always  been  regarded  in 
wars  among  the  native  powers  as  impregnable,  and  at  this  time 
it  had  a garrison  of  1,000  men.  Major  Pojiham,  after  carefully 
inspecting  the  fort,  resolved  to  make  an  attempt  to  seixc  it  by 
escalade.  The  attempt  was  made  in  the  night  on  a part  where 
no  danger  was  apprehended.  The  garrison  surrendered  with 
Init  little  resistance,  and  in  the  morning  the  English  flag  was 
waving  over  the  fort.  The  daring  nature  and  success  of  this 


niSTORT — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


235 


attack  produced  a deep  impression  upon  the  native  mind.  It 
was  thought  best  to  follow  up  the  success,  and  aceordingly 
General  Carnac  proeeeded  with  a yet  larger  force  into  the 
dominions  of  Scindia,  where  he  was  joined  by  Major  Popham. 
General  Carnac  suflered  much  for  want  of  provisions,  and  was 
obliged  to  retire  from  Seronge,  but  near  Mehidpoor  he  made  an 
attack  on  the  army  of  Scindia,  and  dispersed  them  with  great 
loss  of  troops  and  baggage.  These  victories  produced  a state 
of  feeling  favorable  to  peace  on  the  part  of  the  Maluattas,  and 
the  English  were  also  desirous  of  it,  as  all  their  resources  were 
required  for  the  war  with  Hyder  Ali.  After  much  negotiation 
with  the  different  Mahratta  chiefs,  a general  peace  with  all  the 
confederacy  was  made,  which  is  generally  known  in  Indian 
history  as  the  treaty  of  Salbye.  By  this  treaty,  Ragoba  re- 
nounced all  claim  to  the  dignity  of  Peishwa ; he  was  to  receive 
from  the  Mahratta  government  a fixed  sum  annually  for  his 
support,  and  was  allowed  to  choose  his  own  place  of  residence. 

HISTORY  OF  INDIA  FROM  1800-1850. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  the  British 
power  had  become  paramount  in  India.  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula  were  several  native  princes  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent, but  no  one  of  them,  and  no  combination  that  could  be 
formed  among  them,  would  be  equal  in  power  and  resources  to 
the  English  government  in  Madras.  In  the  Deckan,  and  Central 
India,  were  two  of  the  largest  remaining  native  powers,  namely, 
the  Nizam,  and  the  Mahrattas.  And  the  former  of  these,  whose 
capital  was  Hyderabad,  had  entered  into  a treaty  with  the 
English,  by  which  he  ceded  to  them  territory  (aU  he  had  ob- 
tained in  the  partition  of  the  kingdom  of  JMysore),  yielding 
§3,000,000  annually,  and  they  in  return  engaged  to  support  a 
large  subsidiary  force  * in  his  dominions,  and  “ to  defend  them 
from  every  aggression.”  By  the  same  treaty  he  had  also  engaged 
“ neither  to  make  war,  nor  so  much  as  to  negotiate  by  his  own 

* Such  subsidiary  forces  consisted  partly  of  Europeans  and  partly  of  native 
troops,  but  all  were  under  the  control  of  European  officers,  and  the  whole  force 
was  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  Enfjlish  government,  or  of  their  agents  in  the 
native  government  where  this  force  was  stationed. 


236 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


authority,  but  to  refer  all  disputes  between  himself  and  other 
States  to  the  English,  and  be  guided  by  their  decision  ; also  to 
allow  the  subsidiary  force  in  his  service,  to  be  employed  by 
them  in  all  their  wars,  and  in  such  cases  to  increase  the  subsid- 
iary force  by  6,000  horse,  and  9,000  foot  from  his  own  army. 
But  it  was  stipulated  that  “ the  Nizam  was  to  remain  absolute 
in  respect  to  his  o^vn  family  and  subjects,  and  the  English  were 
on  no  pretext  to  disturb  his  authority.”  All  the  superior 
officers  also  of  his  own  army  were  to  be  English,  and  were  to 
be  approved  by  their  Resident  or  minister  at  his  court  It  must 
be  obvious  that,  however  oppressive  such  a government  might 
be  to  its  own  subjects,  it  was  never  likely  to  endanger  the  sta- 
bility of  the  British  power  in  the  country.  A part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Mysore  was  offered  to  the  Mahrattas  upon  condition  of 
their  entering  into  a similar  treaty  for  a subsidiary  force  to  be 
supported  in  a similar  manner  and  for  similar  purjroses  in  their 
ten-itory.  But  the  offer  of  such  a force  was  not  accepted.  The 
Peishwa,  the  nominal  head  of  this  confederacy,  lived  at  Poona, 
100  miles  from  Bombay,  and  so  Poona  was  generally  regarded 
as  the  capital  of  the  Mahratta  empire.  But  the  different  chiefs 
had  each  his  own  capital.  Ragojee  Bhonsla  had  Nagpore,  Scin- 
dia  had  Gwalior,  HoUtar  had  Indore,  and  Damojee  Guickwar  had 
Baroda,  for  their  respective  capitals.  These  chiefs  were  often 
at  variance,  and  sometimes  in  open  war  with  each  other,  while 
each  of  them  made  war  and  peace  with  other  powers,  and  gov- 
erned his  own  territory  and  extended  his  owm  dominion  as  he 
pleased.  Confederated  and  yet  separated  as  they  were,  their 
political  importance  and  influence  were  less  in  the  general  afi’airs 
of  India  than  the  same  population,  territory,  and  revenue  would 
have  been  under  one  united  and  consolidated  government. 

The  titular  emperor  of  Delhi  had  become  a dependant  upon 
Scindia,  one  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs,  and  he  lived  in  the  palace 
and  capital  of  his  illustrious  ancestors,  more  like  a prisoner  than 
like  an  Indian  prince.  Scindia  made  all  the  use  of  having  a 
nominal  emperor  of  IDndustan  in  his  power,  which  he  possibly 
could  for  his  own  aggrandizement.  In  the  central  and  northern 
parts  of  India  were  several  States  and  princes,  as  the  Rajpoots, 
the  Jats,  the  Sikhs,  the  Scindeans,  etc.  Of  these  princes,  some 
were  in  alliance  with  the  English  and  tributary  to  them  ; some 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


237 


were  tributary  to  the  Mahratta  chiefs,  and  some  had  preserved 
or  acquired  their  independence.  No  one  of  these,  Scindia  per- 
haps excepted,  was  looked  on  as  sufficiently  powerful  to  involve 
the  country  in  war,  were  they  so  disposed,  nor  had  any  one  of 
them  the  means  of  long  resisting  the  power  of  the  English, 
should  they  become  involved  m war  with  them. 

The  city  of  Surat  was  the  great  emporium  of  foreign  com- 
merce in  Lidia,  when  Europeans  discovered  the  passage  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  was  the  seat  of  important  and 
extensive  manufactures,  and  the  capital  of  a populous,  com- 
mercial, and  manufacturing  country.  It  was  easy  of  com- 
munication with  Arabia  and  Persia,  and  shared  largely  in  the 
trade  of  India  with  Europe  and  the  western  countries  of  Asia 
through  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  population 
was  estimated  in  1790  at  800,000,  but  probably  this  estimate 
was  too  large.  It  was  also  the  port  from  which  Mohammedans 
generally  embarked  on  their  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  so  it  was 
regarded  on  this  account  as  a place  of  great  importance.  One 
of  the  earliest  and  largest  trading  factories  of  the  East  India' 
Company  was  established  in  this  city,  and  several  agreements 
and  treaties,  varying  according  to  circumstances  and  exigencies, 
had  been  made  with  the  Nabob.  This  prince  was  originally  a 
deputy  of  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  but  the  office  had  become  hered- 
itary, and  its  powers  were  often  exercised,  in  the  distracted 
state  of  the  empire,  with  little  reference  or  respect  to  the  emper- 
or’s wishes.  The  relations  between  the  English  and  the  Nabob 
had  long  been  in  an  unsatisfactory  state.  Frequent  attempts 
had  been  made  to  define  and  adjust  them,  but  "with  little  suc- 
cess. Early  in  1800,  the  governor-general  transmitted  to  the 
governor  of  Bombay,  the  form  of  an  agreement  or  treaty  to  be 
carried  into  effect  ■with  the  Nabob,  This  agreement  the  Nabob 
for  some  time  refused,  but  at  length  seeing  the  English  preparing 
to  carry  it  into  effect  by  force,  he  signed  it,  and  thus  “ resigned 
his  government,  civil  and  military,  with  all  its  emoluments, 
powers,  and  privileges,  to  the  East  Lidia  Company,  and  the 
Company  agreed  to  pay  to  the  Nabob  and  his  heirs  one  lack 
of  rupees  (§50,000)  annually,  etc.”  By  this  transaction,  which 
is  styled  in  the  History  of  British  India,  “ the  Nabob  of  Surat 
deposed,”  Surat  was  added  to  the  English  possessions. 


238 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Mention  has  often  been  made  of  the  Raja  of  Tanjore  in  the 
Carnatic.  This  was  one  of  the  Hindu  States,  which  though 
tributary  to  the  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic,  and  a party  in  some  of 
the  treaties  between  this  prince  and  the  English,  yet  preserved 
much  of  its  independence  under  its  Hindu  sovereigns.  In  1786, 
Toolajee,  the  Raja  of  Tanjore,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Ameer  Sing.  This  prince,  at  different  times,  caused  much 
uneasiness  and  anxiety  to  the  Madras  government.  In  1798, 
the  claims  of  another  son,  Surfojee,  were  brought  forward.  The 
English  espoused  his  cause  and  removed  Ameer  Sing  from  the 
throne.  But  Surfojee,  who  was  entirely  dependent  on  the  Eng- 
lish, instead  of  succeeding  to  the  power  and  dignity  of  Raja, 
signed  an  agreement  by  which  he  resigned  all  the  powers  of 
government  to  the  English,  and  in  return  was  to  receive  an 
annual  pension  for  the  support  of  himself  and  family.  The 
same  historian,  describing  this  transaction,  styles  it,  “ the  Raja 
of  Tanjore  deposed.” 

More  than  half  a century  had  passed  since  the  first  treaty  was 
made  between  the  English  and  the  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic. 
During  this  period,  4 or  5 Nabobs  in  succession  had  filled  the 
office.  Several  treaties  or  agreements,  varying  with  the  circum- 
stances and  exigencies  of  the  parties,  had  been  made  at  different 
times.  Each  party  had  often  complained  of  the  other,  but  dis- 
satisfaction appears  never  to  have  proceeded  to  open  hostilities'. 
In  pursuing  the  comrse  of  policy  towards  the  native  governments 
which  the  governor-general  had  adopted,  the  state  of  tliis  prince 
and  his  relations  came  under  consideration.  The  relations 
between  him  and  the  English  had  long  been  in  many  respects 
very  unsatisfactory,  and  all  attempts  to  remodel  and  readjust 
them  had  failed.  The  territory  subject  to  the  Nabob,  was  badly 
governed,  and  there  appeared  no  reason  to  look  for  any  reform 
in  his  administration.  He  was  incumbered  with  debts,  and 
there  appeared  to  be  no  reasons  for  expecting  any  improvement 
in  his  finances.  The  governor-general  resolved  to  effect  a trans- 
fer of  aU  the  rights  and  powers  of  government,  civil  and  mili- 
tary, to  the  English,  reserving  or  allowing  to  the  Nabob,  what 
might  appear  to  be  necessary  to  support  him  and  his  family  in 
becoming  style  and  dignity.  Omdut  ul  Omrah,  who  was 
then  Nabob,  was  sick,  and  not  expected  long  to  survive ; so  it 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


239 


was  thought  expedient  to  defer  the  “ dethronement  ” till  after  his 
decease.  He  died  in  July,  1801.  As  his  son,  Ali  Iloosun,  who 
was  appointed  in  the  will  of  the  late  Nabob  to  succeed  him,  re- 
fused to  sign  the  treaty  prescribed  to  him  by  the  governor-gen- 
eral, Azeem  ul  Dowla,  a nephew  of  the  late  Nabob  was  selected, 
and  on  his  promising  to  sign  the  treaty  which  had  been  pre- 
pared, he  was  acknowledged  by  the  English  to  be  the  Nabob, 
and  installed  into  the  oftice  in  the  usual  manner.  From  this 
time  this  office  became  a mere  pageant,  as  the  Nabob,  by  the 
treaty  then  signed,  delivered  over  all  the  powers  of  government 
in  perpetuity  to  the  English,  and  totally  and  forever  renounced 
them  for  himself  and  his  family.  This  treaty  between  him  and 
tlie  English  was  just  what  the  latter  wished  it  to  be.  The  allow- 
ance or  pensions  given  to  him  and  his  family  from  the  revenues 
of  the  territories  he  thus  ceded  away,  were  liberal,  and  have 
been  continued.  Ali  Hoosun  and  liis  friends  protested  against 
these  proceedings,  and  transmitted  a memorial  concerning  them 
to  England,  but  they  obtained  no  redress.  The  historian  be- 
fore referred  to,  describes  these  proceedings  under  the  title  of 
“ the  Nabob  of  Arcot  deposed.” 

No  native  power  had  given  the  English  more  trouble  than 
their  ally,  the  Nabob  of  Oude.  Treaties  and  agreements  with 
him  had  been  made  and  changed,  till  the  parties  could  not  agree 
what  had  been  annulled  and  superseded,  and  what  continued  to 
be  stiU  in  force,  wliile  aU  were  dissatisfied  x\dth  the  state  of  mat- 
ters as  they  were.  Negotiations  were  commenced  and  attempts 
at  definition  and  explanation  were  made,  and  all  these  were  car- 
ried on  for  a long  time  in  the  hope  of  bringing  the  relations  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  Nabob  into  a more  satisfactory  state. 
But  in  these  negotiations  little  progress  was  made,  and  there 
was  but  little  prospect  of  any  mutually  satisfactory  result.  At 
length  the  governor-general  proposed  or  more  properly  dictated  a 
treaty,  and  prepared  at  once  to  enforce  it  with  such  a power  that 
any  effectual  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Nabob  was  impossible, 
and  any  further  delay  or  reluctance  would  be  unavailing.  So 
this  treaty  was  signed  by  the  Nabob,  and  by  it  he  ceded  to  the 
English  more  than  half  his  territor)*,  relinquishing  in  their  favor 
all  right  and  control  over  it.  The  revenue  of  this  ceded  territory 
was  nearly  07,000,000  annually.  The  Nabob  also  engaged  to 


240 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

govern  his  remaining  territory  in  such  a manner,  or  according  to 
such  regulations  and  counsels  and  to  produce  such  results,  as 
would  give  the  English  discretionary  authority  or  permission  to 
interfere  in  his  administration  at  any  time  they  might  think  it 
expedient  to  do  so. 

Nearly  west  horn  Oude  was  the  province  of  Furruckabad. 
The  government  of  this  province  was  at  this  time  in  the  hands 
of  a regent,  the  Nabob  having  died  some  time  before,  and  his 
son  and  heir  being  yet  a minor,  the  affairs  of  this  province  had 
become  somewhat  complicated  with  the  State  of  Oude,  and  there 
had  also  for  some  years  been  a treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Eng- 
lish. These  matters  in  connection  wdth  the  affairs  of  Oude,  and 
in  carrying  out  the  policy  of  the  governor-general,  now  came 
under  consideration,  and  as  the  young  Nabob  was  just  becoming 
of  age  it  was  a favorable  time  for  introducing  any  change.  To 
the  governor-general  it  appeared  to  be  expedient  that  the  prov- 
ince of  Furruckabad,  should  also  be  added  to  the  Enghsh  pos- 
sessions, and  BO  the  young  Nabob,  instead  of  succeeding  to  the 
office  and  dignity  of  his  ancestors,  was  required  to  sign  a treaty 
by  which  he  ceded  aU  his  territory  with  all  his  rights  and  control 
over  it  to  the  English,  only  to  receive  in  return  from  them  out 
its  revenues  a pension  for  the  support  of  himself  and  family. 

When  the  Idngdom  of  Mysore  was  to  be  disposed  of,  after 
the  faU  of  Seringapatam  and  the  death  of  Tippoo,  several  dis- 
tricts were  offered  to  the  Mahrattas,  upon  condition  that  they 
would  then  cede  these  to  the  English  in  return  for  the  support 
of  a subsidiary  force  to  be  stationed  at  some  place  in  the  Mah- 
ratta  territory,  in  a manner  similar  to  the  arrangement  then 
made  with  the  Nizam.  Such  subsidiary  forces  consisted  partly 
of  European  and  partly  of  native  troops.  But  all  the  officers 
were  European,  and  the  force  was  to  be  under  the  control  of  the 
English  government,  or  their  agents.  This  offer  the  Mahrattas 
then  refused.  But  the  agent  of  the  English  at  the  court  in 
Poona,  was  instructed  to  intimate  to  the  Peishwa  and  the  Mah- 
ratta  chiefs,  that  such  an  arrangement  would  at  any  time  be 
taken  into  consideration,  if  they  should  wish  for  it.  The  Mah- 
rattas were  generally  engaged  in  warfare : sometimes  they  were 
united  against  a common  enemy,  sometimes  each  chief  was 
carrying  on  war  to  enlarge  his  own  dominions,  and  sometimes 


nisTony — the  European  period. 


241 


they  were  fighting  among  themselves.  In  1803,  some  dissen- 
sions liaving  occun-ed  between  Scindia  and  IIoLkar,  a severe  bat- 
tle was  fought  near  Indore,  in  which  the  latter  was  defeated 
with  groat  slaughter,  loss  of  guns,  etc.  He  collected  his  scat- 
tered forces  and  proceeded  with  all  possible  despatch  to  Poona. 
Here  Scindia  and  the  Peishwa  united  their  forces  to  oppose 
him,  but  they  were  both  defeated  “ in  one  of  the  most  obstinate 
battles  recorded  in  the  annals  of  Indian  warfare.”  When  the 
Peishwa  saw  that  the  war  between  Scindia  and  Ilolkar  was 
likely  to  be  transferred  to  Poona,  he  intimated  liis  wish  to  the 
English  agent  for  some  arrangement  for  obtaining  the  aid  of  a 
subsidiary  force  for  his  protection.  The  approaching  difiiculties 
and  dangers  made  him  yet  more  anxious,  and  the  day  after  the 
battle,  in  accordance  with  an  arrangement  made  with  the  English 
agent,  he  proceeded  to  Severndroog,  a fort  in  the  Concan  south 
from  Bombay  on  the  sea-shore,  from  which  he  went  in  a vessel 
provided  for  him  to  Bassein.  The  English  agent  proceeded 
from  Poona  to  that  place,  and  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Bassein 
was  made  there.  By  this  treaty  the  Peishwa  ceded  to  the  Eng- 
lish a territory  yielding  §1,250,000  annually,  and  they  agreed  tr 
support  a subsidiary  force  of  6,000  men  in  his  dominions 
They  also  engaged  to  reestablish  him  in  his  full  rights  as  the 
acknowledged  head  of  the  Mahratta  confederacy.  This  treaty 
declared  the  friends  and  enemies  of  either  of  the  contracting 
parties  to  be  the  friends  and  enemies  of  both,  and  it  provided 
for  the  joint  exertions  of  both  to  defend  the  rights  or  redress  the 
wrongs  of  either,  or  of  their  respective  dependants  and  allies. 
The  document  is  of  great  length,  containing  19  different  arti- 
cles. 

This  treaty  laid  the  foundation  for  what  has  been  called  “ the 
greatest.,  wax  which  England  ever  waged  in  India,  and  which 
was  destined  completely  to  establish  her  supremacy  over  that 
country.” 

It  was  the  wish  of  Scindia  and  Holkar  each  to  obtain  posses- 
sion of  the  person  of  the  Peishwa,  and  then  use  his  name  and 
authority  to  increase  his  power  and  influence.  The  Peishwa 
was  aware  of  their  desire,  and  might  have  thrown  himself  upon 
either  of  them.  But  he  knew  he  should  be  only  a prisoner  of 
State,  to  be  used  by  the  party  for  their  own  advantage.  And  so 

21 


242 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


he  chose  rather  to  enter  into  treaty  with  the  English,  who  en- 
gaged to  restore  him  to  be  again  the  head  of  the  Mahratta  con- 
federacy. For  some  time  it  appeared  quite  uncertain  what 
course  the  Mahratta  chiefs  woxild  pursue  on  hearing  of  the 
treaty  of  alliance  between  the  Enghsh  and  the  Peishwa.  Scin- 
dia  retreated  after  the  battle  at  Poona  towards  his  own  domin- 
ions, and  encamped  near  Burhanpoor.  Holkar  remained  at 
Poona  and  endeavored  to  invest  another  member  of  the  Peish- 
wa’s  family  with  the  office  and  dignity  of  Peishwa.  The  gover- 
nor-general made  arrangements  to  carry  on  the  war  with  vigor, 
if  the  chiefs  separately,  or  in  combination,  should  resist  the  res- 
toration of  the  Peishwa,  or  any  other  provisions  of  the  treaty. 

In  accordance  with  this  intention.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  (who 
was  brother  to  the  governor-general,  and  subsequently  became 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,)  was  ordered  to  take  the  command  of  a 
large  force  which  had  assembled  at  Hurryghur,  and  to  proceed 
towards  Poona.  Col.  Stevenson  was  ordered  to  proceed  from 
Hyderabad  with  the  subsidiary  force  at  that  place  and  the 
Nizam’s  contingent  force,  and  to  join  Sir  A.  WeUesley.  The 
two  forces  met  at  Akloos,  and  when  united  constituted  an  army 
of  27,000  men.  Lord  Lake  was  commanded  to  proceed  with  a 
large  force  from  Bengal  and  invade  the  northern  parts  of  the 
dominions  of  Scindia.  A force  was  to  proceed  from  IMadras, 
and  to  invade  the  southern  parts  of  the  dominions  of  Ragojee 
Bhonsla,  the  Mahratta  chief  or  Raja  of  Berar.  And  a force  was 
to  be  sent  from  Bombay  to  invade  the  territory  of  the  Mahrattas 
in  Gujerat.  It  was  expected  that  these  simultaneous  invasions 
of  the  territories  of  the  different  chiefs  would  prevent  any  con- 
tinued cooperation  or  union  of  their  forces. 

It  was  necessary  that  Sir.  A.  WeUesley  should  proceed  to 
Poona  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  restoration  of  the  Peishwa. 
As  he  approached  the  city,  HoUrar  with  his  force  withdrew,  and 
no  resistance  was  made  to  his  taking  possession  of  the  place. 
The  Peishwa,  who  had  remained  at  Bassein,  was  then  escorted 
to  Poona  by  a force  of  4,000  Bombay  troops  under  Col.  Murray, 
and  he  was  duly  installed  in  office  again.  Efforts  were  now 
made  to  induce  the  Mahratta  chiefs  to  acquiesce  in  this  new 
state  of  matters,  and  also  to  become  reconciled  with  each  other. 
With  this  view  several  months  were  spent  in  fruitless  negotia- 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


243 


tion,  when  it  became  evident  that  some  of  them  were  deter- 
mineil  to  try  the  issues  of  war.  Scindia  and  Ra^ojee  Bhonsla 
(often  called  the  Raja  of  Berar  or  Nagpore),  united  tlieir  forces 
for  this  purpose,  and  proceeded  into  the  territory  of  the  Nizam. 
Sir  A.  Wellesley  then  marched  from  Poona  to  meet  them.  On 
his  way  he  took  possession  of  the  town  and  fort  of  Ahmednug- 
gur,  which  had  been  in  the  possession  of  Scindia.  A plan  was 
concerted  between  Sir  A.  Wellesley  and  Col.  Stevenson  to  at- 
tack the  army  of  Scindia  and  Ragojee  Bhonsla  on  the  24th  of 
September,  at  Bokerdun,  where  they  were  supposed  to  be  en- 
camped. But  on  the  23d,  Sir  A.  Wellesley  unexpectedly  found 
them  near  Assaye.  Their  united  army  consisted  of  38,000  cav- 
alry, 18,000  infantry,  and  100  guns.  The  battle  here  fought 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the  history  of  British  India. 
The  English  were  victorious,  but  the  loss  was  very  heavy,  “ the 
killed  and  wounded  amounting  to  more  than  one  third  part  of 
the  force  engaged.”  The  influence  of  this  victory  on  all  parties 
was  great.  The  force  under  the  command  of  Col.  Stevenson 
arrived  the  day  after  the  battle  and  pursued  the  retreating 
enemy.  In  the  course  of  a few  weeks  the  battle  of  Argaum 
was  fought,  in  which  Scindia  was  again  defeated,  and  the  forts 
of  Asseerghur  and  Gawulghur  were  taken.  In  the  mean  time 
the  war  was  carried  on  vigorously  in  other  parts  of  the  Mahratta 
territories.  Lord  Lake  proceeding  from  Bengal  with  a large 
force,  invaded  the  northern  parts  of  Scindia’s  dominions.  The 
following  graphic  account  of  his  operations  in  this  expedition  is 
from  Murray’s  History  of  British  India : — 

“ Meantime,  the  central  regions  of  Hindustan  were  the  thea- 
tre of  events  equally  memorable.  Scindia’s  force  there  consisted 
almost  exclusively  of  the  large  corps  formed  on  the  European 
model  by  De  Boigne,  who  having  returned  to  France,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Perron.  These  troops  were  considered  very  formida- 
ble, consisting  of  16,000  or  17,000  regular  infantry,  from  15,000 
to  20,000  cavalry,  a large  body  of  irregulars,  and  a well  ap- 
pointed train  of  artillery.  Lord  Lake  having  been  informed  of 
the  failure  of  the  negotiation  with  their  master,  moved  from 
Cawmpore  on  the  17th  of  August,  1803 ; on  the  28th  he  passed 
the  frontier,  and  the  next  day  he  found  the  whole  of  Perron’s 
horse  in  a strong  position  near  Coel,  a town  in  the  Doab.  He 


244 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


presently  led  his  troops  to  the  attack ; when  the  native  army, 
deemed  so  efficient  and  well  equipped  after  a short  random  &e, 
retreated  with  such  rapidity  that  the  English  could  not  overtake 
them.  The  next  object  was  the  fort  of  AUighur,  the  -main  de- 
pot of  the  enemy.  It  was  a very  strong  place,  smTounded  wdth 
a good  glacis,  and  a broad  and  deep  ditch  always  filled  with 
water.  It  would  have  been  unassailable,  had  the  entrance  been 
confined  to  a draw-bridge  ; but  a terrace  had  been  imprudently 
formed  for  that  purpose,  over  which  Lord  Lake  concluded  his 
troops  might  force  their  passage.  Colonel  Monson,  who  had  led 
the  storming  party,  soon  penetrated  across  the  mound  and  over 
the  breastwork,  but  the  wall  was  so  strongly  guarded  by  spear- 
men that  he  could  not  attempt  an  escalade.  A twelve  pounder 
was  brought  forward  to  burst  open  the  gate,  but  before  it  could 
be  pointed  the  soldiers  remained  exposed  to  a most  galling  fire, 
which  severely  wounded  and  disabled  their  leader  himself. 
Major  McLeod  succeeded  to  the  command,  and  after  the  first 
gate  had  been  forced  open,  pushed  his  way  through  a long  and 
intricate  passage  and  two  successive  gateways  to  a fourth, 
against  which,  however,  the  gun  was  employed  without  effect. 
The  situation  of  the  assailants  would  now  have  been  serious, 
had  not  the  Major  succeeded  in  forcing  the  wicket,  and  thus 
opening  an  entrance  to  his  comitrymen,  who  soon  became  mas- 
ters of  the  place. 

“ It  being  understood  that  Perron  was  discontented  with  the 
service  of  Scindia,  Lord  Lake  was  authorized  to  make  large 
offers  on  condition  of  his  coming  over  to  the  English  and  bring- 
ing his  troops  with  him.  In  fact,  a letter  was  received  from  him 
on  the  7th  of  September,  requesting  to  be  allowed  to  repair  with 
his  family,  servants,  and  property  in  safety  to  Lucknow,  but 
without  expressing  any  disposition  to  detach  liis  army  from 
their  allegiance.  His  request  was  readily  granted,  and  he  after- 
wards stated  his  desertion  to  have  been  occasioned  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  another  officer  to  supersede  him  in  command. 

“ After  the  capture  of  AUighur,  Lord  Lake  marched  directly 
upon  Delhi,  the  imperial  capital,  and  the  residence  of  him  who 
stiU  enjoyed  the  rank  and  title  of  Great  Mogul.  He  had  ad- 
vanced within  view  of  its  walls,  when  he  discovered  the  army 
organized  under  French  command,  and  drawn  up  in  a strong 


niSTORT — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


245 


position  to  defend  its  approaches.  Though  he  had  only  4,500 
men  against  19,000,  yet  he  determined  to  give  battle  with- 
out delay.  But  as  the  enemy  could  not  wnthout  difficulty  and 
some  loss,  have  been  dislodged  from  their  present  ground,  ho 
used  a feigned  retreat  as  a stratagem  to  draw  them  from  it. 
This  delicate  manceuvre  was  executed  by  the  British  troops  in 
the  most  perfect  order,  and  the  enemy  imagining  the  flight  real, 
quit  their  intrenchments  and  eagerly  pursued.  But  no  sooner 
were  they  fully  drawn  forth  on  the  plain  than  Lord  Lake  faced 
about,  and  in  a single  charge  drove  them  from  the  field  with  loss 
of  3,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  as  well  as  their  whole  train  of 
artillery. 

“ The  British  general  now  entered  Delhi  without  resistance. 
He  immediately  requested  and  obtained  an  audience  of  the 
emperor,  with  whom  a secret  communication  had  previously 
been  opened.  He  beheld  this  unfortunate  descendant  of  a long 
line  of  illustrious  princes  ‘ seated  midcr  a small  tattered  canopy, 
the  remnant  of  liis  former  state,  his  person  emaciated  by  indi- 
gence and  infirmities,  and  his  countenance  disfigured  with  the 
loss  of  his  eyes  and  marked  with  extreme  old  age  and  settled 
melancholy.’ 

“ The  conquerors  now  marched  upon  Agra  the  rival  capital, 
which  still  possessed  the  advantage  of  being  defended  by  a 
strong  fort,  and  occupied  by  a large  body  of  troops.  Anarchy, 
however,  prevailed  in  the  garrison,  and  the  officers  being  chiefly 
of  English  extraction  had  become  objects  of  suspicion  and 
thrown  into  confinement.  At  the  same  time  7 battalions  of 
Scindia’s  army  having  been  denied  admittance  lest  they  should 
claim  a share  of  the  riches  it  contained,  still  kept  their  post  in 
the  city  and  the  principal  mosque.  It  was  considered  necessary 
to  begin  by  dislodging  them,  which  was  effected,  though  not 
without  an  obstinate  resistance,  and  the  soldiers  to  the  amount 
of  2,500  immediately  transferred  their  services  to  the  victors. 
The  Mahratta  leaders  meanwhile  resolved  to  propose  a treaty 
of  surrender,  but  as  the  time  for  its  ratification  approached  they 
suddenly  recommenced  firing.  The  trenches  were  forthwith 
opened,  and  a breach  being  effected  on  the  17th  of  October,  1803, 
the  enemy  capitulated  the  same  evening,  stipulating  only  for  the 
safety  of  their  persons  and  their  private  property.  The  treasure 

21* 


246 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


found  there,  amounting  to  no  less  than  £280,000  (^1,400,000), 
was  divided  among  the  troops  as  prize-money. 

“ There  remained  still  in  the  field  a corps  composed  of  troops 
detached  from  the  Deckan,  reinforced  by  fugitives  from  the  dif- 
ferent armies.  Lord  Lake  hastened  in  pursuit  of  this  force,  and 
considering  it  only  as  a collection  of  runaways,  deserted  by  their 
officers,  little  apprehended  that  he  was  about  to  encounter  the 
most  obstinate  resistance  he  had  sustained  during  the  whole 
campaign.  This  body,  consisting  of  9,000  foot,  5,000  horse,  and 
a numerous  train  of  artillery,  were  rapidly  retreating,  when  on 
the  1st  of  November  he  overtook  them  with  his  cavaby  alone, 
and  determined  by  an  immediate  attack  to  prevent  their  escape. 
The  enemy,  however,  having  their  motions  concealed  by  a cloud 
of  dust,  speedily  threw  themselves  into  an  advantageous  posi- 
tion, which  they  strengthened  by  cutting  the  embankment  of  a 
reservoir  in  front.  The  dragoons  were  led  on  and  had  gained 
some  advantages,  when  they  suffered  so  severely  from  the  fire 
of  a number  of  weU-served  guns,  that  it  was  judged  necessary 
to  withdraw  them  and  wait  till  the  infantry  could  come  up. 
That  force  accordingly  advanced,  but  the  76th  regiment  and  a 
few  companies  of  sepoys  having  arrived  earlier  than  the  others, 
were  exposed  to  so  destructive  a fire  that  the  general  deemed  it 
the  wisest  as  well  as  safest  plan  to  lead  singly  to  the  charge, 
‘this  handful  of  heroes.’  They  accordingly  carried  all  before 
them  though  with  severe  loss,  and  wffien  the  Mahratta  cavalry 
attempted  to  break  their  thinned  ranks,  the  British  horse  trium- 
phantly repelled  the  charge.  The  remainder  of  the  foot  soon 
appeared,  and  after  a desperate  stand  the  enemy  for  the  most 
part  were  either  destroyed  or  made  prisoners.  In  short  by  this 
brilliant  success  the  entire  army,  formed  and  disciplined  for 
Scindia  by  French  officers,  and  considered  the  finest  possessed 
by  any  native  power,  w^as  completely  annihilated.”  * 

In  addition  to  these  brilliant  achievements  on  fhe  part  of  the 
English,  the  force  despatched  from  Bombay  into  the  INIahratta 
territories  in  Gujerat,  took  Broach  and  some  other  places ; the 
force  from  Madras  invaded  the  territory  of  Ragojee  Bhonsla 
and  took  possession  of  Cuttack,  and  another  force  under 
Colonel  Powell  were  not  less  successful  in  Bundelcund.  Thus 

* Murray’s  History  of  British  India,  p.  531-534. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


247 


attacked  on  every  side  and  defeated  in  every  engagement,  their 
armies  dispersed  and  their  forts  taken,  the  JMahratta  chiefs  had 
recourse  to  negotiation.  Ragojee  Bhonsla,  Raja  of  Nagpore, 
withdrew  from  Scindia  and  made  a separate  peace.  In  a few 
weeks  a treaty  was  also  made  with  Scindia.  Both  princes  made 
large  cessions  to  the  Enghsh,  by  wliich  as  well  as  by  the  severe 
defeats  they  had  suffered,  their  power  was  much  crippled  and 
their  resources  reduced.  This  war  brought  into  the  field  large 
forces  on  both  sides.  The  force  in  the  employment  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  under  the  command  of  British  officers  in 
this  war  exceeded  50,000,  while  the  forces  opposed  to  them  were 
much  more  numerous. 

Ilolkar  at  one  time  appeared  inclined  to  join  the  other  chiefs 
in  this  war,  but  the  success  of  the  Enghsh  in  the  battles  of  As- 
says and  Argaum  induced  him  to  preserve  neutral  ground. 
When  peace  had  been  made  with  Scindia  and  the  Raja  of  Nag- 
pore,  it  became  necessary  to  adjust  the  unsettled  state  of  mat- 
ters with  Holkar.  Negotiations  were  commenced,  but  learning 
that  he  could  not  make  peace  on  any  terms  consistent  with 
some  schemes  he  had  formed,  he  resolved  to  engage  in  hostffities 
with  the  English.  Ehs  army  had  been  much  increased  by  mih- 
tary  adventurers  and  deserters,  and  now  amounted  to  75,000 
men,  who  were  supported  and  kept  together  in  a great  measure 
by  levying  contributions  and  plunder  obtained  in  predatory 
excursions.  When  Lord  Lake  proceeded  to  attack  him  he  re- 
treated in  great  haste  and  confusion.  Soon  afterwards,  he  made 
an  attack  upon  General  Monson,  whose  retreat,  losses,  misfor- 
tunes, and  sufferings  form  one  of  the  most  painful  chapters  in 
the  history  of  modern  warfare  in  India.  This  war  was  carried 
on  for  some  time  with  varying  success.  The  Enghsh  forces 
took  possession  of  Indore,  Holkar’s  capital,  and  of  nearly  aU  his 
dominions,  but  he  continued  to  support  his  large  army  by  plun- 
dering and  levying  contributions  wffierever  any  thing  could  be 
obtamed.  The  neighboring  princes  sometimes  encouraged  and 
assisted  him,  and  they  sometimes  opposed  him.  He  had  become 
reckless  of  aU  faith,  character,  and  consequences,  and  there  ap- 
peared to  be  no  way  of  bringing  the  wmr  to  a close,  but  for  the 
Enghsh  to  appropriate  to  themselves  or  distribute  among  other 
princes  ah  his  territories,  and  utterly  disperse  his  army  and  anni- 
hilate his  military  power. 


248 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


While  the  war  was  carried  on  in  this  manner,  other  important 
events  occurred.  The  governor-general,  previous  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war  with  Holkar,  had  intimated  to  the  Court 
of  Directors  his  intention  to  resign  the  government  and  return 
to  Europe,  as  soon  as  the  war  with  Scindia  and  Ragojee  Bhon- 
sla  could  be  brought  to  a close.  His  course  in  India  had  been 
brilliant  and  successful,  but  it  had  produced  much  dissatisfaction 
in  England.  His  plans  for  enlarging  the  Enghsh  possessions 
and  consolidating  their  power  in  India,  had  been  earried  into 
effect  with  much  ability  and  success,  but  the  hlinistry  and  the 
Court  of  Directors  could  not  see  sufficient  reason  for  all  these 
wars,  while  they  were  alarmed  at  the  enormous  expenditure  in- 
curred in  carrying  them  on.  They  were  decided  in  the  opinion 
that  a pacific  course  of  policy  should  be  pursued,  and  they  fixed 
on  the  Marquis  Cornwallis  (the  same  who  had  formerly  been 
the  governor-general)  to  govern  India  according  to  their  views. 
He  arrived  at  Calcutta  in  July,  1805,  and  at  once  assumed  the 
government.  He  was  instructed  to  pursue  a different  course  of 
policy  from  his  predecessor,  and  to  procure  peace  on  almost  any 
terms.  He  remained  a few  weeks  in  Calcutta,  and  then  left  for 
the  upper  provinces,  where  urgent  and  important  matters  re- 
quired his  personal  attention  and  examination.  On  his  way 
he  became  iU  and  on  reaching  Ghazepore  he  died  on  the  5th  of 
October.  Previous  to  leaving  Calcutta  he  had  commenced 
negotiations  with  Holkar  to  bring  the  war  to  a elose.  He  also 
declared  that  his  course  of  policy  would  be  to  secure  and  to  pre- 
serve peace  as  far  as  possible  with  all  the  native  powers,  and 
leave  them  to  adjust  their  quarrels  and  carry  on  their  wars 
among  themselves.* 

* “ The  vast  scheme  of  conquest  and  subsidiary  alliance  by  which  ^Marquis 
'Wellesley  had  studied  to  place  this  great  eastern  empire  under  Ilritish  control, 
had  excited  in  England  a very  deep  sensation.  The  public  were  to  a ccrtiiin 
degree  dazzled  with  its  splendid  success ; yet  a numerous  body  of  politicians 
exclaimed  that  this  course  was  contrary  to  all  true  princijdes  of  policy  — that  it 
formed  an  interminable  principle  of  war  — that  the  East  India  Company  in  seat- 
ing themselves  upon  tlie  throne  of  the  Mogul,  and  endeavoring  to  cil'eet  the  con- 
quest of  all  Hindustan,  had  entirely  relinquished  the  basis  on  which  they  had 
uniformly  professed  to  act.  The  contest  witli  Holkar  brciiking  out  with  so  for- 
midable an  aspect  after  all  the  others  had  closed,  gave  rise  to  painful  feelings  as 
to  the  endless  duration  of  Indian  hostility.  The  Directora  of  the  Company, 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


249 


By  the  death  of  Marquis  Cornwallis  Sir  George  Barlow,  the 
senior  member  of  the  supreme  council,  became  governor-general. 
He  pursued  the  measures  which  had  been  commenced  by  his 
predecessor.  A new  treaty  was  made  with  Scindia,  who  had 
become  much  dissatisfied  with  some  parts  of  the  last  treaty,  or 
rather  with  the  manner  in  which  those  parts  had  been  interpreted 
and  the  matters  referred  to  in  them  had  been  carried  into  efifect. 
As  Holkar  refused  to  consider  any  reasonable  terms  of  peace, 
and  continued  his  reckless  course  of  war  and  plunder,  no  way 
or  expedient  remained  but  to  deprive  him  of  his  power.  For 
this  purpose  Lord  Lake  pursued  him  from  place  to  place,  depriv- 
ing him  of  his  plunder  and  not  allowing  him  time  to  levy  con- 
tributions, and  dispersing  his  followers  till  at  length  he  was 
reduced  to  such  straits  that  he  sent  his  agents  with  an  applica- 
tion for  peace  to  the  English  camp.  A treaty  was  soon  made 
and  signed  on  terms  far  more  favorable  to  Holkar  than  he  ex-, 
pected,  knowing  as  he  did  how  his  conduct  had  been  regarded 
by  the  former  governor-general,  and  what  purposes  were  at  one 
time  formed  concerning  him  and  his  possessions. 

In  1806,  a mutiny  took  place  in  the  army  at  Nellore  near 
Madras,  which  caused  great  anxiety  for  a while  in  India  and  in 
England.  The  military  force  of  the  East  India  Company  con- 
sists partly  of  Europeans  and  partly  of  natives;  the  former  are 
called  soldiers,  and  the  latter  are  commonly  called  sepoys,  the 
word  in  the  native  language  for  soldier.  The  European  por- 
tion of  the  army  has  seldom  exceeded  one  fourth,  and  often  not 
more  than  one  sixth  or  one  eighth  part  of  it.  The  sepoys  are 
voluntarily  enlisted,  formed  into  regiments,  and  disciplined  and 
commanded  by  English  officers.  There  had  been  no  interfer- 
ence with  their  superstitious  prejudices  or  national  customs.  In 

strongly  influenced  by  public  opinion,  and  struck  by  the  enormous  expenditure 
in  which  the  campaign  had  already  involved  them,  determined  to  change  entirely 
the  system  on  which  their  affairs  were  conducted.  Accordingly  in  the  place  of 
the  Marquis  Wellesley,  who,  with  or  without  reason,  had  acquired  the  reputation 
of  a war-governor,  they  substituted  the  Marquis  Cornwallis.  His  instructions 
were  to  proceed  on  principles  every  way  opposite  to  those  of  his  predecessor, 
— to  conclude  peace  almost  at  any  price,  — to  form  a defensive  line  beyond 
which  English  interference  was  not  to  extend,  and  to  allow  the  native  powers  to 
treat  and  to  fight  with  each  other  as  if  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  globe.”  — 
Mwray's  History  of  British  India,  p.  543. 


250 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


1806,  some  change  was  made  in  their  cap  or  turban,  which  at 
first  excited  some  disaffection  and  resulted  in  a few  cases  of 
military  discipline  at  Nellore,  near  Madras.  The  excitement 
apparently  soon  subsided  and  no  further  trouble  was  appre- 
hended, when  the  native  force  suddenly  attacked  the  Euro- 
peans, consisting  of  their  officers  and  2 companies  of  soldiers. 
The  attack  was  unexpected  and  was  made  in  the  night.  All 
the  Europeans,  consisting  of  14  officers  and  100  soldiers,  were 
massacred.  The  insurgents  then  took  possession  of  the  fort 
and  town,  and  prepared  to  defend  them.  In  a few  hours  this 
meeting  and  massacre  became  known  at  Arcot.  The  force 
stationed  at  this  place  proceeded  as  soon  as  possible  to  Nellore. 
The  insurgents  defended  themselves  with  great  obstinacy ; 350 
of  them  were  IdUed  and  500  were  taken  prisoners  before  the 
mutiny  was  suppressed  and  order  restored. 

This  mutiny  produced  a great  sensation  through  all  India, 
especially  as  there  were  indications  of  disaffection  at  Hyder- 
abad, Bangalore,  and  several  other  places.  Alarming  and  un- 
founded rumors  and  reports  of  intended  mutinies  and  massacres 
were  circulated  among  the  Emopeans,  and  endeavors  were  ap- 
parently made  to  excite  prejudice  and  apprehension  among  the 
native  population  in  respect  to  some  intentions  of  the  English 
government,  and  what  they  were  preparing  to  do  with  the  peo- 
ple of  the  country.*  It  was  a time  of  intense  anxiety,  and  led 
to  a careful  inquiry  into  the  state,  circumstances,  feelings,  etc. 
of  the  native  troops.  There  were  no-'more  mutinies  ; the  excite- 
ment gradually  subsided,  and  general  confidence  was  restored. 
What  punishment  should  be  inflicted  on  the  insurgents,  and 
what  should  be  done  in  respect  to  the  innovation  which  had  oc- 
casioned this  mutiny,  were  grave  questions.  Differences  of 
opinion  on  these  matters  and  proceedings  growing  out  of  them, 
led  to  the  recall  and  dismission  of  Lord  William  Bcntinck,  then 
governor  of  Madras,  and  of  Sir  John  Cradock,  the  commander- 
in-chief.  Ultimately  a few  of  the  most  guilty  suffered  death, 

* “ At  Hyderabad  it  was  currently  reported  that  the  Europeans  were  about  to 
make  a human  sacrifice  in  the  person  of  a native,  that  100  bodies  without  heads 
were  lying  .along  the  banks  of  Moose  river;  th.at  the  Europeans  h.ad  built  a 
church  which  it  rc(piired  100  heads  to  sanctify,  and  that  they  designed  to  m.assa- 
cre  .all  the  natives  except  those  who  should  put  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the 
doors  of  their  dwellings.” 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


2bl 


but  the  greater  part  of  the  insurgents  escaped  with  but  little 
punishment. 

Sir  George  Barlow  was  succeeded  in  the  office  of  governor- 
general  by  Lord  Minto,  who  arrived  in  Caleutta,  July,  1807. 
The  pacific  course  of  policy  commenced  by  Marquis  Cornwal- 
lis, was  pursued  for  several  years,  and  the  English  were  not 
involved  in  war  with  any  of  the  large  native  powers.  Among 
the  remaining  petty  princes  were  always  some  of  a restless  and 
intriguing  spirit,  and  who  were  reckless  and  faithless  in  respect 
to  observing  the  treaties  they  had  formed  with  the  English  and 
with  each  other.  Of  this  land  was  the  Raja  of  Travancore. 
This  prince  intrusted  the  management  of  his  afl'airs  wholly  to 
his  dewan  or  first  minister,  who  was  a profligate,  deceitful,  and 
depraved  brahmin.  The  subsidy,  which  the  Raja  was  bound  by 
his  treaty  to  pay  annually  to  the  English,  not  having  been  paid 
for  2 or  3 years.  Colonel  Maeaulay,  the  English  agent  at  the 
Raja’s  court,  made  a demand  for  it.  This  gave  oflence  to  the 
dewan,  and  he  began  in  various  ways  to  oppose  the  English 
government.  A concerted  attack  was  made  on  Colonel  M.  in 
the  night,  and  he  narrowly  escaped  with  life.  A ship  arriving 
at  Allepie  with  a surgeon  and  33  soldiers  on  board,  they  were 
induced  by  falsehoods  and  treachery  to  go  on  shore,  when  they 
were  all  seized  and  barbarously  murdered.  The  Raja  then  be- 
gan openly  to  prepare  for  war,  and  endeavored  to  excite  the 
Raja  of  Cochin,  and  the  Zamorin  of  Calicut  to  do  the  same. 
A force  was  sent  from  Madras  into  Travancore,  which  after 
much  harassing  warfare  and  taking  several  forts,  compelled  the 
Raja  to  fulfil  his  treaty.  The  dewan  being  rejected  from  his 
office,  and  having  become  obnoxious  to  all  classes  of  people  for 
his  atrocious  conduct,  fled  to  the  temple  of  Bhagawady  and 
committed  suicide. 

The  Sikhs  had  been  for  some  time  the  increasing  power  in 
the  north-west  part  of  India.  Runjeet  Singh,  afterwards  so 
celebrated  in  Indian  history,  had  become  their  principal  chief. 
“ This  extraordinary  person  had  afforded  some  ground  for  appre- 
hension, but  a negotiation  conducted  by  Mr.  Metcalf,*  assisted 
by  a military  force,  ended  in  a conclusion  of  a treaty  by  which 


* Subsequendy  Lord  Metcalf,  and  for  some  years  governor-general  of  Canada- 


252 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  British  government  engaged  not  to  interfere  with  the  territo- 
ries or  subjects  of  the  Sikh  chief  north  of  the  Sutlege,  he  on  his 
part  binding  himself  not  to  maintain  within  his  territories  on  the 
left  bank  of  that  river  more  troops  than  might  be  necessary  for 
carrying  on  the  ordinary  functions  of  government,  and  to  abstain 
from  encroaching  on  the  rights  of  the  chiefs  in  that  vicinity.” 
This  transaction  shows  the  extended  power  of  the  English  at 
that  time  in  India.  They  were  at  war  with  the  Raja  of  Tra- 
vancore,  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  because 
he  had  delayed  to  pay  them  the  annual  subsidy  stipulated  in 
their  treaty  with  him.  And  they  were  making  a treaty  with  the 
sovereign  of  Lahore  concerning  matters  in  the  extreme  northern 
part  of  India.  Not  more  than  one  fourth  part  of  Lidia  was 
probably  at  this  time  under  the  direct  control  of  the  English,  yet 
there  was  not  a petty  prince  between  these  extreme  points, 
nearly  2,000  miles  apart,  with  whom  they  had  not  treaties,  and 
treaties  too,  which  from  their  complicated  nature  and  the  defects 
and  infirmities  of  the  native  character,  were  liltely  to  furnish  oc- 
casion for  interference,  and  then  for  war,  and  a state  of  yet 
greater  dependence  or  entire  subjugation.  And  the  possessions 
of  the  English  were  so  situated  and  scattered  that  there  was  no 
place  over  this  great  extent  of  country,  which  could  not  easily 
and  speedily  be  reached  by  a military  force. 

Wars  between  France  and  England  always  affected  more  or 
less  the  state  of  political  and  commercial  matters  in  India.  At 
such  times  the  islands  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  became 
the  places  of  rendezvous  for  French  cruisers,  which  made  prizes 
of  the  English  ships  engaged  in  the  India  and  China  trade,  to 
an  immense  amount.  The  losses  sustained  in  this  way  by  the 
Insurance  Companies  in  Bengal  alone,  amounted  in  a few  years 
to  $15,000,000.  These  losses  at  length  roused  the  English  na- 
tion, and  a determination  was  made  to  take  possession  of  these 
islands.  The  armament  for  effecting  tins  was  chiefly  prepared 
and  sent  from  India.  The  islands  were  taken  in  1809  and  1810. 
Mauritius  still  continues  to  be  an  English  possession,  but  Bour- 
bon was  united  to  France  in  1814.  Holland  having  become  a 
part  of  the  French  empire  under  Napoleon,  her  foreign  posses- 
sions of  course  became  subject  to  France.  England  was  now 
engaged  in  war  with  France,  and  it  was  determined  to  take 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


253 


these  eastern  possessions.  For  this  purpose  a large  armament 
was  fitted  out  in  India,  and  the  governor-general  accompanied 
it.  This  expedition  was  successful  in  taking  Java,  and  the 
other  possessions  in  the  eastern  archipelago,  which  had  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Dutch.  Thus  the  East  India  Company  not 
only  extended  their  own  power  over  India,  but  added  other  for- 
eign possessions  to  England.  The  naval  force  of  the  Company 
was  also  vigorously  and  successfully  employed  in  suppressing 
piracy  in  the  eastern  seas. 

Lord  Minto,  though  pacific  in  Ids  general  policy,  was  yet  vig- 
ilant in  providing  for  English  interests  in  India.  He  made  a 
treaty  with  the  Ameers  of  Scinde,  by  which  those  chiefs  bound 
themselves  not  to  permit  any  Frenchman  to  reside  in  fheir  terri- 
tories. He  sent  an  ambassador  to  Cabul,  who  made  a treaty 
with  the  Afghan  sovereign,  who  engaged  not  to  pennit  any 
French  or  Persian  force  to  pass  through  his  dominions  to  India, 
and  not  to  allow  any  Frenchman  to  reside  in  his  territory.  He 
also  sent  an  ambassador  to  Persia,  and  a treaty  was  made  by 
whieh  the  king  of  Persia  engaged  to  resist  the  passage  of  any 
European  foree  through  his  domiiuons  towards  India,  and  the 
English  in  return  engaged  to  assist  Persia,  if  invaded  from 
Europe.  In  consequence  of  this  treaty,  the  French  political 
agents  then  in  Persia,  were  compelled  to  quit  the  country',  and 
the  French  influence  in  Persia  was  checked,  and  for  a while 
nearly  destroyed.  Such  transactions  show  that  whatever  might 
be  said  or  thought  of  the  East  India  Company  in  Europe  and 
in  America,  yet  that  in  the  southern  countries  of  Asia,  they  had 
become  an  acknowledged  nation,  and  that  their  power  and  influ- 
ence were  not  inferior  to  the  greatest  monarchs  known  in  the 
history  of  those  eountries. 

In  1813,  Lord  IMinto  resigned  the  office  of  governor-general 
of  India,  which  he  had  held  for  6 years,  and  returned  to  Eng- 
land. He  sursdved  his  arrival  only  a few  weeks.  In  the  sai 
year  the  renewal  of  the  East  India  Company’s  charter,  whic 
was  soon  to  expire,  came  under  the  consideration  of  Parhamem 
and  occupied  their  attention  for  several  months.  The  result 
was  that  the  charter,  with  some  important  changes,  was  renewed 
for  20  years.  Among  these  changes  were  the  following : — The 
Company  had  hitherto  enjoyed  a monopoly  of  aU  the  trade  be- 

22 


254 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

tween  England  and  all  places  east  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  trade  between  England  and  India  was  now  to  be  open  for 
aU,  but  the  trade  with  China  was  to  continue  to  be  a monopoly 
of  the  Company.  An  ecclesiastical  establishment,  consisting  of 
a bishop  and  3 archdeacons,  was  created  to  superintend  the 
chaplains  employed  in  India.  IVIissionary  operations  and  all 
proper  means  for  the  conversion  of  the  native  population  to 
Christianity,  were  also  to  be  tolerated. 

The  Earl  of  Moira,  generally  known  by  his  subsequent  title 
of  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,  became  governor-general  of  India 
in  1814.  He  found  that  some  difficulties  with  the  Nepaui  gov- 
ernment, which  commenced  in  the  time  of  his  predecessors,  still 
remained  unsettled,  and  required  his  immediate  attention. 
Commissioners  on  the  part  of  both  governments  were  ap- 
pointed to  examine  the  matters  in  dispute,  but  they  made  no 
progress  towards  any  final  adjustment,  and  both  parties  became 
more  dissatisfied.  The  Nepaulese  at  length  refused  all  further 
negotiation,  and  invaded  the  territory  belonging  to  the  English, 
plundering  the  villages,  and  murdering  many  of  the  inhabitants. 
War  having  now  become  inevitable,  the  governor-general  re- 
solved to  prosecute  it  with  vigor,  and  with  the  view  of  bringing 
it  to  a conclusion  as  soon  as  possible,  arrangements  were  made 
to  invade  Nepaui  simultaneously  in  four  different  places,  and 
30,000  men  took  the  field.  But  the  war  was  commenced  with- 
out due  preparation,  and  it  proved  to  be  more  harassing  than 
any  war  in  which  the  English  had  been  engaged  in  India. 
The  officers  found  it  impossible  to  obtain  correct  information 
concerning  the  country  of  Nepaui.  They  were  deceived  by 
those  who  pretended  to  inform  them,  and  their  ignorance  and 
mistakes  on  this  account  were  the  cause  of  frequent  embarrass- 
ments and  disasters.  The  seasons  were  very  inclement,  and  the 
troops  suffered  much  from  sickness  and  for  want  of  provisions. 
The  country  was  everywhere  unfavorable  for  military  opera- 
tions, especially  for  transporting  guns  and  military  stores,  while 
the  points  of  attack  were  so  far  apart  that  they  could  not  coiipcr- 
ate  or  assist  each  other.  The  Goorkas  were  found  to  be  a brave, 
as  well  as  treacherous  people,  and  they  fought  with  unexpected 
obstinacy.  The  war  continued  for  nearly  2 years,  and  it  makes 
a painful  chapter  in  the  history  of  British  warfare  in  India.  But 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


255 


the  resources  of  the  English  were  every  way  so  much  greater 
than  their  enemies,  that  the  latter  became  gradually  reduced, 
and  a treaty  of  peace  was  negotiated.  This  war  and  the  treaty 
by  which  it  was  concluded,  became  the  subject  of  much  discus- 
sion and  censure  in  India  and  in  England.* 

Wars  among  the  native  jirinces  and  powers  in  India,  have 
been  generally  to  a great  extent  supported  by  exactions  and 
plunder.  Whatever  the  officer,  or  the  sepoy,  or  the  camp- 
follower  wanted,  if  he  could  find  it  among  the  people  of  the 
country,  he  at  once  appropriated  it  to  his  own  use.  Wars  were 
sometimes  commenced  and  carried  on  for  this  purpose.  When 
this  was  the  object,  some  order  and  system  were  generally  ob- 
served. The  prince  or  commander  would  make  the  exactions 
from  princes  or  commanders  like  himself,  and  then  leave  those 
under  him  to  oppress  and  plunder  as  they  pleased.  Or  the  lead- 
ers would  require  a certain  proportion  of  the  exaction  and  plun- 
der to  be  given  to  them,  and  leave  the  rest  to  be  distributed 
among  their  followers  according  to  some  rules.  No  nation  in 
India  was  ever  more  imbued  with  this  spirit  of  war,  or  carried  on 
such  wars  to  a greater  extent  than  the  Mahrattas.  When  the 
treaties  made  \vith  Scindia,  Holkar,  and  the  other  Mahratta 
chiefs,  compelled  them  to  cease  from  their  wars  and  to  reduce 
their  armies,  great  numbers  of  people  who  had  been  accustomed 
to  this  kind  of  life  and  to  find  their  support  in  this  way,  were 
thrown  out  of  employment.  Many  such  persons  associated 
themselves  under  leaders  to  resume  their  former  habits.  They 
then  fixed  their  residence  in  the  dominions  of  some  native 
prince,  perhaps  they  obtained  from  him  a cession  or  grant  of 
some  district,  and  made  their  predatory  excursions  into  places 
beyond  his  territory.  Many  such  marauders  lived  in  the  domin- 
ions of  Scindia  and  Holkar,  and  were  protected  by  them.  Re- 
monstrances were  made  by  the  governor-general  to  those 
princes,  but  no  regard  was  paid  to  them.  Indeed,  there  were 
strong  reasons  for  believing  that  these  princes  encouraged  such 
associations,  if  not  sharing  in  their  plunder,  yet  granting  them 
protection  upon  condition  that  they  did  not  commit  any  outrage 
in  their  dominions.  They  probably  thought  that  in  the  event  of 


* Thornton’s  History  of  British  India,  vol.  4,  pages  251-346. 


256 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


war,  such  leaders  and  their  followers  would  become  useful  aux- 
iliaries. These  robbers  always  made  their  predatory  excursions 
on  horses,  and  they  were  called  Pindarrees.*  The  depredations 
committed  by  them  soon  became  so  great  that  the  governor- 
general  saw  it  was  necessary  to  suppress  them. 

The  Mahratta  chiefs  so  long  accustomed  to  war  and  its  con- 
sequent excitement  and  changes,  were  becoming  impatient  of 
the  resti'aints  imposed  upon  them  by  their  late  treaties  with 
the  governor-general,  and  Bajee  Row  Peishwa,  who  owed  his  res- 
toration to  be  the  nominal  head  of  the  Mahratta  confederacy 
entirely  to  the  interposition  and  power  of  the  English,  began  a 
course  of  inti'igue  and  treachery,  which  showed  that  he  had  no 
regard  to  the  treaty  he  had  made,  while  he  continued  to  carry 
on  his  duplicity,  though  solemnly  denying  it  in  a manner  and 
to  an  extent  which  showed  that  no  confidence  could  be  placed 
in  his  veracity.  In  these  circumstances  it  became  necessary  to 
have  further  means  for  enforcing  the  treaty.  So  a large  addi- 
tion was  made  to  the  subsidiary  force  in  the  dominions  of  the 
Peishwa,  and  he  was  required  to  cede  territory  sufficient  for  its 
support,  to  the  English.  This  subsidiary  force  furnished  the 
garrisons  for  several  of  the  best  forts  in  his  dominions.  This 

* I have  often  heard  people  in  India  describe  the  appearance  of  the  Pindar- 
rees, and  what  they  suffered,  and  saw  others  suffer  from  them.  The  following,  I 
have  no  doubt,  is  a true  account  of  them : — “ The  Pindarrees  were  nothing 
more  than  robbers,  elevated  by  their  number  into  armies,  and  their  boast  was, 
not  that  they  were  able  to  encounter  disciplined  troops,  but  that  they  could 
elude  them.  If  overtaken  or  surprised,  the  point  of  honor  was  who  should 
flee  the  most  swiftly.  No  barrier  arrested  them.  They  penetrated  the  closest 
chain  of  military  posts,  finding  a way  even  between  the  divisions  of  an  army 
drawn  up  to  oppose  them.  They  desolated  countries,  going  out  and  returning 
home  by  different  routes.  Their  aim  was,  not  to  take  permanent  po.sscssion  of 
a district,  but  to  sweep  away  all  that  was  in  it.  Obliged  to  pass  with  a celerity 
almost  preternatural,  and  to  employ  expeditious  modes  of  exacting  ti-casurc,  they 
inflicted  the  most  merciless  torments  to  compel  owners  to  yield  up  their  con- 
cealed hoards.  Redhot  irons  were  applied  to  the  soles  of  the  feet,  oil  was  thrown 
on  the  clothes  and  inflamed,  the  head  was  tied  into  a bag  filled  with  hot  ashes, 
pepper,  etc.,  which  was  then  shaken.  AVomen  were  subjected  to  yet  worse 
treatment,  and  often  died  from  abuse  in  the  hands  of  their  captors.  The  inter- 
vals of  time  between  these  expeditions  for  plunder,  were  spent  in  idleness, 
gambling,  drunkenness,  and  debauchery.”  The  climate  in  a large  part  of  India 
is  so  warm  that  snow  is  unknown,  and  frost  seldom  if  ever  seen.  Such  a 
country  is  favorable  for  people  of  habits  and  pursuits  like  the  Pindarrees. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


257 


subsidiary  force  and  the  forts,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  were  under 
the  control  of  the  English  agent  at  the  Peishwa’s  court  in 
Poona.  This  new  arrangement  or  treaty,  though  signed  by  the 
Peishwa,  yet  only  made  him  more  impatient  of  the  restraints 
imposed  by  it,  and  more  reluctant  to  observe  its  conditions.  It 
was  becoming  evident  that  this  impatience  with  his  circum- 
stances and  the  intrigues  which  in  violation  of  the  express  con- 
ditions of  the  treaty  he  was  carrying  on  with  the  other  Mahratta 
chiefs,  would  erelong  result  in  open  war. 

In  the  mean  time  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,  at  this  time  gov- 
ernor-general, resolved  to  suppress  the  Pindarrees,  who  had 
become  tlie  terror  of  aU  central  India.  These  mounted  free- 
booters were  associated  under  dilferent  chiefs,  some  of  whom 
had  200  or  300,  and  others  had  8,000,  or  10,000  followers,  and  if 
united  they  would  amount  to  35,000,  all  mounted  and  armed. 
Their  refuge  and  residence  were  chiefly  in  the  dominions  of 
Scindia  and  Holkar,  who  not  only  refused  to  use  any  means  to 
suppress  or  expel  them,  but  secretly  encouraged  and  protected 
them  in  the  hope  of  their  aid  in  the  event  of  a war  with  the 
English,  which  appeared  to  be  approaching.  For  the  purpose 
of  breaking  up  and  dispersing  these  hordes,  it  was  resolved  to 
invade  the  territories  they  occupied  on  four  different  sides  at  the 
same  time,  and  34,000  troops  were  so  employed.  The  policy 
of  the  Pindarrees  was  never  to  fight,  but  always  to  flee  and 
avoid  their  enemies,  plundering  and  ravaging  at  the  same  time 
wherever  they  went.  War  with  such  an  enemy  was  expensive, 
harassing,  and  discouraging.  The  Pindarrees  were  dispersed  in 
smaller  companies  more  widely  than  ever,  so  that  the  country 
was  not  relieved  from  their  ravages,  nor  was  there  any  prospect 
of  peace. 

In  these  circumstances  some  more  efficient  measures  were 
evidently  required  to  obtain  any  peace  for  the  country,  or  any 
security  of  fife  and  property  for  the  inhabitants.  It  was  appar- 
ent also  that  these  measures  must  be  formed  and  undertaken  in 
view  of  the  probability  of  a general  war  writh  aU  the  Mahratta 
people.  The  Marquis  of  Hastings  had  much  experience  in  mil- 
itary matters,  and  prepared  the  plan  of  a campaign  whose 
avowed  object  was  the  suppression  of  the  Pindarrees,  but  which 
also  provided  for  a possible,  and  in  his  view  probable,  war  with 

22* 


258 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


all  the  Mahratta  powers.  His  plan  was  comprehensive,  and  the 
force  employed  in  it  was  obviously  far  beyond  what  was  re- 
quired to  extinguish  the  association  of  freebooters  in  central 
India.  A part  of  this  force  proceeded  from  Bombay  into  the 
Mahratta  territories ; a part  did  the  same  from  Madras,  and  a 
part  from  Bengal.  The  entire  force  occupied  in  this  war,  and 
under  the  English  control,  amounted  to  81,000  infantry,  and 
33,000  cavalry.  The  avowed  object  of  this  great  force  was  to 
suppress  the  Pindarrees,  but  those  who  understood  what  was 
going  on  in  the  Mahratta  courts,  had  no  doubt  there  would  be 
other  work  for  these  armies  before  they  could  aU  return  to  their 
respective  quarters.  And  such  expectations  were  not  disap- 
pointed, for  it  was  not  long  before  the  Peishwa  made  a sudden 
attack  upon  the  English  subsidiary  force  at  Poona.  The  Raja 
of  Berar  did  the  same  at  Nagpore.  Holkar  commenced  w^r 
with  the  English.  Scindia  was  only  kept  in  subjection  by  a 
large  force  stationed  near  his  capital,  while  a force  from  Bom- 
bay restrained  the  Guickwar  in  Gujerat,  from  commencing  open 
hostilities.  These  attacks  were  successfully  repelled,  but  further 
battles  and  sieges,  flights  and  pursuits  followed.  The  war  upon, 
rather  than  with  the  Pindarrees,  was  at  the  same  time  carried 
on,  and  for  a while  nearly  all  the  Mahratta  tenltory  appeared  to 
be  occupied  by  troops,  and  in  a state  of  warfare.  In  these  out- 
breaks and  conflicts,  the  English  were  generally  victorious,  and 
the  native  powers  soon  saw  that  submission  or  ruin  was  before 
them.  The  Peishwa,  after  being  a fugitive  from  his  capital  and 
fleeing  before  an  English  force  for  several  months,  made  a treaty 
in  which  he  renounced  all  his  possessions,  rights,  etc.,  to  the 
English,  and  promised,  upon  condition  of  receiving  a stipulated 
allowance  for  life,  to  fix  his  residence  in  Bengal,  outside  the 
Mahratta  territories.  Scindia,  Holkar,  the  Raja  of  Nagpore, 
and  the  Guickwar  of  Gujerat,  entered  into  new  treaties,  wliicli  by 
reducing  their  power  and  admitting  subsidiary  forces  into  their 
dominions,  or  increasing  the  forces  previously  stationed  there, 
contained  new  guarantees  against  engaging  in  any  further  wars, 
or  again  disturbing  the  general  peace.  The  Pindarrees,  where- 
ever  they  could  be  found,  were  attacked  and  dispersed,  and  as 
associated  bodies  they  were  annihilated.  And  the  native  princes, 
in  whose  dominions  they  formerly  found  refuge  and  protection. 


HISTORY  — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


259 


entered  into  treaties  to  refrain  themselves  and  to  restrain  their 
subjects  and  all  in  their  territories  from  such  predatory  warfare. 
By  this  war  the  English  obtained  a large  accession  of  territory, 
and  what  was  of  more  importance  to  the  general  welfare  of  the 
country,  they  suppressed  and  extinguished  that  horrible  preda- 
tory warfare  which  had  been  spreading  for  several  years,  and 
which  appeared  hkely,  if  not  put  down  by  strong  force,  soon  to 
spread  confusion,  anarchy,  and  devastation  into  all  parts  of 
India. 

The  Marquis  of  Hastings  continued  in  the  government  of 
India  for  3 years  after  the  close  of  the  Mahratta  war.  He  was 
a nobleman  of  high  character,  and  had  exhibited  distinguished 
talents  in  war  and  in  Parliament  before  going  to  India.*  His 
government  was  generally  popular  in  India  and  satisfactory  to 
the  Court  of  Directors  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  did  not 
attempt  to  introduce  the  revenue  and  judiciary  systems  of  Ben- 
gal into  the  territories  acquired  during  his  government.  These 
new  possessions  were  intrusted  to  the  superintendence  and  man- 
agement of  able  and  experienced  men,  who  with  the  sanction  of 
the  government,  introduced  such  changes  as  the  state  and  char- 
acter of  the  people  appeared  to  require.  The  consequence  has 
been  that  these  districts  have  been  governed  in  a manner  far 
more  satisfactory  to  the  people,  and  furnishing  better  security 
for  the  protection  of  life  and  property  than  the  early  posses- 
sions of  Bengal.  The  JMarquis  of  Hastings  left  India  in  Janu- 
ary, 1823,  having  been  governor-general  for  9 years,  a longer 
period  than  any  governor-general  since  Warren  Hastings. 

Mr.  George  Canning,  so  well  known  in  the  parliamentary  and 
political  history  of  England,  was  appointed  governor-general  in 
succession  to  the  Marquis  of  Hastings.  But  previous  to  em- 
barking for  India,  the  death  of  Lord  Londonderry  caused  some 
changes  in  the  ministry,  and  Mr.  Canning  became  the  foreign 
secretary.  Lord  Amherst  was  then  appointed  governor-general, 
and  arrived  in  Calcutta  in  August,  1823.  The  country  was 

* The  ^Marquis  of  Hastings  “n-as  in  the  vrar  in  the  United  States,  which  re- 
sulted in  their  separation  from  Great  Britain.  His  title  was  then  Lord  Eawdon. 
He  was  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  commanded  the  British  army  at  the 
batde  of  Eutaw  Springs,  where  the  American  forces  were  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Greene. 


260 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


then  generally  in  a state  of  peace,  enjoying  as  much  of  quiet 
and  repose  as  could  reasonably  be  expected  in  a population  so 
large,  so  heterogeneous  in  their  character,  and  so  recently  brought 
under  the  British  government.  But  it  was  not  long  before  there 
were  clear  indications  that  there  must  soon  be  a conflict  with  a 
new  power,  the  Burmese. 

Burma,  or  the  Burmese  empire,  is  not  generally  considered  a 
part  of  India,  but  some  account  of  the  Burmese  war  deserves 
a place  in  any  historical  sketch  of  British  India,  as  it  resulted 
in  an  increase  of  the  empire  which  England  has  acquired  in  the 
southern  countries  of  Asia.  The  Burmese  empire  was  formed 
by  a union  of  several  States,  which  had  some  time  previously  a 
separate  national  existence.  As  might  be  expected  of  an  orien- 
tal nation  thus  suddenly  exalted,  the  Burmese  were  conceited 
and  arrogant,  and  as  their  country  bordered  on  India  it  appeared 
likely  that  difficulties  would  arise  which  would  furnish  occasion 
for  the  interference  of  the  British  government. 

In  1794,  a class  of  people  called  Mugs,  and  who  had  for  some 
reason  become  obnoxious  to  the  Burmese  government,  fled  in 
great  numbers  into  the  English  territory  near  Chittagong.  A 
Burmese  prince  with  a force  of  5,000  men  without  any  intima- 
tion, invaded  the  district  belonging  to  the  English,  where  he  took 
up  a position  and  began  to  fortify  it,  while  an  army  of  20,000 
encamped  near  the  border.  General  Erskine  proceeded  \vith 
considerable  force  from  Calcutta  to  Chittagong,  where  the  dif- 
ficulty was  finally  adjusted  without  any  fighting,  and  the  Bur- 
mese retm-ned  into  their  own  territory.  But  the  invasion  and 
the  negotiation  exhibited  the  spirit  of  the  Burmese.  The  gov- 
ernor-general wishing  to  insure  future  amicable  intercourse  and 
to  obtain  more  information  of  a people  and  country  with  which 
the  English  might  at  any  time  be  brought  into  conflict,  de- 
spatched Colonel  Symes  on  an  embassy  to  Ava,  the  Burmese 
capital.  This  embassy  was  apparently  successful,  and  for  a 
while  aU  was  quiet.  But  in  a few  years  great  numbers  of  the 
same  class  of  people,  again  fled  for  protection  into  the  English 
territories,  and  caused  fresh  troubles  on  the  frontiers.  Colonel 
Symes  was  again  sent  to  Ava,  and  matters  were  adjusted.  In 
all  these  transactions  the  Burmese  exhibited  an  overbearing  and 
arrogant  spirit,  which  did  not  promise  long  peace.  In  1818, 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


261 


when  in  the  midst  of  the  Mahratta  war,  the  governor-general 
received  a letter  from  the  king  of  Burma,  in  which  he  claimed 
Chittagong,  Dacca,  Moorshedabad,  and  Cossimbazar,  as  prov- 
inces wliich  at  some  former  period  had  belonged  to  the  kingdom 
of  Arracan,  and  he  demanded  that  they  should  be  surrendered 
to  him.  The  governor-general  returned  a suitable  answer  to  this 
letter,  which  was  never  noticed  by  the  Burmese.  Had  the  Mah- 
ratta war  continued,  it  was  then  believed  that  the  Burmese  would 
soon  have  invaded  the  eastern  provinces  of  Bengal.  In  1820,  ’21, 
’22,  and  ’23,  they  committed  many  outrages  upon  persons  in  the 
employment  or  under  the  protection  of  the  EngUsh  government. 
Some  of  these  persons  were  plundered,  some  were  Idlled,  and 
some  were  taken  prisoners  and  kept  in  confinement.  The  Eng- 
lish in  repelling  these  attacks  Idlled  a considerable  number  of 
the  Burmese.  Thus  a state  of  actual  war  existed,  though  there 
had  been  no  declaration  of  war  on  either  side. 

Early  in  1824,  the  English  government  communicated  a 
statement  or  declaration  of  these  matters  to  the  government  of 
Ava,  and  in  a few  weeks  they  received  a reply  in  wliich  the 
claim  formerly  made  to  several  British  provinces  was  renewed ; 
some  injuries  suffered  from  the  English  were  alleged,  and  it  was 
declared,  that  as  the  Burmese  governors  and  officers  had  full 
power  to  act  in  aU  such  affairs,  no  further  communication  should 
be  made  to  the  Burmese  sovereign,  “ the  lord  of  the  seas  and 
the  earth,”  till  all  the  matters  in  question  should  be  finally  set- 
tled. It  was  now  evident  that  nothing  further  could  be  obtained 
by  negotiation,  and  the  British  prepared  to  prosecute  the  war 
with  vigor.  A small  force  was  despatched  against  Assam. 
They  had  great  difficulties  in  passing  through  the  districts,  not 
from  any  enemies,  but  from  thick  jungles,  ravines,  etc.  They  at 
length  reached  the  place  and  took  possession  of  it  without  any 
opposition.  The  principal  force  was  despatched  from  Calcutta 
and  Madras  against  the  maritime  possessions  of  the  Burmese. 
Sir  Archibald  Campbell  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command, 
and  the  forces,  when  united  on  the  Burmese  coast,  exceeded 
11,000.  They  reached  Rangoon  in  May,  1824.  The  Burmese 
forces,  or  the  inhabitants,  fired  a few  guns  and  then  fled.  When 
the  English  forces  entered  the  town  they  found  it  deserted,  and 
before  night  the  English  colors  were  flying  on  the  Burmese  staff. 


262 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


On  the  approach  of  the  fleet,  all  the  foreigners  in  the  city  were 
seized  and  confined.  As  soon  as  the  British  were  in  possession 
of  the  place,  one  of  the  prisoners,  (Dr.  Judson,  of  the  American 
Baptist  Mission,)  was  sent  to  the  officer  in  command  to  inquire 
what  terms  would  be  granted,  the  inquiry  being  accompanied 
by  an  intimation  that  the  lives  of  the  foreigners  depended  upon 
the  answer  that  should  be  returned.  The  answer  was  that  it 
was  too  late  to  inquire  about  terms,  that  the  prisoners  must  be 
given  up,  that  any  injury  to  them  would  be  punished,  and  that 
their  persons  and  private  property  should  be  respected.  The 
messengers  said  they  would  consult  those  who  sent  them 
and  then  bring  an  answer.  But  on  returning  to  consult 
them,  they  had  removed  to  another  place,  and  could  not  be 
found.  Three  of  the  prisoners  had  been  left  behind ; the  others 
had  been  hurried  away.  “ Great  fears  were  entertained  for  their 
safety.  Those  fears  were  happily  relieved  on  the  morning  after 
the  occupation  of  the  town,  the  missing  persons  being  discov- 
ered by  some  reconnoitring  parties,  before  whom  the  guards 
placed  over  them  had  fled.”*  The  city,  or  town  of  Rangoon, 
was  supposed  to  entertain  50,000  inhabitants,  but  aU  had  fled, 
and  “ not  a native  of  any  age  or  sex  was  to  be  seen.”  In  a few 
days,  some  individuals  returned,  but  they  came  as  spies  to  ob- 
serve the  conduct  of  the  invaders.  The  rainy  season  soon  com- 
menced, and  the  rains  were  very  heavy.  The  Engfish,  suppos- 
ing, as  they  were  going  to  a large  city,  a seaport  surrounded 
with  a populous  and  cultivated  country,  that  provisions  wotdd 
be  easily  procurable,  were  not  prepared  for  such  circumstances 
as  now  surrounded  them.  They  began  to  suffer  for  want  of 
provisions,  while  fever  and  dysentery  were  very  severe.  It  was 
soon  apparent  that  the  war  had  been  commenced  at  an  unfavor- 
able season  of  the  year,  and  without  due  preparation.  The 
force  was  compelled  to  remain  shut  up  in  Rangoon  for  some 
time,  only  malting  now  and  then  short  excursions  into  the 
vicinity  and  capturing  the  Burmese  military  posts,  which  were 
generally  only  stockades  recently  erected.  The  English  force 
also  suffered  much  inconvenience  and  loss  for  want  of  more 
knowledge  of  the  country  around  them. 


* Thornton,  vol.  5,  p.  21,  22. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD, 


2G3 


Near  the  close  of  the  rainy  season,  an  expedition  under  Col. 
Godwin,  was  despatched  against  Marteban,  which  succeeded  in 
taking  the  place.  A large  number  of  guns  and  a great  quantity 
of  military  stores  were  found  in  it,  the  loss  of  which  must  have 
been  severely  felt  by  the  Burmese.  An  expedition  under  Col. 
Miles  was  sent  to  the  Tennasserim  coast,  which  took  possession 
of  Tavoy  and  Mergui.  Some  reverses  which  resulted  in  the 
defeat  and  dispersion  of  the  British  force  on  the  frontier,  en- 
couraged the  Burmese  to  undertake  more  aggressive  ojwrations. 
In  December,  a large  army  approached  Rangoon,  and  began  to 
throw  up  intrenchments  in  frojit  of  the  British  army.  These 
were  soon  attaekcd,  and  the  men  occupying  them  were  dispersed. 
The  Burmese  then  endeavored  to  burn  the  English  ships  by 
sending  fire  rafts  down  the  river.*  On  the  5th  and  7th  of  De- 
cember, vigorous  attacks  were  made  upon  the  Burmese  army 
which  had  encamped  near  Rangoon,  and  they  were  defeated 
and  routed  with  great  loss.  After  some  time  the  army  again 
returned  and  made  arrangements  for  burnmg  the  town,  and  at 
the  same  time  attacking  the  English  force.  The  town  was  set 
on  fire  in  several  plaees  and  half  of  it  reduced  to  ashes,  but  for 
some  unknown  reasons  no  attack  on  the  English  force  was  then 
made.  A few  days  after  the  conflagration,  the  English  force 
made  an  attack  upon  the  Burmese  army,  estimated  at  more 
than  20,000,  and  took  possession  of  their  intrenchments  and 
stockades.  The  same  day  also  more  than  40  Burmese  war- 
boats  were  taken.  The  Burmese  now  retired  from  Rangoon, 
and  Sir  A.  Campbell  prepared  to  carry  the  war  into  the  enemy’s 
country,  and  if  possible  to  reach  Prome.  A part  of  the  force 

* “ These  fire  rafts  were  ingeniously  contrived  and  formidably  constructed, 
made  wholly  of  bamboos  firmly  wrought  together,  between  every  2 or  3 rows 
of  which  a line  of  earthen  jars  of  considerable  size,  filled  with  petroleum  or  earth- 
oil  and  cotton  were  secured.  Other  inflammable  ingredients  were  also  distrib- 
uted in  different  parts  of  the  rafts,  and  tlie  almost  unextinguishable  fierceness 
of  the  flames  proceeding  from  them  can  scarcely  be  imagined.  Many  of  them 
were  more  than  100  feet  in  length,  and  were  divided  into  many  pieces  attached 
to  each  other  by  means  of  long  hinges,  so  arranged  that  when  they  caught  upon 
the  cable  or  bow  of  any  ship,  the  force  of  the  current  should  carrj'  the  ends  of  the 
raft  completely  round  her,  and  envelope  her  in  flames  from  the  deck  to  her  top- 
mast-head, with  scarce  a possibility  of  being  extricated  from  immediate  destruc- 
tion.” 


264 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


embarked  in  boats  to  proceed  on  the  Irrawaddy,  and  the  rest  be- 
gan their  march  on  the  land.  On  their  way  the  two  forces 
united  in  taking  the  strong  fort  of  Donobew.  When  this  fort 
was  invested,  “the  garrison  made  a sortie  with  a consider- 
able force,  and  17  war  elephants  fuUy  caparisoned,  and  bearing 
on  their  capacious  bodies  armed  men.”  On  arriving  at  Prome, 
the  place  was  found  to  be  deserted.  In  this  city  the  army  found 
comfortable  accommodations,  and  remained  for  several  months 
in  consequence  of  the  setting  in  of  the  rains. 

So  much  difficulty  had  been  experienced  in  making  any  im- 
pression on  the  Burmese  government  by  these  operations,  that  it 
was  resolved  to  send  a large  force  into  Arracan.  For  this  pur- 
pose an  army  of  11,000  men  under  Gen.  Morrison  was  collected 
in  Chittagong,  and  a large  armed  flotilla  was  attached  to  it.  A 
part  of  the  force  embarked  in  the  flotilla,  and  the  rest  proceeded 
by  land.  The  army  reached  the  city  of  Arracan,  and  on  the 
29th  of  March,  made  an  attack  on  the  place.  A considerable 
Burmese  force  was  collected  there,  but  their  eflbrts  in  defending 
the  place  availed  but  little,  as  Gen.  Morrison  succeeded  by 
changing  his  mode  of  attack  in  taking  the  city  without  much 
loss.  The  Burmese,  on  the  loss  of  the  capital,  abandoned  all 
their  positions  in  Arracan.  Thus  far  this  expedition  had  been 
successful,  but  greater  trials  were  yet  before  them.  It  w'^as 
found  impossible  to  proceed  over  the  mountains  to  effect  a junc- 
tion with  the  force  on  the  Irrawaddy,  and  the  rainy  season 
which  now  commenced,  proved  to  be  very  unhealthy,  bringing 
with  it  fever  and  dysentery,  the  same  diseases  which  were  so 
mortal  at  Rangoon  in  the  previous  rainy  season.  Sickness  be- 
came almost  universal,  and  the  mortality  became  so  great  that 
it  was  thought  expedient  to  withdraw  the  greater  part  of  the 
army  from  the  province,  only  a small  force  remaining  in  some 
places  not  so  unfavorable  to  health. 

The  rainy  season  having  passed  away.  Sir.  A.  Campbell  was 
preparing  for  more  aggressive  operations,  when  proposals  for  ne- 
gotiations were  received  from  the  Burmese.  Several  wrecks 
were  spent  in  conferences  on  the  subject.  But  all  was  without 
any  satisfactory  result,  and  both  parties  prepared  to  renew  hos- 
tilities. A large  Burmese  army  soon  approached  Prome,  throw- 
ing up  intrcnchments  and  stockades  in  their  peculiar  maimer. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


265 


as  they  advanced  towards  the  British  lines.  On  the  30th  of 
November,  and  the  2d  and  5th  of  December,  attacks  in  wliich 
the  land  force  and  the  flotilla  coliperated,  were  made  upon  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  Burmese  army,  and  resulted  in  the  British  ob- 
taining possession  of  all  the  positions  of  their  enemies,  and 
dispersing  them  in  every  direction.  The  British  army  now  ad- 
vanced further  into  the  Burmese  country,  but  they  sufiered  much 
from  sickness  and  want  of  provisions.  The  country  exhibited 
on  every  side  the  shocking  evUs  of  barbarian  war.*  Neverthe- 
less the  army  continued  to  advance,  stopping  now  and  then  to 
take  some  fort  or  stockade,  or  to  attack  some  Burmese  force,  or 
to  consider  some  unsatisfactory  proposals  for  peace.  A treaty 
was  once  agreed  upon  by  the  negotiating  parties,  but  the  Bur- 
mese government  would  not  ratify  it,  and  so  hostilities  were 
continued.  As  Sir  A.  Campbell  was  approaching  the  capital, 
he  was  informed  that  a new  sovereign  had  acceded  to  power, 
and  the  treaty  some  time  previously  made  was  soon  ratified. 
By  this  treaty  the  Burmese  sovereign  made  large  cessions  of 
territory  to  the  English,  and  paid  2 crore  of  rupees,  ($10,000,- 
000,)  towards  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

In  the  central  part  of  India  lived  a tribe  called  the  Jauts. 
Their  chief  had  the  title  of  Raja,  and  was  often  called  the  Raja 
of  Bhurtpore,  the  principal  city  in  his  dominions,  and  situated 
about  40  miles  nearly  west  from  Agra.  In  1823,  the  Raja  died 
without  issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  one  of  his  brothers,  whose 
claim  and  dignity  were  duly  recognized  by  the  English  govern- 
ment. Dooijun  Singh,  the  son  of  another  brother,  now  formed  a 
plan  of  succeeding  himself  to  the  throne,  should  it  again  become 
vacant.  In  1825,  the  Raja  died,  leaving  one  son,  then  in  his  6th 
year.  Soon  after  the  Raja’s  death,  Dooijun  Singh,  having  gained 
a part  of  the  army  to  his  cause,  made  an  attack  upon  the  fort, 
killed  some  of  the  family  and  took  others  (among  whom  was 
the  young  Raja)  prisoners.  The  state  of  matters  soon  became 
complicated,  and  as  the  English  had  made  a treaty  with  the  de- 
ceased Raja,  by  which  the  succession  had  been  guaranteed  to 
his  son,  they  felt  it  their  duty  now  to  interfere.  Much  effort  was 
made  to  adjust  the  difficulties  and  reconcile  the  parties  to  each. 

* Snodgrass’  Journal,  p.  253-260;  also,  Thornton,  vol.  5,  p.  73. 

23 


266 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


other,  but  without  any  success.  In  the  mean  time  a quarrel 
arose  between  Dooijun  Singh  and  his  brother,  Madu  Singh, 
and  soon  each  attacked  the  other  with  all  the  military  force  he 
could  command.  Matters  continued  in  a state  of  civil  war  for 
some  time,  w’hen  the  resort  of  mUitary  and  lawless  adventurers 
to  Bhurtpore,  and  the  spirit  manifested  towards  the  English 
power  became  such,  that  means  for  suppressing  them  were 
deemed  necessary.  As  Dooijun  Singh  was  determined  to  sup- 
port his  pretensions,  and  the  fort  of  Bhurtpore  was  known  to  be 
very  strong,  and  generally  believed  by  the  natives  to  be  impreg- 
nable, it  was  resolved  that  a large  force  should  proceed  against 
it.  Accordingly  an  army  of  25,000  men,  with  200  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery, arrived  at  Bhurtpore,  in  December  of  1825,  and  invested 
the  place.  Mines  were  sunk  under  the  bastions,  and  when  these 
exploded,  the  besieging  army  rushed  in  and  took  possession  of 
the  fort.  The  young  Raja  was  soon  duly  established  in  power, 
and  the  usurper,  Dooijun  Singh,  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent 
to  Allahabad.  As  a former  attempt  by  Lord  Lake  to  take 
Bhurtpore  failed,  the  natives  regarded  the  place  as  impregnable, 
and  believed  the  English  would  never  be  able  to  obtain  posses- 
sion of  it.  This  belief  excited  great  interest  in  this  war,  and  the 
fall  of  the  fort  in  so  short  a time  after  it  was  invested,  (only  37 
days,)  and  on  the  first  assault,  produced  a profound  impression 
throughout  the  country,  and  increased  the  confidence  of  aU 
classes  of  people  in  the  resources  and  power  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment. A large  amount  of  treasure  was  found  in  Bhurtpore, 
which  became  prize  money  of  the  conquerors. 

The  taldng  of  Bhurtpore  was  the  last  great  act  in  the  admin- 
istration of  Lord  Amherst.  The  next  year  the  Raja  of  Kola- 
pore,  one  of  the  Mahratta  princes  and  a man  of  profligate  char- 
acter, became  involved  in  some  difficulties  with  the  government 
of  Bombay,  and  it  became  necessary  to  despatch  a force  against 
him.  On  the  arrival  of  this  force  at  his  capital,  the  difficulties 
were  adjusted  by  negotiation  without  any  fighting.  In  1824, 
Singapore,  Malacca,  and  the  Dutch  possessions  were  obtained 
from  the  king  of  Holland,  by  negotiation.  New  treaties  were 
made  with  several  of  the  native  princes.  Such  treaties  were 
generally  made  on  the  occasion  of  some  new  prince  succeeding 
to  power,  or  some  change  in  the  dynasty,  or  some  family  or 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


267 


political  troubles  which  were  referred  to  the  English  government 
for  adjustment,  or  which  were  of  such  a nature  that  the  govern- 
ment thought  their  interference  was  required.  Such  treaties 
were  generally  more  and  more  in  favor  of  the  English  govern- 
ment ; they  were  generally  such  as  the  English  demanded  or 
dictated,  and  showed  that  the  scattered  fragments  of  the  native 
powers  were  becoming  fewer  and  weaker. 

Li  1827,  Lord  William  Bentinck  became  governor-general  of 
India.  The  country  was  generally  in  a state  of  peace.  Some 
pretended  reformers  among  the  IMohammedans  caused  much 
trouble  at  Baraset  in  Bengal,  which  at  length  assumed  so  much 
the  appearance  of  a religious  war  among  the  different  classes  of 
Mohammedans  and  Hindus  that  it  became  necessary  to  send  an 
armed  force  against  them.  Li  an  attack  upon  them  50  were 
killed,  350  were  taken  prisoners,  and  the  rest  were  dispersed. 
Several  petty  princes  occasioned  trouble,  and  required,  as  the 
English  thought,  the  interposition  of  their  power  to  adjust  their 
difficulties.  Among  these  were  the  Raja  of  Queda,  and  the 
chief  of  Nanning  in  the  Malay  peninsula.  These  chiefs  came 
into  connection  with  the  English  by  their  acquisition  of 
Malacca. 

In  1834,  the  Raja  of  Coorg  occasioned  much  trouble.  Coorg 
was  a small  native  State  on  the  west  side  of  the  peninsula,  hav- 
ing the  Ghats  for  its  western  border.  This  country  had  been 
but  little  explored  by  Europeans,  and  was  so  rough  and  moun- 
tainous that  it  was  almost  impassable.  The  British  forces  at- 
tempted to  penetrate  the  country  from  different  directions,  but 
they  found  it  fortified  by  numerous  stockades  which  the  inhabi- 
tants defended  with  great  bravery.  The  war  was  of  a very  ha- 
rassing nature  and  continued  for  some  time.  The  capital  of  the 
district  was  at  length  taken,  and  the  Raja  surrendered  himself  a 
prisoner.  His  territory  was  annexed  to  the  British  dominions. 
A pension  was  assigned  to  him  and  he  fixed  his  residence  at 
Bangalore.  Little  sympathy  was  felt  with  the  Raja  for  the  loss 
of  power  which  he  had  so  much  abused.  “ The  occupation  of 
Coorg  opened  to  the  conquerors  a vast  body  of  evidence  relat- 
ing to  the  crimes  of  its  former  sovereign,  evidence  of  numerous 
murders,  some  secret,  some  public,  some  the  offspring  of  revenge, 
and  some  the  results  of  a barbarous  policy.  Women  not  less 


268 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


than  those  of  the  sterner  sex,  and  children  as  well  as  adults, 
were  numbered  among  the  victims  of  his  cruelty.  Of  the 
royal  family,  not  a single  male,  except  the  guilty  Raja,  sur- 
vived.” * The  money  found  in  the  treasmy  of  the  Raja  became 
the  property  of  the  <;onquerors,  and  ^600,000  of  prize  money 
were  distributed  among  the  officers  and  soldiers. 

Scindia,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs,  dying  with- 
out issue,  the  supreme  power  was  seized  by  his  widow,  who  in 
accordance  with  native  usage  adopted  a son  to  succeed  her  hus- 
band. A violent  quarrel  between  her  and  tliis  adopted  son  oc- 
curred, which  occasioned  for  some  time  a state  of  anarchy  and 
civil  war.  A compromise  was  at  length  made,  the  widow 
receiving  a fixed  pension  and  the  adopted  son  assuming  the 
government. 

The  Raja  of  Joudpore,  one  of  the  Rajpoot  States,  having 
refused  to  pay  the  stipulated  tribute  to  the  English  for  2 or  3 
years,  and  in  some  other  respects  having  manifested  a hostile 
disposition,  an  army  of  10,000  men  was  sent  to  reduce  him  to 
obedience.  After  much  prevarication  and  delay  he  submitted 
just  in  time  to  prevent  being  deposed.  Jeypore,  another  of  the 
Rajpoot  States,  was  the  scene  of  more  tragical  events.  The 
British  subsidiary  force  having  interposed  in  some  quarrels  in 
the  native  court,  several  officers  were  attacked,  and  2 of  them 
were  killed.  The  persons  ultimately  found  to  be  guilty  of  insti- 
gating this  attack,  were  sentenced  to  be  put  to  death,  but  the 
sentence  was  commuted  into  exile  and  imprisonment.  In  1835, 
a great  sensation  was  produced  through  India  by  the  assassina- 
tion of  Mr.  Frazer,  the  agent  of  the  governor-general  at  Delhi. 
The  murderer  was  discovered,  when  it  was  ascertained  that  in 
perpetrating  this  atrocious  act  he  was  the  hired  agent  of  the 
Nabob  of  Ferozepore,  and  was  acting  under  his  instructions. 
This  murder  was  for  considerable  time  involved  in  great  mys- 
tery. The  manner  and  means  by  which  the  principal  and  his 
agent  were  at  length  discovered,  proved  to  be  guilty,  and  the 
determination  of  the  English  government  to  inflict  upon  the 
guilty  parties,  the  extreme  sentence  of  the  law,  excited  great 
attention  in  India.  The  Nabob  and  his  agent  were  both  pub- 


* Thornton,  vol.  5,  p.  212. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


269 


licly  executed  at  Delhi.  The  murder,  the  means  by  which  the 
guilt  of  the  parties  was  ascertained,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  suffered  the  extreme  penalty  of  the  law,  produced  a strong 
moral  impression  on  all  classes  of  the  native  population.  Such 
proceedings  of  the  English  government  and  of  their  courts  have 
had  great  influence  in  consolidating  their  power. 

There  was  no  war  with  any  large  native  power  in  the  admin- 
istration of  Lord  William  Bentinck.  The  expenses  of  the 
government,  especially  in  the  military  department,  had  become 
very  large  under  his  predecessors,  and  he  was  much  occupied  in 
making  reductions  of  various  kinds.  These  changes  excited 
great  discontent  and  murmuring  in  the  army.  But  being  him- 
self a military  officer  of  high  character  and  having  the  confi- 
dence of  the  Court  of  Directors,  he  was  able  to  carry  his  plans 
of  reform  into  effect.  He  prohibited  the  practice  of  Suttee,  or  of 
a widow  burning  herself  with  the  body  of  her  deceased  husband. 
He  also  passed  a law  designed  to  secure  to  converts  to  Cliris- 
tianity  their  personal  and  property  rights  against  the  intol- 
erant rules  and  usages  of  caste,  and  he  is  generally  reckoned 
among  the  best  governors-general  India  has  ever  had.  In  1835, 
his  health  failed,  and  he  returned  to  England. 

The  East  India  Company’s  charter  which  had  been  renewed  in 
1813,  was  to  expire  by  limitation  in  1833.  In  anticipation  of 
its  approach,  large  committees  were  appointed  in  both  houses 
of  Parliament  in  1830,  to  make  inq'Jliry  into  the  affairs  of  the 
Company,  and  into  all  matters  connected  with  the  state  of  In- 
dia, the  views  and  circumstances  of  the  inhabitants,  etc.  The 
affairs  of  the  Company  were  investigated  with  great  care  and 
labor.  The  proceedings  of  these  committees  were  long  and 
particular,  and  their  reports*  furnished  occasion  for  much  dis- 
cussion and  long  debates  in  Parliament.  The  result  was  a 
renewal  of  the  charter  and  its  continuance,  with  some  important 
changes,  for  another  20  years.  Among  the  changes  made  were 
the  following : — The  monopoly  of  the  trade  between  England 
and  China  was  to  cease.  The  commercial  character  of  the 
Company  was  also  to  cease.  AH  the  property  of  the  Company 

* These  reports,  and  the  other  papers  concerning  the  East  India  Company, 
then  printed  and  laid  before  Parliament,  made  14,000  closely  printed  pages  of 
large  4to. 


23* 


270 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


was  to  be  surrendered  to  the  crown  in  return  for  an  annuity  of 
£630,000,  redeemable  after  40  years,  at  the  rate  of  <£100  for 
every  £5.  5s.  of  this  annuity.  This  sum  of  <£630,000,  or  a divi- 
dend of  10  1-2  per  cent,  upon  the  capital,  was  to  be  charged  to 
and  paid  from  the  territorial  revenues  of  India,  and  the  crowui 
(or  England)  became  responsible  for  aU  the  debts  and  obhga- 
tions  of  the  Company.  In  closing  the  commercial  business  of 
the  Company,  £2,000,000  of  the  assets  were  to  be  invested  as  a 
guaranty  fund  for  the  future  redemption  of  the  capital  or  stock  of 
the  Company.  And  as  the  proprietors  could  receive  only  a fixed 
dividend,  whatever  might  remain  from  the  commercial  assets 
after  satisfying  the  claims  of  aU  persons  employed  in  tliis  de- 
partment, was  to  be  appropriated  to  the  objects  and  purj^oses 
still  under  the  Company,  as  the  payment  of  debts,  cmrent  ex- 
penses, etc.  The  government  of  India  was  to  continue  in  the 
hands  of  the  Company  for  20  years.  The  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishment was  enlarged.  Under  the  previous  charter  it  consisted 
of  a bishop  in  Bengal,  and  an  archdeacon  in  each  of  the  minor 
presidencies.  The  bishop  in  Bengal  was  made  metropolitan  by 
this  charter,  while  Madras  and  Bombay  were  to  have  each  a 
sufiragan  bishop. 

Lord  William  Bentinck  left  India  in  1835,  and  as  no  suc- 
cessor had  arrived,  the  government  devolved  upon  Sir  Charles 
Metcalf,  the  senior  member  of  council.  His  administration  was 
chiefly  remarkable  for  removing  some  restrictions  which  had 
hitherto  existed  on  the  press  in  India.  This  change  caused 
much  discussion  in  India  and  in  England.  Many  apprehended 
that  to  allow  every  individual  to  publish  what  he  pleased,  sub- 
ject only  to  such  penalties  for  abusing  this  liberty  as  existed  in 
England,  would  soon  be  productive  of  great  evils,  and  that  it 
would  soon  be  necessary  to  reimpose  the  former  restrictions,  or 
something  equivalent  to  them.  But  the  press,  though  used  as 
freely  by  different  classes  of  the  native  population  in  the  discus- 
sion of  pohtical,  religious,  and  all  other  matters  in  their  respec- 
tive languages,  as  it  is  by  the  European  population  in  the 
English  language,  has  continued  to  be  free,  and  none  of  the 
evils  which  were  anticipated,  have  resulted  from  it.  Thus  mak- 
ing the  press  free,  showed  much  liberality  in  the  government,  and 
its  continuance  so  long  to  be  free,  without  any  unhappy  conse- 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


271 


quences  resulting  from  it,  is  a strong  testimony  to  the  general 
wisdom  of  the  administration  of  the  government  tlirough  all  the 
changes  of  this  period. 

Lord  Auckland  became  governor-general  in  1836.  For  some 
time  after  his  arrival  in  India,  nothing  remarkable  occurred.  In 
1837,  the  Nabob  of  Oude,  a weak-minded  and  profligate  prince, 
died,  and  as  usual  in  oriental  courts,  a quarrel  ensued  for  the 
succession.  On  one  occasion  he  had  acknowledged  two  lads  to 
be  his  sons,  but  the  common  belief  then  was  that  he  had  done 
this  at  the  instigation  of  certain  parties.  He  afterwards  ac- 
knowledged that  he  had  done  so,  and  that  he  had  no  children. 
Lr  these  circumstances  the  governor-general  resolved  to  support 
an  uncle  of  the  late  Nabob,  who,  according  to  Mohammedan 
usage,  was  the  legal  heir.  The  friends  of  one  of  the  pretended 
sons  united  in  supporting  his  claim,  and  for  a while  the  palace 
and  the  city  were  the  scene  of  violent  dissensions  and  tumults. 
The  party  which  was  supported  by  the  English  prevailed,  as 
might  have  been  foreseen,  and  the  other  party  was  compelled 
to  withdraw  from  the  Nabob’s  territory.  All  these  changes 
strengthened,  and  they  generally  enlarged  the  English  power 
and  influence  among  all  classes  of  people. 

A yet  more  troublesome  difficulty  soon  occurred ; the  case  of 
the  Raja  of  Sattara.  In  the  settlement  of  the  affairs  of  the  Dec- 
kan  at  the  close  of  the  last  Mahratta  war  one  of  the  family  of 
Shevajee,  the  founder  of  the  Mahratta  empire,  who  had  long 
been  in  confinement,  was  set  at  liberty  and  placed  over  a small 
territory  wdth  Sattara  for  its  capital.  This  prince,  naturally 
of  a restless  and  intriguing  disposition,  was  accused  in  1836, 
of  being  engaged  in  carrying  on  secret  correspondence  udth 
other  native  powers,  and  also  of  some  other  acts  in  violation  of 
his  engagements  to  the  English  authority,  with  a view  to  excite 
prejudice  against  them  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for  his  txee- 
dom  and  elevation  to  power.  Inquiries  into  these  matters  were 
carried  on  for  2 or  3 years,  and  became  the  subject  of  much 
correspondence  and  discussion  in  India  and  in  England.  The 
result  was  that  he  was  deposed  and  removed  to  Benares.  A 
generous  pension  was  allowed  for  his  support,  and  his  younger 
brother  was  put  in  his  place.  The  question  of  his  restoration 
continued  to  be  agitated  in  the  Court  of  Directors  for  several 


272 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


years,  by  his  friends  and  a well  paid  agency.  The  Mahratta 
people  generally  appeared  to  feel  much  interest  in  the  proceed- 
ings and  the  result.  Their  sympathies  were  with  the  Raja,  and 
their  desire  was  for  his  restoration  to  power.  The  Raja  and  his 
brother,  who  was  put  on  the  throne,  both  died  some  4 or  5 years 
ago,  and  as  they  had  no  male  offspring,  the  English  took  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom  of  Sattara,  and  annexed  it  to  their  own 
territory. 

All  the  great  invasions  of  India,  previous  to  Europeans  pro- 
ceeding round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  were  from  the  north- 
west. Thence  Alexander  the  Great,  Mahmoud,  Tamerlane,  Ba- 
ber, and  Nadir  Shah  entered  the  country.  The  English  soon 
after  commencing  their  course  of  conquest  and  possession  in 
India,  became  apprehensive  of  danger  from  the  north-west,  and 
before  the  close  of  the  last  century  Zemaun  Shah,  the  sovereign 
of  Cabul,  occasioned  them  much  uneasiness.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century  the  English  government  in  India,  made 
several  treaties  with  the  rulers  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  with 
a view  to  secure  India  from  invasion  by  the  French ; and  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon,  means  were  used  to  strengthen  Persia 
against  Russia  for  the  security  of  India.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  years  a war  occurred  between  Persia  and  Russia  and  the 
latter  obtained  a large  accession  of  territory  from  the  former, 
and  so  extended  her  southern  border  towards  India.  She  also 
acquired  a paramount  influenee  at  the  court  of  Persia,  and 
under  that  influence,  Persia  laid  claim  to  several  provinces 
of  Afghanistan,  and  proceeded  to  enforce  that  claim  by  mak- 
ing war  upon  Herat.  If  Persia  should  succeed  in  establish- 
ing her  power  over  these  provinces,  and  so  extend  her  border 
thus  far  towards  India,  then  being  under  the  influence  of  Rus- 
sia, and  even  holding  her  national  existence  by  the  sufferance  of 
Russia,  this  extension  of  the  Persian  border  would  be  in  effect 
the  extension  of  the  Russian  border  towards  India.  The  gov- 
ernment of  India  becoming  aware  of  the  influence  at  work  in 
Persia,  and  in  the  country  between  Persia  and  India,  sent  Sir 
A.  Burnes  on  a mission  of  observation  and  inquiry  into  Afghan- 
istan. He  reported  that  at  Cabul,  he  found  a didy  accredited 
Russian  agent,  forming  treaties  with  the  Afghan  chiefs,  and 
encouraging  them  in  an  aggressive  warfare  towards  India,  by 


HISTORY  — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


273 


promises  of  aid  from  Russia.  Sir  A.  Burnes’  communications 
to  his  government  concerning  the  state  of  political  parties  and 
plans  in  Afghanistan,  excited  great  attention  in  India,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  communications  of  the  British  Ambassador 
in  Persia  concerning  Russian  agency  and  intrigue  in  that  coun- 
try, to  the  Ministry  in  England,  excited  great  attention  there. 
The  result  of  much  correspondence  and  consideration  was  a de- 
termination to  establish  a counteracting  British  influence  in 
Afghanistan,  and  as  Dost  Mohammed,  then  the  ruler  of  Cabul, 
had  declined  the  interest  and  friendship  of  the  English,  it  was 
resolved  to  reestablish  Shah  Shuja,  a former  sovereign  of  that 
country,  who  had  been  expelled  by  Dost  Mohammed,  and  for 
some  years  had  been  living  under  English  protection  in  India. 

In  accordance  with  this  determination  a treaty  was  made 
with  Shah  Shuja,  and  he  was  assisted  to  raise  a force  to  take 
possession  of  his  former  kingdom,  while  a yet  larger  English 
force  under  Sir  Henry  Fane  was  to  accompany  him.*  Treaties 
were  also  made  with  Runjeet  Singh,  the  ruler  of  the  Sikhs,  and 
between  him  and  Shah  Shuja.  By  tliis  treaty  Runjeet  Singh 
engaged  to  invade  Afghanistan,  by  way  of  Peshawur,  while 
Shah  Shuja  and  the  army  that  accompanied  him,  invaded  it 
by  way  of  Candahar  and  Ghizni.  It  was  intended  the  two 
forces  should  meet  at  Cabul.  The  army  which  was  to  proceed 
by  way  of  Candahar,  amounted  to  25,250  men.  The  army 
which  was  to  proceed  by  way  of  Peshawur  amounted  to  10,800 
men.  The  large  army  arrived  at  Candahar  without  encounter- 
ing any  resistance,  but  they  suffered  much  on  the  march  for  want 
of  provisions  and  water.  At  Candahar  the  ancient  capital  of 
Afghanistan,  “ Shah  Shuja  was  crowmed  with  every  circum- 
stance of  pomp  and  external  honor.”  From  Candahar  they 
proceeded  to  Ghizni,  reputed  to  be  the  strongest  fort  in  Afghan- 
istan, and  supplied  wdth  a large  garrison  under  a son  of  Dost 
Mohammed.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  fort  w’as  also  a large  Afghan 
force  prepared  to  embarrass  them,  if  they  should  besiege  it,  and 
to  resist  their  further  progress.  The  fort  w^as  found  to  be  much 
larger  and  apparently  stronger  than  was  expected.  Despatch 
was  of  great  importance,  and  as  one  of  the  gates  was  accessible, 

♦ Sir  Henry  Fane  soon  resigned  the  eommand  to  Sir  John  Keane,  who  had 
the  ehief  command  in  the  early  part  of  the  Afghan  war,  and  who  became  Lord 
Keane. 


274 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


a resolution  was  formed  to  blow  it  open,  if  possible,  with  pow- 
der. For  this  purpose  bags  of  powder  containing  900  lbs.  were 
placed  at  this  gate  in  the  night,  and  a train  was  prepared  to  fire 
it.  At  the  time  expected,  just  after  dawn,  the  powder  exploded 
and  “ shattered  the  gate  entirely  to  pieces.”  The  storming  party 
immediately  rushed  in  and  soon  had  possession  of  the  fort. 
The  loss  of  Ghizni,  on  which  Dost  Mohammed  had  placed 
great  dependence,  disconcerted  his  plans,  and  through  one  of  his 
brothers  he  opened  negotiations  with  the  English,  but  on  learn- 
ing that  the  first  condition  of  any  treaty  would  be  for  him  to 
surrender  all  his  power  and  possessions,  and  go  to  reside  in  some 
part  of  the  English  territories  in  India,  he  refused  comphance 
and  retreated  into  the  northern  part  of  his  dominions.  The 
army  proceeded  from  Ghizni  to  Cabul,  and  took  possession  of 
the  fort  and  town.  In  a few  weeks  the  force  that  had  proceeded 
by  way  of  Peshawur  and  JellaUabad  reached  Cabul,  and  the 
two  armies  united.  The  greater  part  of  Afghanistan  appeared 
now  quietly  to  submit  to  the  government  of  Shah  Shuja.  Some 
petty  chiefs  in  the  remote  districts  had  not  tendered  their  sub- 
mission, but  no  reason  appeared  for  anxiety  on  account  of  their 
power,  or  of  any  combination  hkely  to  be  formed  among  them. 
Dost  Mohammed  was  at  liberty  and  had  refused  to  surrender 
his  power  and  possessions,  but  as  his  artillery  had  been  taken 
and  his  army  dispersed,  it  was  not  supposed  he  had  power  re- 
maining to  occasion  much  trouble. 

The  conquest  of  Afghanistan  having  been  thus  apparently 
achieved  and  Shah  Shuja  acknowledged  as  its  sovereign,  the 
English  army  began  to  prepare  to  return  to  India.  There  were 
stm  some  indications  that  the  obedience  generally  manifested  to 
Shah  Shuja  was  more  from  fear  than  from  loyalty,  and  unhap- 
pily he  and  his  sons  did  not  pursue  a course  calculated  to  pro- 
cure respect  and  confidence.  So  it  was  resolved  that  a very 
considerable  force  should  remain  in  Afghanistan  to  secure  the 
sovereign  in  power,  and  for  any  other  purposes  that  might  occur 
in  those  changing  countries.  A part  of  the  Bombay  army  on' 
its  return  attacked  and  took  Kelat,  which  belonged  to  Mckrab 
Khan,  an  Afghan  chief,  who  had  manifested  a hostile  spirit  to 
the  English,  and  committed  some  depredations  upon  the  bag- 
gage of  their  army  on  its  march  to  Candahar.  It  was  after- 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


275 


wards  retaken  by  the  Afghans,  and  recovered  by  the  English. 
It  was  the  scene  of  much  hard  fighting.  The  tribe  of  INIurrees 
and  the  tribe  of  GhUzies,  by  their  refractory  spirit  and  plunder- 
ing habits,  occasioned  the  army  great  trouble,  and  required  ex- 
treme measures  to  suppress  them. 

In  the  mean  time.  Dost  Mohammed,  having  obtained  aid  from 
the  Usbeck  tribes  and  collected  a very  considerable  force,  recom- 
menced hostilities  to  recover  what  he  could  of  his  former  posses- 
sions. He  was  joined  by  several  Afghan  chiefs,  and  his  force 
increased  to  10,000.  He  made  several  attempts  to  retrieve  his 
affairs,  but  finding  that  his  force  was  leaving  him,  and  that  he 
could  place  little  reliance  upon  his  followers,  he  resolved  to  sur- 
render himself  at  discretion  to  the  British  authority  at  Cabul. 
He  and  his  family  (all  who  had  surrendered)  were  removed  to 
India,  and  a generous  sum  was  allowed  them  for  their  support. 

It  was  supposed  that  the  surrender  and  removal  of  Dost  Mo- 
hammed would  restore  quiet,  and  reconcile  the  people  to  the 
government  of  Shah  Shuja.  But  it  was  not  so.  A spirit  of 
iisaffection  was  evidently  increasing  in  the  country.  Many 
harassing  conflicts  took  place,  and  Gen.  Sale  was  forced  to 
abandon  his  position,  and  with  great  effort  and  difficulty  suc- 
ceeded in  retreating  into  JeUallabad,  and  there  defending  himself. 
Li  November  of  1841,  Sir  A.  Bumes,  who  had  his  quarters  in 
the  town  of  Cabul  at  some  distance  firom  the  English  canton- 
ments, was  suddenly  attacked,  and  with  his  brother  and  2 other 
English  officers,  was  assassinated,  and  the  house  in  which  he 
lived  was  set  on  fire.  Several  other  oflhcers  were  attacked  the 
same  day.  The  insurrection  thus  commenced  soon  spread 
over  the  country.  The  English  force  in  Cabul  consisted  of 
5,500  men  under  Gen.  Elphinstone,  who  was  in  feeble  health, 
and  greatly  wanting  in  the  energy  and  decision  requisite  for  such 
an  emergency.  The  English  camp  was  soon  surrounded  with  an 
infuriated  army.  In  a few  days  this  force  got  possession  of  the 
English  commissariat,  which  was  soon  plimdered.  The  state 
of  the  army  now  daily  became  more  distressing.  Various  plans 
were  proposed,  considered,  and  rejected.  Attacks  upon  them 
were  made,  repelled,  and  renewed.  The  English  forces  daily 
became  weaker  and  more  discouraged,  and  the  assailing  forces 
became  more  numerous  and  furious.  Negotiations  were  opened, 


276 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


but  no  terms  could  be  agreed  upon,  and  war  was  renewed  with 
fury.  At  length  some  terms  were  mutually  agreed  upon  between 
Sir  W.  Macnaghten,  the  English  Envoy  and  several  Afghan 
chiefs,  but  before  these  were  ratified,  the  Envoy  was  invited  to  a 
conference  with  some  of  the  chiefs,  and  there  assassinated.  The 
state  of  the  English  became  now,  if  possible,  stfil  more  distressing, 
and  the  pm'pose  was  formed  to  retreat  to  JeUallabad,  100  miles 
nearly  east  on  the  way  towards  India.  “ The  anny,  though  the 
loss  had  been  considerable  in  the  late  harassing  warfare,  stfil  con- 
sisted of  690  Europeans,  2,840  native  infantry,  and  970  cavalry, 
in  all  4,500  fighting  men.  There  were  besides,  12,000  camp- 
followers,  who  rendered  the  preservation  of  any  order  almost  im- 
possible.” They  commenced  their  march  on  the  6th  of  January, 
1842.  The  weather  was  cold,  and  the  snow  was  deep.  On  the 
9th,  the  ladies  with  their  husbands,  (aU  the  latter  who  chose,) 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Akbar  Khan,  a son 
of  Dost  Mohammed,  and  remained  behind.  The  retreat  or 
rather  flight  of  the  army  continued,  the  infuriated  Afghans  pur- 
suing, plundering,  and  massacring  them.  Many  of  them  went 
over  to  the  enemy.  Some  were  taken  prisoners,  but  more  were 
killed,  or  perished  through  fatigue,  hunger,  and  cold.  Only  one. 
Dr.  Brydon,  reached  JeUallabad  to  communicate  the  tragic  in- 
teUigence  of  what  had  taken  place  at  Cabul  and  on  the  retreat. 
Of  this  retreat,  the  History  of  British  India  says : — “ The  cap- 
tives were  about  70 ; an  unknown  proportion  of  the  native 
troops  and  foUowers  had  gone  over  to  the  enemy,  but  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  16,500  who  left  the  cantonment  at  Cabul, 
had  miserably  perished.  This  retreat  may  be  considered  with- 
out a parallel,  if  not  in  the  extent,  at  least  in  the  completeness, 
of  its  calamity.” 

This  insurrection  extended  through  aU  parts  of  Afghanistan. 
The  fort  of  Ghizni  was  attacked  and  surrendered.  Candahar 
was  attacked  by  a large  force,  but  they  were  repeUed  by  Gen. 
Nott,  then  in  charge.  Several  attacks  were  made  upon  JeUaUa- 
bad,  but  they  were  repelled.  The  Afghans  having  assembled  in 
large  force  at  JeUallabad,  an  attack  was  made  upon  them  by  the 
garrisons,  and  they  were  routed  with  great  slaughter.  The  news 
of  these  disasters,  and  of  the  circumstances  of  the  force  stiU  re- 
maining in  Afghanistan,  produced  a great  sensation  in  Lidia 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


277 


among  the  European  and  native  population.  The  English  army 
had  never  before  sufl'ered  such  reverses  in  the  East.  The 
government  took  vigorous  measures  to  sustain  its  power,  to  re- 
lieve the  scattered  forces,  and  obtain  the  prisoners  yet  in 
Afghanistan,  as  soon  as  the  season  would  admit  of  any  ad- 
vance into  that  country.  With  this  view  Gen.  England  pro- 
ceeded from  Scinde  with  4,000  men,  and  a large  supply  of  funds 
and  stores  to  reinforce  Candahar,  but  the  Afghans  attacked  him 
with  so  much  vigor  on  the  way,  that  he  was  compelled  to  halt 
in  the  fort  of  Quetta,  where  he  was  besieged,  and  could  not  ad- 
vance till  a large  force  came  to  his  aid.  A large  force  proceeded 
from  PeshawTir,  under  Gen.  PoUock,  and  succeeded  in  reaching 
Jellallabad. 

Some  proceedings  in  England  in  respect  to  the  war  in 
Afghanistan,  and  the  continued  occupation  of  that  country,  add- 
ed to  the  disasters  and  reverses  which  had  taken  place,  induced 
Lord  Auckland,  the  governor-general,  to  resign,  and  Lord  EUen- 
borough,  his  successor,  arrived  in  Calcutta,  in  February,  1842. 
The  course  now  to  be  pursued  in  respect  to  the  continuance  of 
the  war  and  the  occupation  of  Afghanistan,  became  the  sub- 
ject of  much  consideration  and  correspondence.  Shah  Shuja, 
who  had  been  restored  as  the  sovereign  of  the  country  by 
the  power  of  the  English,  had  from  his  first  return  to  his 
country,  disappointed  the  expectations  which  had  been  formed 
of  him.  One  of  his  sons,  Suftur  Jung,  joined  the  Afghans  in 
their  insurrection  against  the  English,  and  there  were  reasons  for 
believing  that  this  course  had  his  fathePs  concurrence.  WTien 
Shah  Shuja  was  endeavoring  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  one 
party,  he  was  attacked  by  another  party  and  put  to  death. 
Akbar  Khan,  the  son  of  Dost  Mohammed,  and  principal  agent 
in  the  insurrection  there,  became  the  acknowledged  head  of  the 
Afghan  nation.  So  the  purpose  of  the  English  to  restore  Shah 
Shuja  and  his  family  to  their  former  place  and  power,  and 
by  their  means  establish  a pennanent  English  influence  in  the 
countries  north-west  from  India,  had  utterly  failed.  Runjeet 
Singh,  the  head  of  the  Sikhs  and  sovereign  of  Lahore,  who 
was  a party  to  the  treaty  wdth  Shah  Shuja,  for  invading  Afghan- 
istan, had  died,  and  his  kingdom  was  almost  in  a state  of 
anarchy.  The  Sikhs  were  now  too  much  occupied  with  their 


278 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


own  internal  affairs  to  become  a party  in  any  further  measures 
or  plans  concerning  Afghanistan. 

In  these  circumstances  it  was  resolved  to  recover  the  prisoners 
remaining  in  Afghanistan,  and  then  withdraw  aU  the  forces  and 
leave  the  chiefs  and  people  to  estabhsh  what  government  they 
pleased.  Negotiations  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  including 
Dost  Mohammed,  were  commenced,  but  no  terms  could  be 
agreed  upon.  In  August,  1842,  General  PoUock  left  JeUaUabad 
for  Cabul.  There  was  much  skirmishing  and  some  hard  fight- 
ing with  the  enemy  at  different  places  on  the  march,  but  the 
Enghsh  army  reached  Cabul  on  the  14th  of  September.  A part 
of  the  army  at  Candahar  returned  under  General  England  to 
Scinde,  and  the  rest  under  General  Nott  proceeded  to  Cabul. 
He  had  several  conflicts  with  the  Afghan  chiefs  on  the  way,  but 
arrived  at  Cabul  safely  and  joined  General  Pollock.  The  pris- 
oners, 70  in  number,  among  whom  were  a number  of  Enghsh 
ladies,  were  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Afghans.  Various  plans 
and  schemes  were  formed,  and  negotiations  on  the  part  of  the 
prisoners  and  the  officers  with  the  different  chiefs  were  com- 
menced, and  before  the  close  of  the  month  aU  were  recovered. 
The  Afghan  chiefs  now  ah  went  to  the  north  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  English  force,  so  after  taking  and  destroying  a few  forts 
in  the  vicinity  of  Cabul,  the  army  returned  to  India.  Dost 
Mohammed  and  other  Afghan  ]jrisoners  were  set  at  liberty,  and 
returned  to  their  own  country,  and  the  Afghans  were  left  to 
establish  any  form  of  government  over  themselves,  and  make 
any  treaties  with  other  nations  which  they  pleased. 

Russia,  when  called  on  for  some  explanation  concerning 
her  agency  in  Afghanistan,  denied  having  had  any  such  agency 
there  as  was  ascribed  to  her.  But  while  Count  Nesselrode 
made  such  declarations  to  the  English  cabinet.  Count  Simonich 
(the  Russian  ambassador  in  Persia)  and  his  agents  continued  to 
pursue  their  course  unchanged.  There  was  much  difference 
between  the  declarations  of  ihe  Russian  government,  and  the 
actions  of  her  agents  in  the  countries  between  India  and  Russia, 
and  perhaps  the  English  were  more  alarmed  for  the  safety  of 
their  possessions  in  India,  than  there  was  occasion.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  yet  all  are  agreed  that  no  war  in  which  the  English  have 
ever  been  engaged  in  the  East,  appears  to  have  been  managed 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


279 


with  so  little  ability,  foresight,  and  discretion,  and  none  have 
been  so  unsatisfactory  in  respect  to  any  substantial  and  per- 
manent results.  The  loss  of  life,  European  and  native,  was 
very  great.  The  expenses  were  enormous,  and  all  defrayed  from 
the  revenues  of  India.  And  the  losses  and  miseries  inflicted  on 
Afghanistan  were  probably  far  greater  than  aU  endured  by  the 
English  and  the  people  of  India. 

The  disasters,  losses,  sufferings,  and  expenses  in  the  Afghan 
war  and  its  unsatisfactory  results,  produced  a more  earnest  de- 
sire for  continued  peace  than  had  existed  in  India  for  many 
years.  But  this  desire  was  not  to  be  realized.  Mention  has 
been  made  of  the  Ameers  of  Scinde,  a country  lying  each  side 
of  the  river  Indus  for  several  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Treaties  were  made,  or  rather  some  old  treaties  were  renewed 
and  modified,  with  these  chiefs  by  Sir  John  Keane  on  his  way 
with  the  army  from  Bombay  to  Afghanistan  in  1839.  The  state 
of  Scinde  was  far  from  being  quiet  during  the  Afghan  war,  and 
some  matters  which  then  occurred  became  the  subject  of  inquiry 
and  complaint  soon  after  the  war  had  closed.  The  country  of 
Scinde  was  divided  between  several  chiefs,  who  were  confeder- 
ated and  yet  partly  independent,  who  were  profligate  and  at 
variance  with  each  other.  The  disasters  and  misfortunes  which 
the  English  suffered  in  Afghanistan  and  the  generally  known 
unsatisfactory  result  of  that  expedition,  destroyed  for  a w^hile 
much  of  the  prestige  of  English  valor  and  success  in  war.  Ne- 
gotiations for  the  explanation  or  removal  of  the  difficulties  with 
the  Ameers  became  complicated,  and  at  length  resulted  in  open 
hostilities.  Several  battles  soon  took  place  between  the  Ameers 
and  Sir  Charles  Napier,  who  had  then  command  of  the  English 
forces  in  Scinde.  The  eharacter  and  result  of  these  battles 
w^ere  similar  to  what  we  have  generally  seen  in  warfare  between 
Europeans  and  natives  of  India.  The  Scindeans,  though  per- 
sonally brave,  yet  being  under  unskilful  leaders,  were  easily  de- 
feated by  forces  xvho  had  been  carefully  trained  in  European 
discipline,  and  were  commanded  by  officers  who  had  become 
experienced  in  the  most  approved  tactics  of  modern  warfare. 
The  armies  of  the  chiefs  were  defeated  and  dispersed,  their  treas- 
ures were  seized,  their  cities  and  forts  taken,  and  the  greater 
part  of  their  territories  annexed  to  the  English  possessions  in 


280 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


India.  There  was  much  severe  controversy  in  the  journals  and 
many  pamphlets  were  pubhshed  in  India  and  in  England,  in 
censure  and  in  vindication  of  this  war,  of  the  measures  and 
policy  in  which  it  originated,  of  the  marmer  in  which  it  was 
carried  on,  and  the  results  produced  by  it,  involving  the  character 
and  relative  position  of  the  Ameers,  and  the  state,  climate,  reve- 
nue, resources,  etc.  of  the  country  and  its  respective  provinces.* 
Some  facts  and  figures  are  certain.  It  was  weU  known  that 
the  Ameers  had  a large  amount  of  treasure,  which  in  the  event  of 
a war  would  become  prize-money  and  the  property  of  the  cap- 
tors,  The  portion  of  this  prize-money  which  Sir  Charles  Napier 
obtained  for  his  share  was  $350,000.  By  the  conquest  of  the 
country  he  became  the  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
military  forces  in  it,  the  salary  of  which  was  first  <£10,000,  and 
then  £15,000,  or  nearly  $50,000,  and  $75,000  yearly.f  Scinde 
has  been  permanently  annexed  to  the  British  dominions  in  India. 

The  distm-bed  state  of  affairs  in  another  native  territory  soon 
claimed  consideration.  Scindia,  the  most  powerful  of  the  hlah- 
ratta  princes  since  the  close  of  the  last  Mahratta  war,  died  in 
1843,  without  leaving  any  issue  or  appointing  any  one  to  suc- 
ceed him.  His  widow  with  the  concurrence  of  the  family  and 
Mends,  adopted  a son,  and  he  was  duly  installed.  But  he  was  a 
child,  only  8 years  old,  and  so  it  became  necessary  to  appoint 
some  regent  during  the  prince’s  minority.  A regent  was  ap- 
pointed, but  he  soon  found  a combination  against  him  too  pow- 
erful to  be  controlled.  Some  connected  with  the  army  joined 
this  combination,  and  soon  the  court  and  the  army  were  near  a 
state  of  anarchy.  The  subsidiary  treaty  between  the  English 
and  the  deceased  prince  bound  the  former  to  secure  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  to  the  legal  heir  of  the  latter,  and  matters 
soon  came  to  such  a state  as  required  them  to  interpose  for  the 
young  prince.  So  a large  force  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  then 
commander-in-chief,  accompanied  by  Lord  Ellenborough,  the 
governor-general,  proceeded  from  Agra  towards  Gwalior,  the 
capital  of  the  territory  of  Scindia.  Several  efforts  to  effect  a 
settlement  of  the  difficulties  were  made,  but  tliey  were  unsuc- 


* Tliomton’s  History  of  British  India,  vol.  6,  p.  395-4G6. 
t Annals  of  India,  p.  1 7. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


281 


cessful.  A large  part  of  the  Mahratta  army  took  the  part  of  the 
insurgents,  and  it  was  not  till  after  two  severely  contested  bat- 
tles that  the  insurgents  would  listen  to  any  terms  of  submission. 
"When  peace  was  restored,  “ the  Raja  was  installed  with  great 
ceremony  at  Gwalior  in  presence  of  the  governor-general,  the 
commander-in-chief,  and  an  immense  assemblage  of  native 
chiefs.” 

When  appointed  governor-general.  Lord  Ellenborough’s  in- 
structions were,  to  pursue,  as  far  as  was  possibly  consistent  with 
the  honor  and  interest  of  the  East  India  Company  and  of  India, 
a pacific  course  of  policy.  But  instead  of  this  he  had  mani- 
fested and  encouraged  a military  spirit  beyond  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors for  many  years.  “ This  spirit  frequently  led  him  to  the 
neglect  of  his  civil  duties  and  the  internal  government  of  India, 
which  was  his  principal  business  as  governor-general.  His 
whole  course  of  procedure  was  erratic  and  opposed  to  the  defi- 
nite policy  by  which  the  Court  of  Directors  had  sought  to  avert 
a continued  system  of  aggression  on  the  surrounding  native 
States,  and  to  consolidate  the  vast  possessions  over  which  their 
rule  was  only  very  partially  and  imperfectly  extended.”  The 
Directors  at  length  became  so  much  dissatisfied  with  his  conduct 
that,  in  the  exercise  of  a right  reserved  to  them  in  the  charter, 
and  without  consulting  the  Ministry,  they  voted  his  recall.  This 
proceeding  of  the  Directors  of  the  East  India  Company  caused 
much  surprise  and  discussion,  and,  on  the  part  of  the  governor- 
general’s  friends,  much  censure.  But  no  power  could  reverse  it, 
and  public  opinion  in  England  and  in  India  soon  approved  of 
the  measure.  By  this  act  the  Directors  evinced  great  decision, 
and  showed  themselves  to  be  the  true  friends  of  India. 

Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  subsequently  Lord  Hardinge,  was  ap- 
pointed the  next  governor-general  in  May,  1844,  and  proceeded 
immediately  to  assume  the  duties  of  his  office.  The  death  of 
Runjeet  Singh,  the  head  of  the  Sikhs  and  sovereign  of  Lahore, 
has  been  mentioned.  He  was  the  most  distinguished  native 
prince  of  India  in  this  century.  He  had  built  up  his  kingdom 
for  himself,  and  it  was  generally  expected  that  it  would  fall  to 
pieces  on  his  demise.  Kurruck  Singh,  one  of  his  sons,  succeeded 
him,  and  was  duly  installed  in  power.  He  soon  removed  his 
father’s  prime  minister  Dhian  Singh,  and  appointed  another  in 

24* 


282 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


his  place.  The  ex-minister  soon  found  means  to  destroy  the 
new  favorite.  He  then  put  Kun-uck  Singh  under  restraint,  and 
placed  aU  the  power  nominally  in  the  hands  of  Kurruck  Singh’s 
son.  Now  Nihal,  the  power  being  really  reserved  in  his  own 
hands.  But  it  was  only  a few  weeks  before  the  father  and  son 
both  died,  whether  by  sickness  or  violence,  is  not  known.  The 
affaus  of  the  Punjab  then  fell  into  much  confusion.  The  profli- 
gate and  reckless  character  of  some  of  the  chiefs,  who  came  in 
for  a share  of  power  and  plunder,  gave  no  assurance  that  they 
would  restrain  themselves  or  their  followers  to  their  territories, 
and  so  a large  English  force  was  concentrated  near  the  Sikh  ter- 
ritory on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  This  warlike  demon- 
stration, though  designed  only  for  defence,  yet  being  evidently 
collected  in  view  of  the  Sikhs,  was  perhaps  more  fitted  in  their 
state  of  feefing  to  provoke  an  attack  than  deter  them  from  it. 
The  Sikh  soldiers  or  sepoys  were  brave,  conceited,  and  impul- 
sive, and  those  who  were  acquamted  with  their  history  and  na- 
tional character,  did  not  expect  war  would  be  long  delayed. 
Nor  was  this  expectation  to  be  disappointed.  Li  December, 
1845,  a party  of  Sikhs  crossed  the  Sutlege  and  carried  off  50 
camels,  and  distributed  the  plunder  in  their  own  camp.  In  a few 
days  some  further  depredations  were  committed,  and  it  was 
apparent  from  various  circumstances  that  they  were  preparing 
to  invade  the  English  tenitory  with  a large  force.  The  Sikhs 
constructed  a bridge  of  boats  over  the  Sutlege,  and  in  the  course 
of  a few  days  a large  force  with  their  guns,  etc.  passed  over. 
The  first  battle  was  fought  at  Moodkee,  20  mUes  firom  Feroze- 
pore.  The  English  force  under  Lord  Gough  amounted  to  11,- 
000,  and  the  Sikhs  were  somewhat  more  numerous.  The  Stlchs 
made  the  attack  and  were  repulsed  with  severe  loss  of  men,  and 
17  of  their  guns  were  taken.  The  English  loss  was  also  severe, 
among  whom  were  Sir  Robert  Sale  and  Sir  John  McCaskill, 
officers  who  had  greatly  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Afghan 
war. 

The  Sikhs  continued  to  pass  the  river  till  the  force  collected 
in  the  English  territory  was  variously  estimated  at  from  40,000 
to  60,000,  with  150  pieces  of  artillery.  The  force  of  the  Eng- 
lish there  assembled  did  not  exceed  18  or  20,000.  On  the  21st 
and  22d  of  December,  further  battles  were  fought  at  Ferozepore, 


niSTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


283 


in  which  the  English  remained  masters  of  the  ground  and  of 
73  pieces  of  the  Sikh  artillery.  The  loss  of  the  English  force 
was  severe,  amounting  in  killed  and  wouzided  to  one  seventh 
part  of  the  force  in  the  field.  They  also  sufiered  severely  for 
want  of  provisions  and  from  the  extreme  cold.  They  were  also 
embarrassed  for  want  of  ammunition.  The  unprepared  and  ill- 
furnished  state  of  the  army  w’as  the  occasion  of  severe  censure. 
Severe  and  bloody  battles  were  soon  fought  at  Aliwal  and  Sa- 
braon.  In  the  last-mentioned  battle  the  loss  of  the  Sikhs 
exceeded  8,000  men.  These  losses  and  reverses  at  length  in- 
clined the  Sikhs  to  propose  negotiations  which  resulted  in  peace, 
the  Sikhs  ceding  a large  part  of  their  country  to  the  English, 
and  paying  them  $7,500,000  towards  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

These  defeats,  disasters,  and  humiliating  terms  of  submission, 
were  supposed  to  have  broken  the  spirits  of  the  Sikhs,  and  laid 
the  foundation  for  peace  with  them  for  some  years  at  least. 
Such  was  the  general  expectation,  and  Lord  Hardinge  on  return- 
ing to  England,  “ declared  that  all  danger  of  insurrection  or 
disturbance  in  the  Punjab  was  at  an  end.”  But  the  warlike  and 
independent  spirit  of  the  Sikhs  was  overawed,  not  subdued.  It 
was  only  suppressed  for  a while,  again  to  appear  in  the  spirit  of 
desperation  and  fanaticism.  Several  of  the  chiefs  had  still  pre- 
served some  independence,  with  very  considerable  military  force 
and  pecuniary  resources.  And  a great  many,  who  had  formerly 
been  soldiers  in  the  regular  army,  their  regiments  being  now 
disbanded,  were  without  any  employment  suited  to  their  taste 
and  habits,  and  having  no  means  of  support,  were  anxious  to 
resume  their  former  mode  of  life.  Some  devotees  and  fanatics 
encouraged  tliis  spirit  by  assuring  them  of  divine  aid,  favor,  and 
success.  Only  a rallying  point  and  leader  were  wanting  to 
bring  many  such  persons  together,  and  then  to  mature  purposes 
and  plans.  The  first  exhibition  of  this  feeling  took  place  at 
Multan.  This  city  was  celebrated  in  the  ancient  history  of  In- 
dia for  its  strength,  and  it  was  generally  the  capital  of  some 
independent  prince,  or  the  residence  of  a royal  governor.  It 
was  for  some  time  subject  to  the  sovereigns  of  Afghanistan,  but 
in  1813,  Runjeet  Singh  obtained  possession  of  it,  and  annexed  it 
to  his  dominions.  In  the  arrangement  and  settlement  of  the 
Sikh  States  consequent  upon  the  peace.  Sirdar  Khan  Singh  had 


284 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEEN. 


been  appointed  governor  of  Multan,  and  Messrs.  Agnew  and 
Anderson  were  sent  by  the  British  agent  at  Lahore  to  install  the 
governor  into  office.  On  reaching  Multan,  the  former  governor, 
Moolraj,  surrendered  the  fort,  etc.  into  their  hands,  but  on  the 
next  day  a sudden  attack  was  made  upon  them  and  both  were 
assassinated.  It  was  supposed  for  some  time  that  this  outrage 
was  to  be  ascribed  to  the  Sikh  soldiers,  many  of  whom  were 
known  to  cherish  feelings  of  revenge  towards  aU  English  officers. 
But  it  was  not  long  before  various  circumstances  led  to  “ the 
discovery  of  a conspiracy  of  the  most  alarming  character  at 
Lahore,  having  for  its  object  the  massacre  of  aU  the  British 
officers,  the  expulsion  of  all  the  English  troops  from  the  Punjab, 
and  a revolution  in  the  Sikh  government.”  The  English  had 
now  another  Sikh  war  before  them,  and  arrangements  were 
made  to  meet  the  exigency  as  fast  as  possible.  The  first 
attack  on  Multan  failed,  the  fort  being  stronger  and  more  vig- 
orously defended  than  was  expected.  At  the  second  attack 
“the  besieging  army,  including  the  allies,  contained  32,000 
men  and  150  pieces  of  ordnance,  nearly  half  of  which  was  of 
the  largest  calibre.”  The  city  and  fort  were  defended  with 
great  obstinacy,  but  were  at  length  compelled  to  yield,  and  the 
citadel  was  occupied  by  an  English  garrison. 

In  the  mean  time  the  standard  of  war  was  raised  in  several 
places  in  the  Sikh  territories.  Great  numbers  gathered  around 
them,  and  the  country  exhibited  the  bustle  of  preparation  for 
war.  Dost  Mohammed,  who  had  again  become  the  sovereign 
of  Afghanistan,  becoming  aware  of  what  was  going  on  in  the 
Punjab,  came  to  the  Indus  with  a force  of  30,000  men,  and  cross- 
ing the  river,  took  possession  of  Attock,  apparently  prepared  to 
secure  any  advantages  for  himself  which  the  course  of  events 
might  place  within  his  reach.  Arrangements  were  made  to  col- 
lect a large  English  force  at  Lahore,  and  commence  offensive 
operations  under  Lord  Gough,  then  commander-in-chief.  This 
army  amounted  to  24,000  men,  and  Lord  Gough  assumed  the 
command  in  November,  1848.  January  5th,  the  English  camp 
was  at  Janiki,  one  day’s  march  from  the  Sikh  camp,  which  was 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river  Chenaub.  The  Sikh  army  was  esti- 
mated to  contain  30,000  men.  On  the  11th  the  English  marched 
in  the  direction  of  the  Sikh  encampment,  and  in  the  afternoon  a 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


285 


severe  battle,  eommoiily  called  “ the  battle  of  Cldlliamvalla,”  was 
fought.  “ Darkness  put  an  end  to  the  engagement,  leaving  the 
British  hi  possession  of  the  field  of  battle.  But  their  loss  was 
terrible.  Nearly  100  officers  were  killed  or  wounded ; 2,269 
troops,  includhig  nearly  1,000  European  soldiers  were  disabled 
or  left  dead  on  the  field.” 

In  a few  days  after  tliis  battle,  the  force  which  had  been  en- 
gaged in  the  siege  of  Multan,  reached  the  camp  of  the  command- 
er-in-chief. This  was  a large  and  timely  reinforcement  to  his 
army,  and  enabled  him  agam  to  commence  aggressive  operations. 
The  next  engagement  is  called  “ the  battle  of  Gujerat,”  from  a 
village  of  that  name  near  which  it  was  fought.  The  Sddis 
were  defeated  in  this  battle,  and  “ nearly  all  their  guns,  ammu- 
nition, camp  equipage,  and  baggage  were  captmed.”  This  bat- 
tle decided  the  campaign,  and  in  a few  days  13  Sikh  clucfs,  and 
16,000  men  voluntarily  surrendered,  the  chiefs  surrendering  their 
swords,  and  the  men  their  arms.  A proclamation  was  issued 
that  the  war  must  continue  till  the  Afghans  either  surrendered, 
or  returned  to  their  own  country.  Accordingly  Gen.  Gilbert, 
with  a sufficient  force,  immediately  proceeded  to  attack  them, 
but  fomid,  on  approaching  Attock,  that  they  were  already  cross- 
ing the  Lidus.  He  pursued  them  as  far  as  to  Peshawur  on 
the  way  to  Afghanistan,  without  overtaking  them,  and  then  he 
returned. 

This  second  Sikh  war  having  closed,  the  governor-general 
issued  a proclamation  annexing  the  Punjab  to  the  British  do- 
minions in  India.  A Board,  or  Committee  of  Commissioners, 
of  able  and  experienced  men  were  appointed  to  assume  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  country  till  all  the  matters  in  it  and  con- 
nected with  it,  should  be  prepared  to  be  put  under  the  general 
system  of  government,  which  is  now  observed  in  the  other  terri- 
tories in  India,  which  are  subject  to  the  English. 

We  now  close  this  sketch  of  the  European  History  of  India, 
with  the  last  great  events  of  the  year  1850,  just  two  centuries 
and  a half  from  the  origin  of  the  East  Lidia  Company. 


286 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  BRITISH  CONQUEST  OP  INDIA. 

At  the  close  of  this  sketch  of  the  origin  and  progress  of  the 
British  power  in  India,  it  will  not  be  irrelevant  to  make  some  re- 
marks upon  the  particular  qualities  or  circumstances  which  have 
enabled  England  to  conquer  and  govern  a country  10  times  her 
size,  containing  a population  5 times  as  large,  and  situated  at 
so  great  a distance.  The  first  thing  is 

1.  Superiority  in  the  science  and  practice  of  war.  In  aU  the 
nations  of  Europe,  mditary  colleges  are  established,  and  men  of 
the  highest  qualifications  are  supported  in  them.  War,  in  all  its 
branches,  as  fortification,  gunnery,  fencing,  attack,  and  defence, 
has  long  been  taught  as  science,  and  to  no  subject  have  the 
highest  powers  and  faculties  of  the  mind  been  applied  with 
more  assiduity  and  energy.  Able  works  are  published  on  aU 
these  subjects,  and  opinions,  principles,  and  inventions  are  sub- 
jected to  the  test  of  experiment.  Military  operations  are  care- 
fully analyzed.  If  successful,  the  causes  of  that  success  are 
ascertained ; and  if  unsuccessful,  the  causes  are  searched  out 
and  understood.  No  native  government  in  India  has  ever 
founded  or  supported  any  military  or  naval  schools  to  prepare 
for  the  military  or  naval  professions.  The  command  of  armies 
is  generally  intrusted  to  favorites,  almost  sure  to  be  unfit  per- 
sons, or  to  those  who  have  some  experience  and  been  fortunate 
in  such  matters,  whether  the  result  of  competency  or  chance. 
But  those  who  may  have  acquired  some  experience  and  skill, 
having  had  no  previous  education  in  scientific  principles  to 
guide  them,  must  be  very  inferior  to  what  they  would  have  been, 
could  they  have  had  the  advantages  of  a suitable  scientific  edu- 
tion  at  first. 

Officers  in  the  armies  of  the  native  princes  of  India  have  not 
the  means  and  advantages  of  improvement  which  European 
officers  have.  They  have  no  books  on  the  subjects  of  their 
profession,  and  few  if  any  histories  of  wars  and  battles  which 
they  can  examine.  Nor  do  they  learn  so  much  of  each  other  in 
social  and  professional  intercourse.  In  times  of  trouble  and 
difficulty,  councils  of  war  are  seldom  if  ever  called  or  known. 
In  oriental  armies,  all  power  is  generally  vested  in  one  com- 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


287 


commander,  and  all  confidence  is  placed  in  him.  If  he  is  killed, 
and  it  becomes  known,  this  generally  decides  the  battle.  There 
is  none  to  take  his  place,  none  in  whom  they  have  confidence. 
All  are  panic-struck,  and  confusion  and  flight  ensue.  I have 
often  heard  the  natives  of  India  express  their  surprise  at  the 
dift’erence  between  European  and  Lidian  armies  in  this  respect. 
In  European  armies  or  regiments,  if  the  commander  is  killed  or 
wounded,  another  officer  at  once  assumes  the  command,  and 
then  another  and  another  if  need  be,  and  the  battle  still  goes 
on,  and  all  continue  fighting  as  if  no  officer  had  fallen. 

The  difference  between  European  soldiers  and  native  sepoys, 
is  scarcely  less  than  between  the  respective  officers.  The  na- 
tives become  good  soldiers,  when  formed  into  regiments  and  in- 
structed in  the  discipline  of  European  armies.  But  effective 
discipline  was  little  known  in  the  armies  of  India,  when  the 
English  commenced  their  conquests  there.  The  strength  of 
armies  was  supposed  to  be  in  their  number.  The  superiority  of 
European  armies  on  accoimt  of  their  discipline,  was  obvious  in 
the  conflicts  of  the  Portuguese,  the  French  and  the  Dutch,  with 
the  natives  of  India.  Such  conflicts  were  like  those  of  the 
Greeks  with  the  Persians,  or  the  Romans  with  the  barbarians,  or 
the  Spaniards  with  the  Mexicans. 

The  European  armies  also  as  much  excelled  the  armies  of 
India  in  the  superiority  of  their  weapons,  as  their  cannon,  their 
muskets,  pistols,  and  swords,  as  they  did  in  their  discipline.  In- 
deed, we  may  say  the  same  of  all  the  material  of  war,  as  pow- 
der, balls,  bombs,  etc. 

The  superiority  of  the  natives  of  Europe  to  those  of  India, 
and  all  the  southern  countries  of  Asia  in  aU  matters  of  war,  be- 
came obvious  as  soon  as  they  came  into  conflict  wdth  each 
other.  When  the  European  nations  began  to  acquire  territory 
and  to  evince  a spirit  for  conquest,  some  of  the  Indian  princes 
attempted  to  introduce  European  weapons  and  discipline  into 
their  armies,  and  wdth  this  view  employed  such  persons  as  they 
could  obtain.  For  this  purpose  many  Europeans,  chiefly  French, 
were  employed  by  Hyder  Ali  and  liis  son  Tippoo,  by  the  Nizam, 
by  Scindia,  and  by  Runjeet  Singh.  Such  officers  were  some- 
times promoted  to  high  command,  and  the  most  severe  wars  and 
battles  the  English  have  had  with  the  native  powers  of  Lidia, 


288 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


were  with  armies  into  which  European  discipline  had  been 
more  or  less  introduced.  Aware  of  the  obstacles  and  difficul- 
ties which  they  might  encounter  from  this  source,  it  became  a 
principle  with  the  English  at  an  early  period  of  their  history  in 
India  to  effect  the  removal  as  far  as  possible  of  all  such  officers 
from  the  armies  of  the  native  powers,  and  to  prevent  any 
Europeans — except  such  as  they  should  themselves  approve  — 
being  employed  by  any  native  powers.  Articles  to  this  effect 
generally  made  a part  of  their  treaties  with  native  princes. 
Future  conquest  was  in  this  way  made  easy. 

2.  The  government  and  constitution  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, though  complicated  and  often  slow  and  cumbersome  in 
its  operation,  is  yet  well  adapted  for  acquiring  and  governing 
such  a country  as  India.  The  governments  of  Calcutta,  Madras, 
and  Bombay  have  generally  consisted  each  of  a governor  and 
commander-in-chief,  (who  has  always  the  rank  of  general  in  the 
English  army,)  sent  from  England,  and  two  councillors  who 
have  long  been  in  the  employment  of  the  East  India  Company 
in  India.  The  governor  in  Calcutta  is  called  the  governor-gen- 
eral, and  the  government  in  Calcutta  can  assume  power  over 
the  governments  in  Madras  and  Bombay,  should  any  emergency 
occur.  The  governments  in  India  are  subject  to  the  Directors 
of  the  Company,  and  these  are  subject  to  the  Ministry,  and  the 
Ministry  to  Parliament ; thus  constituting  a connection  of  con- 
trol, responsibility,  and  restraint  beyond  the  government  of  any 
country  in  the  world.  And  not  only  have  the  Directors  of  the 
Company  always  had  respect  to  ascertained  and  competent 
quahfications  in  the  appointments  of  their  agency,  but  when 
any  one  in  their  employment  has  exhibited  decided  incompe- 
tcncy,  or  did  not  foUow  their  instructions  and  regulations  to 
their  satisfaction,  he  was  dismissed  or  displaced,  and  some  other 
one  appointed.  The  Directors  have  shown  great  energy,  decis- 
ion, and  independence  in  the  exercise  of  their  powers  and  rights 
in  the  government  of  India,  and  among  those  who  have  been 
displaced  and  dismissed  by  them,  arc  councillors  and  governors, 
generals  and  govcrnors-general.  In  1844,  the  Directors  of  the 
Company  in  the  exercise  of  reserved  rights  and  without  considt- 
ing  the  Ministry,  recalled  Ijord  Ellcnborough,  then  governor- 
general,  because  his  admmistration  was  not  in  their  view  for  the 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


289 


good  of  India,  and  though  this  exercise  of  their  authority  at 
first  excited  great  surprise  and  incurred  for  a while  much  cen- 
sure, yet  when  all  the  facts  and  circumstances  became  Imown, 
public  opinion  generally  approved  of  what  they  had  done. 

Now  if  we  compare  the  government  and  agency  of  the  East 
India  Company  with  the  emperors,  kings,  and  princes  of  India, 
who  are  absolute  and  despotic,  arbitrary  and  often  uneducated,* 
generally  controlled  by  their  minister  or  vizier,  and  other  jirofli- 
gate  favorites,  and  surrounded  with  their  corrupt  and  venal  courts, 
we  shall  at  once  see  that  the  English  would  have  great  advan- 
tages over  the  natives  in  all  matters  of  war  and  diplomacy,  and 
that  the  natural  and  almost  necessary  result  of  hostile  or  ofiicial 
intercourse  between  them  would  be  conquest,  success,  and  exal- 
tation on  the  part  of  the  former,  and  defeat,  submission,  and  deg- 
radation on  the  other. 

3.  The  position  of  the  first  places  which  the  English  acquired 
in  India,  gave  them  great  advantages  in  their  wars  with  the  na- 
tive powers,  and  also  for  governing  the  country.  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay  soon  became  large  seaports,  always  open 
for  communication  with  each  other,  as  weU  as  with  every  part 
of  the  sea-coast  of  India,  and  with  Europe  and  all  the  world. 
No  native  government  in  India  has  ever  had  sufficient  naval 
power  to  contend  wdth  the  English,  or  to  blockade  any  of  their 
seaports.  These  cities  became  the  seats  of  government,  and  they 
had  such  facilities  for  sending  military  forces  to  different  parts 
of  India,  as  no  native  powder  ever  possessed.  Thus  in  their 
wars  %vith  Hyder  Ali,f  and  Tippoo  Sultan,  military  forces  pro- 
ceeded from  Madras  to  invade  their  dominions  on  the  east  side, 
and  at  the  same  time  from  Bombay  to  invade  them  on  the  west 
side.  So  in  the  Mahratta  wars,  forces  proceeded  into  the  Mah- 
ratta  territories  simultaneously  from  Calcutta,  Madras,  and 
Bombay.  Thus  these  cities,  all  under  one  government,  possessed 
great  advantages  for  carrying  on  war  in  aU  parts  of  India,  and 
these  advantages  have  been  wrell  improved. 

The  English  having  at  all  times  the  command  of  the  sea, 

♦ Shcvajee,  Hyder  Ali,  and  Eunjeet  Singh,  who  were  among  the  most  power- 
ful princes  of  India,  could  never  write  or  read. 

t So  Ilydcr  Ali  said,  “ It  is  not  what  I can  see  of  the  English  power  that  I 
dread,  but  it  is  what  I cannot  see  that  I fear.” 

25 


290 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


could  send  troops  and  military  stores  to  any  places  on  the  sea- 
coast  where  they  might  be  required,  or  from  which  they  could 
be  best  transported  to  the  scenes  of  war  in  the  interior.  In  this 
way  all  their  power  in  India  could  soon  be  concentrated  upon 
any  particular  spot.  The  native  princes,  unable  to  comprehend 
the  extent  and  sources  of  the  Enghsh  power,  or  to  appreciate 
the  celerity  of  their  movements,  were  often  surprised  to  find  their 
territories  invaded  where  they  were  not  expecting  it,  and  then  to 
see  their  plans  frustrated,  their  armies  defeated,  and  their  forts 
captured.  And  if  their  attack  on  any  place  failed,  their  ships 
were  at  hand  to  furnish  escape  for  the  army ; and  if  the  forces  in 
any  place  were  no  longer  necessary,  the  ships  could  at  once 
transport  them  to  places  where  they  were  required.  The  armies 
of  Bengal,  of  Madras  and  the  peninsula,  and  of  Bombay,  were 
available  for  any  exigency  in  almost  any  part  of  India,  and  in 
a manner  and  to  an  extent  previously  unknown  and  unthought 
of  in  Indian  warfare.  And  the  great  advantages  the  English  have 
obtained  from  having  the  command  of  the  sea  in  their  eastern 
wars,  have  not  been  limited  to  India.  The  sable  armies  of  India 
under  English  officers  and  English  colors  have  been  seen  in 
Egypt,  in  Arabia,  in  Persia,  in  Mauritius,  in  Ceylon,  in  Burma, 
in  Java,  in  Singapore,  and  in  China.  And  in  the  revolutions  and 
convulsions  and  changes  yet  to  take  place  in  the  southern  coun- 
tries of  Asia,  even  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  the  native  armies  of  India 
may  be  expected  to  be  seen  fighting  under  the  banners  of  Eng- 
land, governed  by  English  mind,  supported  by  the  revenues  of 
India  and  the  southern  countries  of  Asia,  and  extending  the^ng- 
lish  possessions  till  they  shall  include  aU  places  which  may  ap- 
pear to  be  worth  obtaining,  or  when  acquired  to  be  worth  keeping. 

4.  The  state  of  India  when  the  English  commenced  their 
conquests  and  from  that  time  must  also  be  considered.  The 
great  Mogul  empire  of  Delhi  fell  to  pieces  soon  after  the  death 
of  Aurungzeb  in  1706.  At  that  time  the  English  j)ossessions 
in  India,  consisted  of  only  a few  small  forts  or  rather  fortified 
factories  on  the  sea-shore.  It  was  not  till  the  struggle  between 
the  English  and  the  French  for  ascendency  commenced  in  the 
Carnatic,  in  1744,  that  the  East  India  Company  became  one  of 
the  political  powers  in  India.  The  English  never  had  any  war 
with  the  Mogul  emperors,  but  only  with  the  comparatively  petty 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


291 


princes  and  powers  who,  upon  the  breaking  up  of  that  great 
empire,  succeeded  in  establishing,  or  were  struggling  to  establish, 
their  independence  in  some  of  its  provinces.  Thus  India  had 
become  divided  into  a large  number  of  small  governments,  and 
no  inconsiderable  part  of  it  was  often  in  a state  of  anarchy  and 
revolution.  The  English  conquest  of  India  was  effected  grad- 
ually, and  not  only  by  employing  the  native  soldiers  or  sepoys 
to  subject  their  country  to  foreigners,  but  often  by  joining  one 
native  power  when  at  war  with  another,  and  thus  taking  the 
advantage  of  their  dissensions  to  bring  them  under  foreign 
dominion. 

The  peculiar  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  India  must  be 
considered.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  East  India 
Company  found  no  difficulty  in  forming  regiments  of  native 
soldiers,  instructing  them  in  European  discipline,  and  then  em- 
ploying them  as  they  had  occasion.  The  Indian  armies  have 
always  been  ready  to  follow  and  to  fight  for  those  who  would 
pay  them  most.  No  love  of  tribe  or  nation  or  country,  has  pre- 
vented them  from  seeking  each  one  his  own  interests,  so  long 
as  there  was  no  interference  with  their  customs  and  superstitions. 
So  also  in  all  other  kinds  of  employment.  The  English  have 
always  been  able  to  procure  the  best  native  talent  in  every  place 
and  in  every  kind  of  business,  for  diplomacy  and  aU  kinds  of 
agency  for  which  they  might  have  occasion.  It  might  be  nat- 
urally and  reasonably  expected  that  such  men  as  the  East  India 
Company  appointed  for  their  governors  and  agents  with  such 
native  assistance  as  they  could  alw’^ays  procure,  would  exceed 
the  native  princes,  ignorant,  inexperienced,  and  profligate  as 
these  often  were,  and  surrounded  wdth  depraved  favorites  and 
corrupt  courts.  It  w^as  as  natural  that  the  English  governors 
and  their  agents  in  such  circumstances,  should  exceed  the  native 
powers  and  their  agency  in  diplomacy  and  all  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment, as  it  was  that  the  English  officers  with  their  disciplined 
forces  should  be  superior  to  the  native  armies  in  the  battle-field. 
And  not  only  have  the  English  alw^ays  been  able  to  procure  the 
best  native  agency  by  paying  liberally  for  it,  but  they  have  also 
been  able  to  protect  aU  such  agents  from  any  dreaded  conse- 
quences of  their  conduct  from  the  displeasure  of  their  countrymen, 
by  furnishing  them  wdth  places  of  refuge  and  of  residence  in  their 


292 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


own  territories.  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  and  some  other  cit- 
ies have  always  furnished  places  of  residence  where  natives  of 
aU  classes  could  live  in  safety,  ease,  and  luxury,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  government,  when  their  subserviency  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  East  India  Company  had  made  them  odious  to  their 
countrymen,  and  they  could  no  longer  live  securely  under  the 
government  of  their  own  princes. 

5.  Resources.  The  capital  of  the  East  India  Company  was 
increased  at  different  times,  according  to  exigencies  and  the 
profits  of  business.  Since  1793,  the  capital  has  been  nominally 
<£6,000,000.*  The  amount,  however,  which  has  been  actually 
paid  into  the  treasmy  of  the  Company  for  the  stock  is  <£7,784,- 
000,  some  of  the  last  additions  having  been  subscribed  at  a high 
premium.  From  1793  to  1833,  private  trade  was  permitted 
between  England  and  India,  but  it  was  subject  to  many  restric- 
tions. The  trade  between  England  and  China  continued  to  be 
a monopoly  till  1833.  Previous  to  1833,  the  resources  of  the 
Company  consisted  of  the  profits  of  their  trade,  and  the  reve- 
nues realized  in  various  ways  in  India.  In  1833,  the  Company 
ceased  to  be  a trading  corporation ; commerce  between  England 
and  India  and  China  became  free,  and  since  that  time  their  rev- 
enues have  aU  been  derived  from  Lidia.  The  resources  of  the 
Company,  consisting  of  the  profits  of  their  trade  and  the  reve- 
nues derived  from  India,  have  probably  exeeeded  for  nearly  a 
century  past,  the  resources  of  any  native  power  in  India.  And 
if  these  revenues  of  the  Company  at  any  time  were  not  suffi- 
cient for  the  expensive  wars  in  which  they  were  engaged,  they 
found  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  money  in  the  way  of  loans  in 
England,  and  from  their  countrymen  in  India,  to  any  extent 
they  required,  while  the  native  powers  seldom  had  any  credit  in 
financial  matters  among  their  own  subjects,  or  in  any  other  part 
of  the  country.  A few  facts  will  show  the  resources  of  the 
English. 

In  1800,  the  revenue  of  the  Company  was  $37,972,685. 

* Tills  sum  does  not  show  tlic  value  of  tlicir  capital.  For  many  years  before 
the  late  renewal  of  tlicir  charter,  the  stock  fluctuated  from  250  to  300  per  cent. 
Since  the  renewal  of  their  charter,  it  has  been  from  225  to  250  per  cent.  So 
their  capital,  though  nominally  .£0,000,000,  has  been  re<ally  in  value  from 
£15,000,000  to  £18,000,000. 


HISTORY — THE  EDROPEAN  PERIOD. 


293 


Tlioir  cash  and  property  on  hand  for  sale,  in  India,  China,  and 
England  was  $50,155,000,  and  the  amount  of  their  debt  was 
$62,921,830.  In  1810,  the  revenue  was  $82,321,800.  Their 
eash  and  property  on  hand  for  sale  was  estimated  at  $113,- 
707,710;  and  their  debts  had  increased  to  $194,383,910.  Every 
decade  shows  an  increase  of  territory,  of  revenue,  and  of 
debt.  In  1850,  the  gross  revenue  of  India,  all  realized  in  that 
country,  is  stated  to  exceed  £27,000,000  or  about  $135,000,000, 
and  their  debt  in  England  and  India  is  stated  to  exceed 
£50,000,000  or  $250,000,000.  As  the  Company  was  deprived 
of  their  exclusive  trade  with  China  in  1833,  the  amount 
of  their  disposable  property  had  much  diminished.  But  the 
Directors  declared  that  the  amount  of  money  in  the  hands  of 
their  numerous  agents,  and  the  value  of  their  ships,  forts,  muni- 
tions of  war,  public  buildings,  etc.,  were  equal  in  value  to  the 
aggregate  of  their  debts;  so  that  if  Parliament  refusing  to  pro- 
long the  charter,  should  take  possession  of  India  for  the  crown, 
the  public  property  of  all  the  different  kinds  which  the  English 
nation  would  acquire,  would  be  equal  in  value  to  the  amount 
of  the  debts  of  the  Company  which  they  must  by  the  terms  of 
the  charter  assume.  These  facts  and  figures  show  that  the 
resources  of  the  East  India  Company  in  their  nature,  amount, 
and  facility  of  realization  and  application,  have  been  greatly  su- 
perior to  any  native  government,  or  to  any  combination  of  the 
native  powers  with  which  the  English  have  come  in  conflict,  for 
nearly  a century  past. 

6.  Compensation  for  services.  The  salaries  of  Europeans  in 
aU  high  situations  in  the  East  India  Company’s  employment 
are  large  and  sufficient  to  command  the  first  rate  of  qualifications 
in  every  department  of  the  government  in  India.  The  salary 
of  the  governor-general  since  1773  has  been  £25,000  ($125,000) 
yearly  while  his  contingent  or  extra  charges  have  often  exceeded 
this  sum.*  The  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  has  a salary 
of  £18,000.  The  members  of  the  supreme  council  in  Bengal 
have  £9,600  each.  The  chief  justice  has  £8,000,  and  the 
puisne  judges  £6,000  each.  The  governors  of  Madras  and 
Bpmbay  have  £12,000  each.  The  members  of  the  coimcil  have 

* In  1850,  the  governor-general’s  extra  expenses  amounted  to  £45,000. 

25* 


294 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


£6,000  each.  The  chief  justice  in  each  place  has  <£6,000,  and 
the  puisne  judges  £5,000  each.  These  sums  show  that  the 
salaries  which  the  Company  gives,  are  sufficient  to  procure  the 
first  rate  of  qualifications,  if  money  can  procure  them.  True, 
the  salaries  mentioned  belong  to  high  situations,  but  the  remu- 
neration of  all  who  obtain  their  appointments  from  the  Court 
of  Directors,  amounting  in  the  different  departments  called  the 
“ Civil,  the  Clerical,  the  Medical,  the  Military,  and  the  Naval 
Services,”  to  9 or  10,000  commissions,  is  large.  No  govern- 
ments in  the  world  give  such  salaries  to  their  functionaries  as 
the  East  India  Company  gives  to  its  agents  and  servants. 
These  salaries  are  sufficient  to  engage  the  first  and  most  efficient 
talent  in  England,  and  the  East  India  Company  has  been  fortu- 
nate in  having  had  many  distinguished  men  in  its  emplojunent. 

7.  The  Enghsh  government  in  India  has  gamed  much  by  pur- 
suing a liberal  policy  towards  native  princes  in  allowing  them 
pensions  and  annuities,  when  in  the  course  of  political  changes 
they  had  become  reduced  in  their  circumstances  or  involved  in 
their  affairs.  In  some  instances  these  annuities  have  been  given 
in  consideration  of  their  rehnquishing  certain  rights  and  claims, 
though  perhaps  not  in  circumstances  to  enforce  them,  and  so 
wffiat  was  given  them  was  a matter  of  discretion  and  not  of 
necessity.  For  instance,  the  affairs  of  some  prince  have  become 
involved  and  complicated,  and  it  appears  uncertain  what  will  be 
the  result.  The  agents  of  the  East  India  Company  offer,  if  he 
will  resign  his  affaus  into  their  hands,  to  give  him  and  perhaps 
his  family  in  perpetuity  a large  annuity  with  a secure  retreat  for 
life,  and  he  at  once  prefers  the  certain  annuity  with  a life  of 
ease  and  luxury  to  the  course  of  uncertainty  and  danger,  and 
perhaps  of  disgrace  and  poverty.  In  some  instances  native 
princes  have  surrendered  themselves  and  their  famihes  without 
any  stipulations,  trusting  entirely  to  the  generosity  of  the  Eng- 
lish to  do  what  might  appear  to  them  to  be  proper  and  right.  Li 
the  early  part  of  the  British  history  in  India,  their  governments 
in  that  country  and  the  Court  of  Directors  in  England  mani- 
fested a very  generous  spirit  in  the  provision  they  made  for  the 
embarrassed,  reduced,  and  dependent  native  princes  and  their 
families,  and  their  acts  of  this  character  had  much  effect  in  ex- 
tending their  influence  and  power. 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


295 


The  East  India  Company  by  its  original  charter  in  IGOO,  had 
a monopoly  of  all  the  trade  between  England,  and  the  countries 
and  islands  of  southern  Asia.  And  the  Company  retained  this 
monopoly  with  some  modifications,  introduced  from  time  to 
time  as  the  charter  was  renewed,  for  nearly  200  years  in  respect 
to  India,  and  for  233  years  in  respect  to  China.  It  is  very  re- 
markable that,  in  such  a commercial  and  manufacturing  nation 
as  the  English,  a company  of  merchants  should  retain  for  so 
long  a time  the  monopoly  of  so  large  a part  of  the  trade  of  the 
country.  Their  retaining  this  right  so  long  was  to  be  ascribed 
in  part  to  their  great  wealth,  and  the  power  and  influence  they 
were  able  to  exert  in  the  councils  of  the  nation.  Previous  to 
the  Refonn  Bill  in  1830,  the  Company  were  able  always  to  have 
a large  representation  of  their  number  and  uiterest  in  Parliament. 
They  also  at  different  times  paid  to  the  English  government 
previous  to  1812,  (as  their  accounts  show,)  in  consideration  of 
their  monopoly  and  protection  the  large  sum  of  £5,135,319  or 
more  than  25,000,000  dollars.  The  proprietors  and  agents  of  the 
Company  were  also  continually  bringing  much  wealth  into  the 
country  which  contributed  to  increase  the  national  resources. 
The  English  government  or  the  ministry  appear  often  to  have 
been  willing  to  devolve  the  complicated  affairs  of  India  upon  a 
body  of  men,  who  would  be  responsible  for  its  proper  govern- 
ment to  Parliament,  and  who  could  be  at  any  time  called  on  to 
give  an  account  of  their  proceedings.  It  was  also  seen  that  the 
Company  was  frequently  engaged  in  successful  wars,  and  was 
acquiring  large  possessions  which  would  ultimately  belong  to 
the  English  nation,  and  was  doing  aU  this,  too,  without  adding  to 
their  taxes  or  to  their  debts.*  And  for  these  reasons,  though 
they  have  not  aU  the  same  comparative  force  as  they  formerly 

* Tlie  East  India  Company  lias  added  India  to  the  British  foreijrn  possessions 
and  made  India  pay  for  the  conquest  of  itself,  and  the  expenses  of  this  conquest 
have  to  a considerable  extent  been  paid  to  England.  “ Our  wars  in  India,”  says 
Dr.  Wil  son,  “ though  attended  with  loss  of  life,  as  all  wars  are,  have  not  cost  our 
nation  a single  farthing,  but  have  been  defrayed  from  the  revenues  or  credit  of 
that  country  itself.  Even  when  they  have  been  waged  in  different  provinces 
of  the  land,  large  advantages  of  a pecuniarj-  kind  have  accrued  to  our  nation.” 
The  numeixius  European  officers  and  agents  employed  in  these  wars  and  con- 
quests were  English.  All  were  well  paid,  and  many  of  them  by  salaries  and 
other  means  acquired  princely  fortunes. 


296 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


had,  the  same  Company  still  retain  possession  of  Lidia,  and 
their  charter  has  been  lately  extended  till  1874. 

In  1793,  the  dividend  of  the  East  India  Company  was  fixed 
by  Parhament  at  10  i per  cent.,  and  it  has  still  been  continued 
at  that  rate.  For  nearly  a century  previous  to  that  period  the 
dividend  had  fluctuated  from  5 to  12  per  cent.,  and  upon  an  av- 
erage was  about  8 per  cent.  This  is  not  a high  rate  when  it  is 
considered  that  a part  of  it  was  subscribed  at  the  rate  of  200 
per  cent. ; another  part  of  it  at  174  per  cent.,  and  another 
part  of  it  at  155  per  cent.,  so  that  for  the  nominal  capital  of 
£6,000,000,  there  was  actually  paid  into  the  Company’s  trea- 
sury <£7,780,000.  But  the  advantages  which  the  proprietors 
derive  from  stock,  is  not  limited  to  their  dividends.  Through  the 
Directors  they  elect,  they  have  always  managed  to  share  among 
them  a large  part  of  the  patronage  or  appointments  to  situations 
in  the  government  of  India. 

In  considering  the  course  of  policy  pursued  by  the  English, 
which  has  resulted  in  their  acquiring  in  India  one  of  the  largest 
empires  ever  known,  there  appears  much  less  to  censure  in  the 
Directors  and  controlling  power  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
England  than  in  their  agents  in  India.  Increase  of  territory 
has  not  generally  been  the  desire  of  the  proprietors  or  Directors 
of  the  Company,  and  in  accordance  with  this  view  have  been 
the  general  spirit  and  often  the  positive  character  of  their  in- 
structions to  their  agents  in  India.  But  many  of  these  agents 
have  been  of  a different  spirit ; especially  has  this  been  true  of 
many  in  the  army.  Various  causes  have  united  to  produce  and 
keep  aUve  this  war-spirit.  The  spirit  of  an  army  is  generally 
restive  and  aggressive.  In  war  the  wages  of  officers  and  sol- 
diers are  much  increased.  Promotion  is  more  rapid.  Honors  are 
more  abundant  and  more  easily  procured.  Large  spoils  under 
the  name  of  prize-money,  have  often  been  taken  and  distributed 
among  the  officers  and  soldiers.  The  conquest  of  a new  terri- 
tory generally  creates  a large  number  of  lucrative  and  honorable 
situations,  some  of  which  must  be  filled  for  a while  at  least  by 
military  men.  And  even  when  wars  were  apparently  com- 
menced wilhout  sufficient  reasons,  yet  if  conducted  to  a success- 
ful termination,  the  actors  would  calculate  to  be  commended, 
honored,  and  well  rewarded.  In  these  circumstances  wars  have 


HISTORY — THE  EUROPEAN  PERIOD. 


297 


been  sometimes  commenced  not  only  without  authority  from  tlie 
superior  powers  in  England,  but  in  opposition  to  their  known 
spirit  and  general  instructions.  Indeed,  their  first  intelligence 
concerning  some  of  the  Indian  wars,  was  that  hostilities  had 
been  commenced  under  the  pretence  that  the  case  was  too 
urgent  to  admit  of  delay  for  obtaining  advice,  and  then  there 
was  no  alternative  but  to  carry  it  on.  And  then  it  became  nec- 
essary for  them  to  vindicate  or  exculpate  their  agents,  in  order 
to  sustain  their  own  position  and  interests  before  the  English 
nation. 

The  governors  and  other  agents  of  the  East  India  Company 
in  India,  have  often  unexpectedly  found  thertiselves  in  circum- 
stances of  great  difficulty  and  perplexity.  The  native  govern- 
ments, Mohammedan  as  well  as  Hindu,  have  always  been  despotic 
in  their  form,  and  their  princes  have  often  been  ignorant,  weak- 
minded  and  capricious,  unacquainted  wdth  international  laws  and 
usages,  and  under  the  influence  of  unworthy,  depraved,  and  faith- 
less favorites.  The  history  of  Asiatic  courts  generally  consists 
of  purposes,  plans,  and  actions  of  treachery,  intrigue,  duplicity, 
and  venality.  Some  princes  cannot  control  the  agents  for  whose 
acts  according  to  the  laws  of  nations  they  are  responsible,  and 
again  they  will  refuse  to  fulfil  the  engagements  of  their  fuUy 
accredited  agents.  Revolutions  and  sudden  changes  often  occur 
in  oriental  governments,  and  the  party  which  comes  into  power 
will  refuse  to  abide  by  the  engagements  of  the  previous  govern- 
ment. Attacks  upon  the  Enghsh  and  invasions  of  their  terri- 
tory, have  been  sometimes  made,  not  only  without  any  prerious 
declaration  of  war,  but  while  making,  up  to  the  last  possible 
day,  the  strongest  assurances  of  friendship,  peace,  and  good-wfll. 
A knowledge  of  the  Indian  character,  of  the  rulers  and  the 
inhabitants,  and  of  the  circumstances  in  which  the  English  have 
often  been  placed,  is  necessary  in  order  to  a just  appreciation 
of  many  things  in  their  history.  If  some  agents  have  been 
commended  and  rewarded  when  they  ought  to  have  been  cen- 
sured and  punished,  others  have  been  censured  when  acting 
from  the  best  intentions,  and  doing  as  well  as  they  possibly 
could  in  their  circumstances. 


PART  III. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


THE  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY. 

Tee  East  Lidia  Company,  now  the  rulers  of  India,  is  an 
association  of  merchants  and  capitalists  incorporated  in  London 
in  1600,  and  continued  by  successive  renewals  of  their  charter 
with  such  modifications  as  experience  suggested  dowm  to  the 
present  time.  The  capital  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  this 
Company  is  £6,000,000,*  which  is  divided  in  transferrable 
shares.  The  number  of  proprietors  varies  as  the  stock  may  be 
more  or  less  divided  at  different  times.  The  proprietors  when 
assembled  in  due  form  and  order  for  business,  is  called  the 
“ Court  of  Proprietors.”  In  these  meetings  a proprietor  of  £500 
is  permitted  to  speak  but  not  to  vote.  A proprietor  of  £1,000 
has  one  vote;  a proprietor  of  £3,000  has  2 votes;  a proprietor 
of  £6,000  has  3 votes,  and  a proprietor  of  £10,000  or  more  has 
4 votes.  The  number  of  proprietors  generally  exceeds  3,000, 
but  as  none  can  vote  unless  they  have  £1,000  or  more  of  stock 
and  have  owned  their  stock  for  one  year,  the  voters  seldom  ex- 
ceed 2,000  and  are  often  much  leSs.  Matters  of  a pecuniary 
nature  are  sometimes  considered  and  transacted  at  these  meet- 
ings, but  their  chief  business  is  to  elect  their  Committee  of 
management  who  are  called  Directors,  and  to  receive  the  divi- 
dends upon  their  stock.  The  rate  of  dividend  is  fixed  by 
Parliament  at  10 J per  cent.  The  price  of  the  stock  in  the  mar- 
ket for  many  years  previous  to  the  late  renewal  of  the  charter, 
varied  from  250  to  300  per  cent.  Since  the  late  renewal  of  the 

* Some  of  the  last  additions  to  tliis  sum  were  subscribed  for  or  the  shares 
were  sold  at  an  advanced  rate,  and  the  whole  amount  of  money  paid  into  the 
Company’s  treasury  is  £7,780,000.  Tlie  price  of  this  stock  for  many  years  pre- 
vious to  the  late  renewal  of  the  charter,  fluctuated  from  250  to  300  per  cent.  If 
275  is  taken  as  the  average  price,  the  value  of  the  stock,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
capital  of  the  Company  exceeded  80,000,000  dollars. 

(298) 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OP  INDIA. 


299 


charter  the  stock  appears  to  have  varied  from  225  to  250  per 
cent.  The  value  of  this  stock  depends  in  ])art  upon  the  pat- 
ronage, or  power  of  appointing  to  situations,  in  the  government 
of  India,  which  the  proprietors  are  able  to  secure  through  the 
agency  of  the  Directors  they  elect.  At  the  late  renewal  of  the 
charter  this  patronage  was  somewhat  diminished  and  variously 
modified,  and  these  changes  have  reduced  the  value  of  the  stock. 
The  present  charter  is  to  continue  tfil  1874. 

The  committee  of  management,  or  Directors,  as  fixed  by  the 
renewed  charter,  are  18  in  number ; of  these  12  are  elected  by 
the  proprietors,  and  6 are  appointed  by  the  Crown  or  the  IVIinis- 
try.  These  latter  must  have  resided  10  years  or  more  in  India. 
One  third  of  the  Directors  go  out  of  office  every  second  year, 
but  may  be  reelected  or  reappointed.  The  Directors  have  £500 
salary  each,  and  their  chairman  and  deputy  chairman  have 
£1,000  each.  A proprietor  to  be  eligible  for  Director  must  own 
£2,000  of  stock.  The  Directors  when  convened  in  due  form 
and  order  for  business,  is  called  the  “ Court  of  Directors  of  the 
East  India  Company.”  The  office  of  Director  has  generally 
been  valued  far  more  for  the  power  and  patronage  they  enjoy, 
than  for  the  salary  they  receive.  This  power  and  patronage, 
though  diminished  by  the  changes  made  in  the  charter  when 
lately  renewed,  is  stiU  large  and  very  valuable,  enabling  the 
Directors  to  secure  for  their  families  and  for  their  friends  many 
honorable  and  lucrative  situations  in  Lidia. 

The  affairs  of  such  an  empire  as  the  English  possessions  in 
India  now  form,  are  not  entirely  subject  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. Li  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  great  complaints 
were  made  of  the  governors  and  other  agents  of  the  Company 
in  India,  and  an  inquiry  into  these  matters  in  Parliament  resulted 
in  the  creation  of  a body  called  “ The  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  controlling  the  affairs  of  India,”  which  has  been  continued 
to  the  present  time.  This  body  is  a department  of  the  English 
government,  and  is  commonly  called  the  “ Board  of  Control  for 
India.”  It  consists  of  6 members,  of  whom  the  first  is  called 
President  of  the  Board  of  Control,  but  he  might  more  properly 
be  called  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India,  and  he  is  always  one 
of  the  IVLnistry.  This  Board  generally  mcludes  2 or  3 other 
members  of  the  INIinistry,  and  aU  must  be  members  of  the  Privy 
Council.  This  Board,  having  a general  superintendence  of  the 


yuu  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

affairs  of  India,  makes  the  ministry  responsible  for  its  govern- 
ment, and  so  brings  India  under  the  control  and  protection  of 
Parliament. 

The  appointments  to  the  most  important  and  lucrative  situa- 
tions in  India,  are  divided  between  the  Board  of  Control,  that 
is,  the  Ministry,  and  the  Directors  of  the  Company.  The  former 
appoint  the  Judges  of  the  Royal  Courts  in  Calcutta,  Madras, 
and  Bombay,  the  Bishops,  and  the  officers  of  the  royal  troops 
serving  in  India.  The  latter  appoint  the  governor-general  and 
the  other  governors,  but  they  must  have  the  approbation  of  the 
ministry.  They  also  have  the  appointment  of  the  members  of 
the  councils.  Previous  to  the  late  changes  in  the  charter  of  the 
Company,  the  Dh-ectors  had  the  appointment  of  nearly  aU  situ- 
ations in  the  government  of  India,  but  their  patronage  has  been 
recently  much  diminished. 

For  nearly  a century  previous  to  the  recent  changes  in  the 
government  of  India,  there  was  a governor-general  and  council 
in  Bengal,  a governor  and  council  in  Madras,  and  a governor 
and  council  in  Bombay.  The  changes  made  or  contemplated 
in  the  renewed  charter  are  said  to  be : — The  office  of  governor- 
general  and  the  governments  of  Madras  and  of  Bombay  are  to 
continue,  a deputy  governor  to  be  appointed  in  Bengal,  another 
in  Northern  India,  and  perhaps  another  in  Scinde. 

The  office  of  governor-general  is  one  of  gi'eat  honor,  power, 
responsibility,  and  emolument.  It  is  the  highest  office  under  the 
British  Sovereign,  and  is  probably  the  highest  delegated  power 
and  honor  in  the  world.  The  governor-general  and  the  other 
governors  have  the  most  experienced  and  able  men  in  India 
associated  with  them  for  councillors,  secretaries,  etc.  The  salary 
of  the  governor-general  is  <£25,000  annually,  and  his  extra  ex- 
penses, which  are  charged  to  the  account  of  India,  not  unfre- 
quently  amount  to  a larger  sum.  In  1850,  these  “extra  ex- 
penses ” amounted  to  £45,000.  He  resides  in  any  place,  or 
moves  about  the  country  wherever  his  presence  or  his  power 
appears  to  be  required.  The  members  of  his  council  have  each 
£9,600  annually.  The  governors  of  Madras  and  Bombay  have 
each  £12,000  annually,  and  the  members  of  their  councils 
£6,000  each. 

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  government  is  very 
large.  They  are  divided  in  5 classes  or  departments,  namely. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


301 


“ the  Civil,  the  Clerical,  the  Medical,  the  ^Military,  and  the  Na- 
val Services.”  These  all  obtain  their  appointments  in  England. 
The  “ Civil  Service,”  or  department,  is  the  first  in  honor  and  in 
emoluments.  The  East  India  Company  has  a college  at  Ilailey- 
bury  in  England  for  the  education  of  men  for  this  department.* 
All  who  are  admitted  into  this  college  are  expected,  at  the  close 
of  their  education,  to  proceed  to  India,  to  be  there  employed  in 
the  government.  In  India,  they  are  under  the  control  of  the 
governors  and  councils.  Their  rank,  office,  and  salary  depend 
partly  upon  their  supposed  qualifications,  and  partly  upon  se- 
niority in  the  service.  They  become  governors,  ambassadors, 
councillors,  secretaries,  judges,  collectors  of  the  revenue,  finan- 
ciers, etc.  The  number  in  this  department  in  all  India,  is  stated 
to  be  generally  about  800.  Their  emoluments  are  large,  espec- 
ially of  those  who  have  been  for  considerable  time  in  the  coun- 
try.! One  printed  statement  says  the  average  salary  of  this 

* The  East  India  Company,  so  long  as  it  retained  only  its  commercial  charac- 
ter, could  easily  obtain  suitably  qualified  agents  in  England.  But  when  the 
Company  began  its  career  of  conquest,  and  had  foreign  possessions  to  govern, 
agents  of  different  qualifications  became  necessary.  Men  were  required  who 
were  competent  to  be  governors,  ambassadors,  legislators,  etc.,  and  who  should 
also  be  well  acquainted  with  the  character,  languages,  and  customs  of  the  people, 
among  whom  they  were  to  fill  these  responsible  situations.  The  Manjuis  of 
‘Wellesley,  then  governor-general  of  India,  perceiving  the  wants  of  the  Indian 
government,  in  1800  commenced  an  institution  in  Calcutta,  called  the  College 
of  Fort  William,  for  the  education  of  men  for  government  employment.  In 
this  college.  Dr.  C.  Buchanan,  well  known  for  his  “ Christian  Ilcsearches  in 
Asia,”  and  other  works,  was  vice-provost,  and  Dr.  W.  Carey,  ecpially  well  known 
for  his  missionary  labors,  was  one  of  the  professors.  This  college  did  not  meet 
the  views  of  the  Directors  in  England,  and  so  in  a few  years  it  was  abolished, 
and  the  college  in  Ilaileyburj-  was  established.  This  college  has  always  been  a 
favorite  institution  of  the  Company,  and  it  has  furnished  many  eminent  men. 
Previous  to  the  recent  changes  in  the  charter,  admission  into  this  college  was  in 
the  power  of  the  Directors  and  the  Board  of  Control,  but  now  admission  for  the 
number  annually  required  is  open  to  general  competition,  on  such  examinations 
as  are  prescribed.  It  is  expected  this  change  wiU  produce  important  results  in 
the  government  of  India. 

t On  first  reaching  India,  a civilian  is  allowed  about  £30  per  month,  till, 
having  passed  the  necessary  examination  in  one  or  more  of  the  oriental  lan- 
guages, (which  must  be  within  1 2 months  after  his  arrival,)  he  is  attached  to  the 
service,  the  emoluments  of  which  vary  from  £500  to  about  £10,000  per  annum. 
The  members  of  council  receive  £9,600  each  per  anniun  in  Bengal,  and  £6,000 
per  annum  in  Madras  and  Bombay.  Civil  servants  must  have  3 vears  actual 

26 


302 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


class  is  £1,750  each.  Another  statement  says  it  exceeds  £2,000 
each;  and  another  says  it  is  £2,250  each.  The  first  statement 
appears  to  be  the  average  of  the  fixed  salaries  of  the  whole  class 
in  India.  The  next  appears  to  be  the  average  of  the  fixed  sala- 
ries in  Bengal,  where  they  are  higher  than  in  the  other  Presiden- 
cies ; and  the  last  appears  to  be  the  average  sum  wliich  each 
actually  receives,  and  wliich  consists  of  the  salary  and  sundry 
“ extra  allowances,”  which  vary  with  their  situation  and  duties, 
and  generally  amomit  to  a very  considerable  sum,  in  addition  to 
the  fixed  salary. 

residence  in  India,  to  hold  a situation  of  over  £1,500  per  annum,  9 years’  resi- 
dence to  hold  a situation  of  over  £3,000  per  annum,  and  12  years’  residence  to 
hold  a situation  of  over  £4,000  per  annum.  No  civil  servant  can  receive  a 
greater  salary  than  £5,220  per  annum,  unless  he  he  a governor  or  member  of 
council.” 

The  following  statement  from  a late  number  of  the  Calcutta  Review,  shows 
the  salaries  of  different  situations  in  Bengal.  The  salaries  are  put  down  in 
rupees,  which  are  the  currency  of  India.  A rupee  is  commonly  reckoned  at  2 
shillings  sterling,  or  nearly  half  a dollar,  so  that  half  of  these  sums  will  be 
nearly  the  amount  of  the  salaries  in  dollars. 


“ Governor-General  of  India 

250,000  rupees, 

Chief  Justice 

83,347 

u 

2 Puisne  Judges,  each 

62,510 

(( 

4 Members  of  Council,  each 

96,320 

(( 

5 Judges  of  Suddur  Diwany  Adawlut,  average  each  . 

62,200 

(( 

2 Members  of  Suddur  Board  of  Revenue,  do.  . 

52,200 

(( 

3 Members  of  Customs,  Salt,  and  Opium,  average  each 

52,200 

u 

4 Political  situations,  average  each  .... 

50,000 

u 

4 Secretaries  to  government,  do 

52,200 

(C 

2 Opium  agents,  do. 

42,000 

u 

9 Revenue  Conunissioners,  average  each 

38,000 

u 

SO  Judges,  average  each 

30,000 

u 

45  Collectors  and  Magistrates,  salaries  from  . 

38,000 

u 

to 

28,000 

u 

and 

12,000 

u 

9 Miscellaneous  appointments,  varying  from  . 

28,000 

u 

to 

15,000 

u 

22  Additional  Collectors,  Joint  Magistrates,  and  Deputy 
Collectors,  from 

12,000 

u 

to 

8,400 

u 

2 Secretaries  of  Boards,  each 

30,000 

u 

1 Register 

30,000 

u 

35  Assistants,  at  from 

6,600 

u 

to 

5,000.” 

(( 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


303 


The  Clerical  Ser\'ice,  or  the  ecclesiastical  establishment  of  In- 
dia, consists  of  3 bishops  (one  in  Calcutta,  one  in  Madras,  and 
one  in  Ilombay),  and  120  chaplains  of  the  Church  of  England ; 
and  6 chaplains  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  namely,  2 in  Cal- 
cutta, 2 in  INIadras,  and  2 in  Bombay.*  The  bishops  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Queen  or  her  Ministry.  The  bishop  of  Calcutta 
(who  has  the  rank  of  metropolitan)  has  a salary  of  £5,000 
annually,  with  large  allowance  for  residence,  for  the  expenses  of 
visitations,  etc.,  and  a pension  of  £1,200  annually  after  filling 
his  office  a certain  number  of  years.  The  bishops  of  Madras 
and  Bombay  have  £2,500  each  annually,  with  allowances  for 
diocesan  expenses,  and  retiring  pensions  of  £800  annually.  The 
chaplains  are  divided  in  2 classes,  seniors  and  juniors,  or  chaplains 
and  assistant  chaplains,  and  they  have  salaries  varying  partly 
according  to  seniority,  and  partly  according  to  the  place  and 
duties  assigned  to  them,  from  2,500  to  6 or  7,000  dollars.  They 
also  receive  fees  for  particular  services,  and  after  performing 
duty  in  India  for  a certain  number  of  years  they  have  pensions 
for  life.f  The  ecclesiastical  establishment  originated,  and  has 
been  continued,  with  special  reference  to  the  European,  and 
nominally  Christian  population  in  the  employment  of  the  gov- 
ernment, but  other  Europeans  and  Indo-Britons  not  connected 
wnth  the  government  share  in  the  attention  and  labors  of  the 
chaplains,  as  there  may  be  occasion.  Henry  Martyn,  whose 
INIemoirs  have  been  so  much  read  in  America,  Daniel  Corrie,  who 
was  the  bishop  of  Madras  at  the  time  of  his  decease,  and  a few 
others  engaged  actively  in  missionary  labors,  but  the  chaplains 
generally  have  not  done  so,  nor  is  it  expected  of  them. 

The  Medical  Sendee  or  department  contains  generally  about 
800  regularly  educated  and  legally  qualified  European  physi- 
cians. They  are  divided  into  3 or  4 classes,  according  to  senior- 
ity. Their  salaries  vary  according  to  seniority,  rank,  and  duty 
assigned  to  them  from  $1,500  to  $10,000  annually.  They  also 
have  liberal  pensions  after  completing  certain  periods  of  service.  J 

* This  -was  the  state  of  the  ecclesiastical  establishment  in  the  latest  accounts 
I have  seen.  Some  changes  were  expected  to  follow  the  renewal  of  the  charter. 

t The  pensions  of  chaplains  are:  — “After  an  actual  residence  in  India  of  15 
years,  £292  per  annum;  after  10  years,  if  unable  on  account  of  ill-health  to  re- 
side any  longer  in  India,  £173  per  annum;  and  after  7 years,  £ 128  per  annmn.” 

t The  pensions  of  surgeons  are : — “ After  1 7 years’  actual  residence  and 


304 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Some  account  of  the  hlilitary  Service  will  be  given  under  the 
head  of  the  army. 

Bombay  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  naval  force  of  the  East 
India  Company.  It  consists  of  a number  of  saihng  ships  and 
steam  vessels,  and  performs  important  service  for  the  government 
in  transporting  the  army,  and  in  protecting  the  general  interests 
of  commerce,  not  only  of  Lidia,  but  of  the  eastern  seas,  which 
are  often  infested  with  pirates.  Li  salaries,  pensions,  etc.,*  it  is 
supposed  to  be  upon  an  equality  with  the  military  servdce. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

In  each  of  the  cities  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  is  a 
Supreme  Court  called  the  Queen’s  Court,  which  has  jm-isdic- 
tion  over  the  incorporated  city  in  each  place,  and  in  certain  spec- 
ified cases  over  all  the  presidency.  The  court  in  Calcutta  con- 
sists of  a chief  justice,  with  a salaiy  of  .£8,000,  and  of  2 puisne 
justices,  with  salaries  of  £6,000  each.  In  Madras  and  Bombay 
the  court  consists  of  a chief  justice  with  salaries  of  £6,000  each, 
and  a puisne  justice,  with  salaries  of  £5,000  each.  All  these 
judges  have  large  pensions  for  life  after  filling  their  office  for  a 
specified  time  in  India.  In  criminal  cases  the  trial  is  by  jury, 
but  not  in  civil  cases.  The  natives  are  eligible  to  be  grand  and 
petty  jurors,  and  Europeans,  Parsees,  Mohammedans,  and  Hin- 
dus may  often  be  seen  intermingled  in  the  same  jury  seats  and 
boxes.  In  these  courts,  fees  as  well  as  salaries  are  very  high ; and 
the  expenses  of  law-proceedings  are  heavy,  and  often  ruinous  to 
the  parties.  StiU  the  natives  generally  have  much  confidence  m 
the  integrity  and  uprightness  of  the  judges. 

Agents  of  the  English  government  called  Residents  always 
live  in  or  near  the  capitals  of  the  large  native  princes.  They  are 
expected  to  keep  their  government  well  informed  concerning  the 
state  of  affairs  in  the  territory  of  the  prince,  and  to  transact  any 
matters  of  business  that  may  occur  between  the  governments 
The  duties  of  these  agents  vary  according  to  the  relations  of  the 

service,  £200  per  annum;  after  21  year.<!,  £250;  after  25  years,  £300;  after  29 
years,  ,£365 ; after  32  years,  £500;  and  after  35  years,  £700  per  annum.” 

♦ “ Every  ofticer  wlio  has  actually  served  22  years  or  upwards  in  the  Indian 
navy,  is  permitted  to  retire  from  the  service  with  the  following  pay;  — A cap- 
tain, £360  yearly;  a commander,  £290-;  lieutenant,  £l90;  purser,  £l90.” 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


305 


princes  to  the  English  government.  Sometimes  their  power  is 
greater  than  the  princes,  and  they  become  more  like  the  govern- 
ors of  the  territory  and  guardians  of  the  prince  and  his  family 
than  the  representatives  of  another  government.  These  agents 
fill  situations  of  much  honor  and  responsibility.  They  have 
princely  salaries,  and  have  often  lived  in  oriental  magnificence. 

For  the  collection  and  management  of  the  revenue  and  other 
public  matters,  and  for  the  administration  of  justice  among  the 
native  population,  the  territory  of  each  presidency  is  divided 
into  districts.  In  each  district  arc  hvo  classes  of  European 
agents ; one  class  has  charge  of  the  collection  of  the  taxes,  the 
management  of  the  revenue,  public  works,  etc.,  and  they  are 
generally  called  collectors.  Each  district  has  a principal  col- 
lector, who  has  several  assistants  under  him.  The  revenue  is 
generally  collected  by  the  native  agents  and  then  transferred  to 
the  Europeans,  who  examine  accounts,  hear  complaints,  etc. 
Each  district  has  a series  of  courts  of  3 or  4 orders.  In  the 
lower  courts  the  magistrates  are  natives,  and  in  the  higher  courts 
they  are  Europeans.  The  lawyers  or  barristers  in  these  courts 
are  generally  natives,  who  are  admitted  to  practice  in  due  form. 
IMany  of  the  native  magistrates  and  lawyers  are  well-educated 
and  respectable  men,  and  their  official  and  social  position  gives 
them  much  influence.  Trials  by  jury  have  not  been  introduced 
in  these  courts.  The  manner  of  proceeding  resembles  the  Eng- 
lish courts  more  than  the  former  INIohammedan  and  Hindu 
courts.  AH  the  proceedings  are  in  the  native  languages.  The 
intention  is  that  the  proceedings  should  be  in  the  language  of 
the  parties  whose  matters  are  under  consideration.  The  general 
rule  in  these  courts  has  been  to  administer  INIohammedan  law 
among  the  Mohammedans,  as  it  is  contained  in  their  standard 
works  and  declared  by  their  jurists ; and  the  principles  of  Hindu 
law  among  the  Hindus,  as  it  is  contained  in  their  own  works. 
It  must  be  obvious,  from  the  different  forms  and  kinds  of  govern- 
ment existing  in  India  previous  to  the  country’s  becoming  sub- 
ject to  the  English,  as  well  as  fi-om  the  mixed  and  heterogene- 
ous character  of  its  inhabitants,  that  the  satisfactory  administra- 
tion of  justice  among  them,  must  be  a work  of  great  difficulty, 
and  very  much  must  depend  upon  the  discretion  and  conscience 
of  the  magistrates.  The  people  are  very  litigious,  and  in  none 

26* 


306 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


of  the  departments  of  the  government,  does  their  moral  charac- 
ter appear  more  unfavorable  than  in  these  courts.  Deception, 
bribery,  and  peijury  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  want  of  a 
code  of  civil  and  crimuial  laws  adapted  to  all  parts  of  India  and 
to  all  classes  of  its  population,  has  long  been  felt  and  acknowl- 
edged. To  supply  this  want  many  efforts  have  been  made,  and 
great  expenses  have  been  incurred.  But  such  a uniform  code  of 
laws  is  yet  a desideratum. 


THE  ARMY. 

The  army  of  the  East  India  Company  consists  of  two  parts, 
namely,  the  European  and  the  Native.  The  former  consists  of 
two  classes,  commonly  designated  the  Queen’s  troops,  and  the 
Company’s  European  troops.  The  Queen’s  troops  consist  of  a 
certain  number  of  regiments  of  the  regular  army  of  England, 
but  employed  in  India  and  paid  by  the  East  India  Company, 
accorchng  to  such  terms  as  are  agreed  upon  with  the  English 
government.  This  force,  according  to  the  latest  accounts,  con- 
tained 29,480,  officers  and  soldiers  included.  These  regiments 
have  the  same  general  character  as  the  British  regular  army  in 
their  other  foreign  possessions.  The  Company’s  European 
troops  consist  of  regiments  raised  in  England  for  employment 
in  India,  and  they  do  not  materially  differ  from  the  troops  of  the 
regular  army.  They  amount  generally  to  about  20,000,  officers 
included.  So  the  whole  European  force  in  India  amounts  to 
about  50,000  men. 

The  native  army  at  the  latest  accounts  amounted  to  almost 
250,000  men.  To  these  are  to  be  added  the  contingent  troops 
in  the  native  States,  which  have  European  officers,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  the  Company  in  the  time  of  war.  This  force  is  some- 
what scattered  in  the  territories  of  different  native  princes,  but 
is  estimated  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  30,000.  So  the  whole 
military  force  under  the  control  of  the  English  in  India  consid- 
erably exceeds  300,000.  This  army  consists  of  engineers,  artil- 
lery, cavalry,  and  infantry,  aU  under  English  officers,  and  kept 
in  a highly  efficient  state. 

Tlie  whole  number  of  European  officers  in  India,  including 
those  who  are  in  charge  of  the  contingent  and  subsidized  forces 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


307 


in  the  territories  of  the  native  princes,  was  lately  estimated  at 
8,000.  These  arc  aU  subject  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  Eng- 
lish governments  in  the  country. 

The  East  India  Company  has  a military  college  at  Addis- 
combe,  a few  miles  south  from  London,  which  was  originated 
and  is  sustained  with  special  reference  to  the  education  of  ofli- 
cers  for  the  engineer  and  artillery  departments  of  their  army  in 
India.  Previous  to  the  late  changes  in  the  Company’s  charter 
the  Court  of  Directors  had  the  patronage  of  this  college.  Ad- 
mission into  it  is  now  open  to  competition  upon  such  examina- 
tions as  are  prescribed  and  approved. 

The  salaries  of  officers  in  the  army,  though  less  than  in  some 
other  departments  of  the  public  service,  are  liberal.  According 
to  an  official  statement  of  the  salaries  of  the  officers  of  all  ranks, 
and  in  all  the  dill’erent  departments  of  the  army  in  India,  (reck- 
oning the  rupee  at  two  shillings  sterling,  or  half  a dollar,)  the 
salaries  in  the  European  and  native  infantry  wUl  be  as  follows : 
a colonel,  $7,680  yearly ; lieut.-colonel,  $5,520 ; major,  $3,810 ; 
captain,  $2,226 ; lieutenant,  $1,344  ; ensign,  $1,080.  These  are 
the  salaries  in  garrisons  and  cantonments.  When  in  the  field, 
their  salaries  are  more.  The  salaries  of  the  other  departments, 
as  engineers,  artillery,  and  cavalry,  are  generally  higher.  These 
sums  show  the  lowest  rate  of  fixed  salaries.  “ Many  officers 
have  staff  situations  or  are  employed  on  special  duty,  or  hold 
places  in  the  civil  service,  or  have  2 or  3 situations  in  the  army. 
Such  situations  and  offices  are  very  numerous  and  are  highly 
paid.  By  these  various  means  the  emoluments  'which  many  of 
the  officers  realize,  are  25,  often  50,  and  not  unfrequently  100 
per  cent,  more  than  their  fix;ed  salaries.” 

The  terms  upon  which  officers  can  resign  the  ser\dce  and 
receive  pensions  are  also  very  liberal.*  They  generally  obtain 
their  commissions  at  ages  varying  from  18  to  22,  and  generally 
at  40  or  45  years  of  age,  they  can  obtain  a pension  which  will 

* “ All  officers  who  have  served  in  the  Indian  army  for  25  years,  including  3 
years  for  furlough,  or  22  years’  continual  service,  may  retire  on  the  full  pay  of 
their  rank  for  life.  Officers  may  also  retire  on  the  following  pensions  without 
reference  to  rank,  if  they  have  served  for  the  undennentioned  periods,  includ- 
ing a furlough,  namely,  after  23  years,  £191  per  annum;  after  27  years,  £292; 
after  31  years,  £365 ; after  35  years,  £456  per  annum.” 


308 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


yield  a comfortable  support  for  life,  to  say  nothing  of  what  they 
may  have  accumulated  from  their  salaries.  If  any  prefer  to 
continue  in  the  army  for  promotion  and  increase  of  pay,  they 
can  do  so,  and  the  Indian  anny  contains  many  officers,  50  and 
60,  and  more  years  old.  An  officer  does  not  generally  acquire 
the  rank  of  major  before  20  and  often  25  years  of  service. 

The  pay  of  soldiers  and  non-commissioned  officers  is  small, 
but  it  is  such  that  with  their  rations,  etc.,  they  can  generally  live 
comfortably.  They  are  aU  enlisted  for  a certain  period  of  ser- 
vice, and  those  who  live  to  see  the  close  of  that  period,  can  then 
have  pensions  for  life,  and  return  to  England.  But  many  of 
them  prefer  remaining  in  the  army. 

It  was  in  the  great  struggle  betv\^een  the  English  and  the 
French  for  ascendency  in  the  south  part  of  India,  that  the  latter 
are  said  to  have  ffist  brought  into  the  field  a battalion  of  native 
troops,  armed  and  disciplined  in  the  European  manner,  and  com- 
manded by  European  officers.  This  was  at  the  siege  of  Cudda- 
lore  in  1746,  and  so  great  was  the  success  of  the  experiment 
that  before  the  close  of  the  year,  the  English  commenced  the 
nucleus  of  their  native  army,  wliich  has  been  continued  to  the 
present  time,  and  now  contains  250,000  men.  Important  changes 
have  at  different  times  been  made  in  the  constitution  of  this 
army,  but  its  essential  features  have  always  been  the  same ; 
namely,  native  soldiers,*  armed,  dressed,  and  disciplined  after 
the  European  manner,  and  commanded  by  English  officers. 
There  is  a set  of  native  officers  in  each  regiment,  generally  of  as 
many  different  ranks  as  exist  among  the  English  officers.  But 
the  pay  of  these  officers  is  small,  and  the  highest  rank,  the 
reward  generally  of  30  or  40  years’  service,  is  much  lower  than 
the  English  ensign  who  has  just  joined  the  regiment.  In  respect 
to  caste,  which  has  so  much  influence  in  religious  and  social 
intercourse  among  the  Hindus,  the  English  have  shown  some 
indulgence  in  the  army,  to  the  superstitions  and  prejudices  of  the 
natives,  and  these  in  turn  have  yielded  somewliat  to  the  wishes 
of  their  masters  and  to  the  exigency  of  their  own  circumstances. 
The  more  important  rules  of  caste  pertaining  to  eating,  drink- 
ing, and  intermarriage,  are  carefully  obser\'cd  in  the  army. 

* Called  generally  sepoys,  the  native  name  of  soldiers,  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  Europeans. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


309 


These  usages  are  also  regarded  in  free  social  intercourse,  but 
give  way  to  more  important  matters  when  on  duty  and  under 
the  immediate  inspection  and  order  of  their  superiors.*  When 
on  duty  tlieir  dress  is  nearly  the  same  in  appearance,  though 
much  urferior  in  quality,  to  the  English  soldiers.  When  not  on 
duty,  they  wear  the  ordinary  native  dress  of  their  caste  or  class. 

The  pay  of  the  native  army  varies  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  also  in  different  departments,  the  cavahy  and  artil- 
lery receiving  more  than  the  infantry.  The  wages  of  a sepoy 
in  the  infantry  does  not  often  exceed  3 or  4 dollars  per  month. 
A subadar,  or  captain,  a rank  not  often  acquired  before  25  or  30 
years’  service,  receives  about  18  or  20  dollars  per  month  ; and  a 
subadar  major,  a rank  not  attained  till  30  or  40  years’  service, 
receives  rather  more  than  one  dollar  a day.f  The  sepoys  have 
generally  families,^  and  after  a certain  number  of  years,  or  when 
incapable  of  further  service,  they  receive  pensions  for  life.  The 
system  of  pensions  is  much  thought  of,  and  has  great  influence 
in  the  native  army.  Each  sepoy  hopes  to  live  till  he  can  return 
to  his  native  village,  or  some  eligible  place,  with  an  income  for 
life  for  his  past  services.  In  oriental  countries  there  is  generally 
a strong  desire  to  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  government, 
and  the  English  have  no  difficulty  in  forming  regiments  and  ob- 
taining recruits  for  the  army.  The  regiments  are  generally 
raised  and  recruited  in  one  part  of  the  country,  and  then  em- 
ployed in  another,  and  they  do  not  often  remain  more  than  3 
years  in  the  same  place.  Thus  separated  from  their  own  peo- 
ple, from  their  own  nation  it  may  be  said  in  respect  to  most 
of  them,  and  often  removed  from  place  to  place,  they  become 
dependent  directly  upon  the  government,  are  a distinct  comrau- 

* “ Off  duty,  the  Brahmin  and  Eajpoot  •will  not  come  into  contact  ■with  the 
Shudra,  far  less  will  he  touch  the  Pariar  or  eat  of  food  they  have  cooked ; but 
on  duty  they  rub  shoulders  freely  one  with  another,  and  fight  side  by  side.” 

“ Only  a small  part  of  the  sepoys,  probably  not  more  than  1 in  20  or  25 
ever  become  officers,  and  the  highest  native  officer’s  rank,  the  result  of  30  or  40 
years’  service,  is  lower  than  the  English  ensign  the  day  he  joins  the  regiment. 
And  the  pay  of  the  highest  native  officer  is  not  more  than  one  third,  and  often 
not  more  than  one  fourth  as  much  as  the  lowest  English  officer.” 

I “ Of  the  250,000  men  composing  the  native  army,  there  are  not  probably 
10,000  unmarried.” 


310 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


nity  by  themselves,  form  few  connections  and  have  little  sym- 
pathy in  common  with  the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants.  To 
enlist  regiments  in  Germany  and  then  employ  them  in  Spain, 
or  in  Holland  and  then  employ  them  in  Italy,  or  in  France  and 
then  employ  them  in  Russia,  would  resemble  the  course  generally 
pursued  by  the  English  in  managing  their  native  army  in  India. 
The  natives  of  Europe  do  not  differ  more  from  each  other  in  lan- 
guage, religion,  customs,  and  manners,  than  the  people  of  the 
different  parts  of  India  differ  from  each  other.  The  sepoys  and 
lowest  class  of  officers  in  the  army  of  the  East  India  Company 
are  better  paid,  and  including  the  system  of  pensions,  are  better 
supported  than  in  the  armies  of  the  native  princes,  while  in 
dress,  arms,  and  discipline,  they  are  far  superior  to  any  other 
military  forces  in  the  southern  countries  of  Asia. 

The  native  army  of  the  East  India  Company  is  not  an  invit- 
ing field  of  service  or  enterprise  for  the  higher  and  wealthy 
classes  of  the  native  population,*  and  it  must  always  consist  of 
the  lower  and  middling  classes  — not  castes,  for  poverty  often 
compels  men  of  high  caste  to  enter  the  army.  The  officers  in 
the  regular  armies  of  Europe  and  America  generally  consist  of 
men  from  the  middling  and  higher  classes,  the  gentry  and  no- 
bility not  excepted.  What  would  the  American,  or  the  Eng- 
lish, or  the  French  army  soon  become,  if  constituted  like  the 
native  army  of  the  East  India  Company,  in  which  all  must 
enter  the  army  as  private  soldiers,  and  then  serve  for  some  years 


* “ No  native  gentleman  ever  thinks  of  putting  on  the  uniform  of  the  regular 
army.  It  would  be  marvellous  if  ho  did,  for  length  of  service  furnishes  and 
has  long  furnished  the  only  claim  for  promotion,  and  it  takes  from  20  to  30  years 
to  earn  the  epaulets  of  a subadar.”  — “ The  pay  of  a sepoy  is  about  five  pence 
half-penny  a day,  out  of  which  he  is  obliged  to  find  his  linen  and  the  materials 
for  keeping  his  arms  and  accoutrements  in  order.  It  takes  liim  on  an  average 
from  5 to  7 years  to  become  a naik,  or  corporal,  about  10  more  to  reach  the 
grade  of  havildar,  or  serjeant,  and  20,  or  it  may  be  SO  in  all,  to  earn  his  first 
commission,  when  his  pay  is  raised  to  Is.  4d.  (32  cents)  per  day.  In  his  turn 
he  becomes  a subadar,  or  captain,  with  pay  at  the  rate  of  half  a crown  per 
diem ; and  finally  if  he  live,  and  his  constitution  does  not  fail  altogether,  he  may 
become  subadar  major  with  5s.  a day.  The  average  age  of  the  native  subalterns 
in  the  East  India  Company’s  service  has  been  taken  at  45,  of  the  captains  at  55, 
and  of  tlie  subadar  majors  (the  highest  rank)  at  G5,  or  from  that  to  70  years  of 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


311 


before  they  can  attain  the  rank  of  corporal,  and  then  all  promo- 
tion from  this  step  must  be  in  the  way  of  seniority  ? And  then 
if  each  regiment  must  have  over  it  another  set  of  officers,  aU 
foreigners,  22  in  number,*  the  lowest  of  whom,  a young  man 
18  or  20  years  old,  without  any  experience  in  military  aft'airs,  is 
yet  higher  in  honor  and  authority,  and  receives  3 times  larger 
salary  than  the  highest  native  officer  ? Must  it  not  be  evident 
that  an  army  thus  originated,  constituted,  and  managed,  can 
never  be  a desirable  service  for  any  wealthy,  well  educated,  and 
public  spirited  native  man  ? And  that  however  efficient  such 
an  army  may  be  for  war,  and  however  ready  to  fight  for  those 
who  pay  them,  in  their  own  favorite  phrase,  “ whose  salt  they 
eat,”  yet  they  can  have  little  of  those  noble  sentiments  and  pat- 
riotic feelings,  which  constitute  the  main  strength  and  reliable 
principles  of  the  armies  of  Europe  and  America. 

The  wars  wliich  the  English  have  carried  on  in  India  have 
been  but  little  known  to  the  world,  when  compared  with  their 
wars  in  America  and  in  Europe.  Yet  these  wars  have  often  been 
on  a great  scale,  and  their  history  shows  many  hard  fought  and 
bloody  battles.  In  the  great  battle  of  Waterloo,  the  English 
loss  was  1 in  6 of  the  force  engaged.  The  following  is  the 
Enghsh  loss  in  some  of  the  battles  in  their  wars  in  India  : — 

In  the  battle  of  Assaye,  in  1 803,  the  English  loss  was  1 in  3 of  their  force  engaged? 


f( 

Dieg,  “ 1804, 

ft 

(t 

1 in  4} 

ft 

tt 

ft 

tt 

Mehidpoor,  “ 1817, 

ft 

tt 

1 in  6 

if 

tt 

« 

ft 

Seetabaldy,  “ 1817, 

tt 

tt 

1 in4j 

ft 

tt 

ft 

f{ 

Coregaum,  “ 1818, 

ft 

tt 

1 in  3i 

tt 

tt 

ft 

ft 

Maharajpoor,  “ 1845, 

it 

tt 

1 in  6 

ft 

tt 

<( 

tt 

Sutlege,  “ 1846, 

tt 

tt 

lin5 

tt 

tt 

ft 

it 

Chillianwalla,  “ 1848, 

ft 

tt 

lin7 

tt 

<( 

These  battles  were  aU  fought  with  different  native  princes  of 
the  country,  who  generally  led  on  their  own  armies,  and  the 
above  figures  show  a fearful  amount  of  loss  on  the  part  of  the 
English.  If  the  loss  on  the  other  side  was  greater,  as  it  gener- 
ally was,  yet  such  figures  show  that  India  has  not  been  brought 
to  its  present  state  of  subjection  without  repeated  and  severe 
struggles  to  preserve  its  independence  of  foreign  control,  while 

* “ The  complement  of  European  ofEcers  for  a native  regiment  is  1 Colonel, 
1 Lieut.-Colonel,  1 Slajor,  5 Captains,  8 Lieutenants,  5 Ensigns,  and  1 Surgeon.” 


312 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  large  military  force  which  England  finds  it  necessary  stiU  to 
support  in  a highly  efiicient  state,  shows  that  all  the  inhabitants 
are  not  satisfied  with  the  government  exercised  over  them. 

REVENUE. 

The  amount  of  the  gross  revenue  of  the  East  India  Company 
in  the  latest  accounts  I have  seen,  were  as  follows : — Land  rev- 
enue, £15,178,676.  Excise,  etc.,  £1,088,254.  Opium,  £4,562,- 
586.  Salt,  £3,289,214.  Customs,  £946,561.  Stamps,  fees,  and 
fines,  £593,982.  Tobacco,  £115,000.  Post-Office,  mint,  etc., 
£1,979,041.  In  all,  £27,753,314.  It  is  stated  that  when  the 
various  deductions  for  the  expenses  of  the  collection,  the  man- 
agement of  the  different  items,  etc.  were  aU  made,  this  sum  was 
reduced  to  £23,067,920,  which  was  the  amount  actually  paid 
into  the  treasury  and  available  for  the  purposes  of  government. 

The  principal  source  of  revenue  in  India  from  remote  anti- 
quity has  been  the  tax  or  rent  on  the  land.  It  was  so  when  the 
country  was  divided  into  several  different  kingdoms,  and  the 
Hindus  lived  under  their  own  sovereigns.  It  was  so  when  the 
country  became  subject  to  the  Mohammedans,  and  the  original 
Hindu  kingdoms  became  provinces  of  the  empire  of  Delhi,  and 
it  has  continued  to  be  so  since  the  country  became  subject  to 
the  English.  In  some  territories  it  has  been  called  a tax,  and  in 
others  it  has  been  called  a rent,  the  government  being  regarded 
as  the  proprietor,  and  the  occupants  as  only  tenants.  This  tax 
or  rent  has  varied  in  different  parts  of  India,  and  sometimes  in 
the  same  territory  according  to  the  pretended  exigencies  of  the 
government  and  the  supposed  improvements  made  in  the  land. 
In  some  places  it  has  been  one  half  of  the  produce,  or  of  the 
supposed  value  of  it ; and  in  others  it  has  been  one  third,  one 
fourth,  one  fifth,  etc.  The  general  opinion  and  practice  have 
been  that  the  occupants  might  dispose  of  their  right  in  the  soil, 
whatever  this  might  be,  and  that  the  government  might  increase 
the  tax  or  rent  at  pleasure,  the  occupants  of  the  land  for  the 
time  being,  having  no  assurance  or  security  against  any  increase, 
and  no  means  of  redress  when  it  was  exacted  from  them.  And 
when  the  produce  of  the  land  would  no  longer  pay  the  tax  or 
the  rent,  and  for  the  expense  of  cultivation,  then  it  might  be 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


313 


abandoned  or  changed  into  pasture  when  the  tax  would  be  of 
another  kind,  or  according  to  another  rate. 

The  course  which  was  pursued  in  Bengal,  and  the  unhappy 
consequences  to  all  classes  have  been  mentioned.*  In  other 
parts  of  the  country  the  general  practice  of  the  English  has 
been,  as  district  after  district  came  under  their  government,  to 
continue  the  system  of  revenue  previously  in  force  till  there 
should  appear  to  be  sufficient  reasons  for  making  changes,  and 
these  have  generally  been  introduced  with  care  and  discretion. 
I am  not  aware  that  they  have  increased  the  land-tax  or  rent  in 
any  part  of  India,  while  in  some  districts  it  has  been  diminished. 
In  some  districts  the  lands  have  all  been  measured,  and  the  tax 
has  been  fixed  for  a long  period,  as  15  or  20  years,  during  which 
there  is  to  be  no  increase.  This  system  gives  the  owner  the  ad- 
vantage of  any  improvements  he  can  make.  It  has  thus  far 
given  much  satisfaction  to  the  cultivators,  and  great  advan- 
tages are  expected  to  accrue  from  it.  The  land-tax  in  India  has 
generally  been  very  high,  and  presses  heavily  upon  the  agricul- 
tural population.  This  tax  has  always  produced  more  than 
half  and  sometimes  as  much  as  three  fifths  of  the  entire  revenue 
of  the  government. 

In  the  accounts  given,  the  amoimt  of  revenue  realized  from 
opium  is  the  next  highest,  though  generally  the  revenue  from 
salt  has  been  the  second.  But  they  have  often  been  nearly 
alike.  This  branch  of  the  revenue  was  scarcely  known  under 
the  native  princes.  It  early  became  a monopoly  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  is  more  fluctuating  than  any  other  item. 
In  all  the  territories  subject  to  the  English  in  India,  the  cultiva- 
tion, manufacture,  and  trade  in  opium,  is  a strict  monopoly 
of  the  government.  It  can  be  cidtivated  and  sold  freely  in  the 
territories  of  the  native  princes,  but  as  they  have  no  sea-coast,  it 
must  be  transported  through  the  English  territory  before  it  can 
be  exported,  and  for  this  transportation  a large  transit  duty  is 
exacted.  The  foreign  trade  in  opium  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  Cal- 
cutta and  Bombay.  The  export  from  Calcutta  in  some  years 
has  exceeded  40,000  chests  of  about  140  lbs.  each.  The  export 
from  Bombay  has  generally  been  about  half  as  large  as  from 

* Pages  195-197. 

27 


314 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Calcutta.  It  is  exported  by  English  and  native  merchants  in 
English  ships  to  countries  east  from  India,  chiefly  to  Canton 
and  other  ports  of  China.  The  Chinese  laws  do  not  permit 
opium  to  be  produced  in  the  empire,  and  they  forbid  its 
importation  and  use  under  heavy  penalties.  The  English 
traders  and  vessels  appear  to  have  paid  little  or  no  regard  to 
the  Chinese  laws  on  this  subject  since  the  commencement  of 
this  century.  The  vessels  and  crews  engaged  in  the  traffic  were 
armed,  and  the  Chinese  government  found  it  impossible  to  sus- 
tain their  laws  prohibiting  the  introduction  of  opium.  This 
illegal  traffic  inflicted  great  injuries  for  many  years  on  China, 
and  at  length  led  to  the  war  between  England  and  China, 
which  was  properly  designated  in  Parliament  “ the  Opium 
War.”  The  Chinese  laws  aU  remain  unchanged,  but  they 
durst  not  enforce  them  for  fear  of  becoming  again  involved  in 
war  with  England. 

The  opium  produced  in  Lidia  and  what  is  exported  to 
China,  is  chiefly  used  for  its  exhflarating  and  stupefying  effects. 
It  is  the  worst  kind  of  intoxication.  It  is  an  expensive  vice, 
and  ruinous  to  body  and  mind.  The  habit  is  easily  acquired, 
and  then  it  is  incorrigible,  at  least  such  is  the  general  opiiuon. 
The  agency  of  the  East  India  Company  and  the  English  gov- 
ernment in  the  production  and  traffic  of  opium,  and  in  “ the 
opium  war,”  have  been  the  subject  of  much  severe  but  deserved 
censure  in  India  and  England.  This  subject  has  occupied  a 
prominent  place  in  the  journals  of  India,  England,  and  Amer- 
ica. I know  of  nothing  in  the  history  of  modern  commerce, 
unless  it  is  the  slave-trade,  more  exceptionable  in  its  moral  char- 
acter, and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  carried  on.* 

The  manufacture  and  traffic  in  salt  is  also  a monopoly  of  the 
government  and  yields  a large  item  in  the  revenue.  It  has  been 
increased  at  different  times,  and  as  it  enters  largely  into  the  con- 
sumption of  all  classes  of  people,  the  tax  is  regarded  as  burden- 
some and  oppressive. 

The  customs,  which  are  the  principal  source  of  revenue  in  the 
United  States,  and  one  of  the  principal  sources  generally  in  civ- 

* Merchants  Magazine,  vol.  28,  pp.  28,  and  146.  Also  a work  on  “The 
Opium  Trade,  including  a sketch  of  its  History,  Extent,  and  Effects,  as  carried 
on  in  India  and  China,”  by  Nathan  Allen,  M.  D. 


THE  aOVERXMEXT  OF  INDIA. 


315 


ilized  countries,  produces  only  one  twent}'-fifth  or  thirtieth  part 
of  the  revenue  in  India.  The  amount  of  revenue  collected  by 
the  government  is  not  large  when  compared  with  the  number  of 
the  people,  but  when  compared  with  the  means  of  the  classes 
who  pay  a large  part  of  it,  the  taxes  are  heavy,  and  the  agricul- 
tural population  are  generally  poor,  depressed  in  spirits,  and  in 
embarrassed  circumstances. 

The  East  India  Company,  soon  after  beginning  to  acquire 
territory  in  India,  began  to  contract  debts,  which  were  increased 
by  the  frequent  wars  in  which  they  were  engaged.  In  1800, 
their  debt  amounted  to  £12,584,366;  and  their  revenue 
amounted  to  £9,742,947.  In  1825,  the  debt  had  increased  to 
£34,429,682;  and  the  revenue  was  £20,750,183.  In  1850,  the 
debt  had  increased  to  £50,847,564;  and  the  revenue  was  £27,- 
753,314.  When  the  charter  was  renewed  in  1853,  about  half 
the  debt  was  in  loans  at  5 per  cent.,  and  half  at  4 per  cent.  The 
interest  is  all  payable  in  India,  but  much  of  the  debt  is  owed  in 
England.  Soon  after  the  charter  was  renewed,  the  Company 
began  to  pay  off  the  5 per  cents,  or  exchange  them  for  4 per  cents, 
at  the  option  of  the  creditors,  and  in  the  course  of  a few  months 
all  the  loans  on  5 per  cent,  amounting  to  about  half  the  debt 
were  paid,  or  converted  into  loans  at  4 per  cent.  So  great  a 
change  effected  in  a few  months  shows  that  the  East  India 
Company  must  have  great  pecuniary  resources,  and  that  the 
public  must  have  entire  confidence  in  the  stability  of  the  Eng- 
lish government  in  India. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  Company  in  order  to  carry 
on  their  complicated  operations  of  governing  so  large  an  empire, 
find  it  necessary  to  have  a large  amount  of  money  in  their  treas- 
uries and  in  the  hands  of  their  numerous  agents.  For  many 
years  past  it  is  said  that  tliis  amount  has  been  from  £10,000,000 
to  £15,000,000.  The  aggregate  amount  of  their  property  of 
various  kinds,  as  money,  ships,  public  buildings,  munitions  of 
war,  etc.,  has  been  estimated  to  be  of  more  value  than  their 
debts. 

The  largest  item  in  the  expenses  of  the  government  is  for  the 
army,  which  has  generally  varied  from  one  half  to  three  fifths 
of  the  whole  expenditure.  Another  large  item  is  the  expenses 
of  the  Company  in  England.  These  expenses  consist  of  divi- 


316 


IlfDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


dends  on  the  stock  of  the  Company,*  the  interest  on  bonds  or 
debts  due  in  England,  pensions  of  retired  officers,  etc.  For 
some  years  past  the  expenses  of  the  Company  in  England  have 
exceeded  £3,000,000,  and  they  appear  likely  soon  to  exceed 
£4,000,000. 

This  large  sum  (from  $15,000,000  to  $20,000,000)  India  pays 
annually  to  England.  A part  of  it  has  generally  been  remit- 
ted from  India  in  the  way  of  payments  or  advances  to  merchants, 
on  the  security  of  goods  shipped  to  England,  to  be  repaid  on 
their  arrival  or  sale,  but  the  gi-eater  part  is  obtained  in  England 
for  orders  given  by  the  Directors  of  the  Company  on  their  treas- 
uries in  India.  This  is  a large  sum  for  a poor  comitry  to  pay 
annually  to  a rich  one  for  such  purposes.f 

But  the  sum  transmitted  from  India  to  England  on  account 
of  the  East  Lidia  Company  is  not  aU  that  England  derives 
from  Lidia.  It  has  been  afready  shown  that  many  persons  in 
England  obtain  appouitmants  to  situations  in  the  government 
of  Lidia,  where  they  receive  large  salaries.  The  amount  of 
property  accumulated  in  this  way  and  remitted  to  England 
while  m these  situations,  or  when  closing  their  period  of  employ- 
ment and  returning  to  England,  is  very  large.  Many  English 
merchants  and  adventurers  also  proceed  to  India  and  there  estab- 
lish themselves  in  trade  and  other  lands  of  busmess,  for  which 

* Tlie  capital  is  £6,000,000,  and  tlie  rate  of  dividend  is  fixed  by  Parliament 
at  10  1-2  per  cent.  So  tlie  annual  dividend  on  the  stock  of  the  Company  is 
£630,000.  This  capital  is  redeemable  at  the  close  of  its  charter  in  1874,  at  the 
rate  of  £5.  5s.  for  £100,  and  provision  has  been  made  for  its  redemption  in  a 
fund  created  out  of  the  commercial  assets  of  the  Company  at  the  close  of  their 
monopoly  of  the  China  trade  in  1833.  Tliis  fund,  called  the  “ Guarantee  Fund,” 
then  consisted  of  £2,000,000  and  is  expected  to  become  sutficient  by  accumu- 
lation to  redeem  the  capital  of  the  Company,  so  that  at  the  close  of  the  charter, 
the  Company  may  take  the  accumulated  fund  for  their  capital,  and  Parliament 
assume  the  possession  and  government  of  the  empire  which  the  Com|iany  has 
acquired. 

■f-  Professor  II.  II.  Wilson,  who  was  formerly  many  years  in  India  in  the 
employment  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  is  nOw  Professor  of  the  Sanscrit 
language  and  literature  in  Oxford  University,  says,  “This  transfer  of  so  much 
of  the  revenue  of  India  to  England  is  an  exhausting  drain  upon  the  resources 
of  the  country,  the  issue  of  which  is  replaced  by  no  rcilux ; it  is  an  extraction 
of  the  lifeblood  from  the  veins  of  national  industry,  which  no  subsequent  intro- 
duction of  nourishment  is  furnished  to  restore.” 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


317 


the  laws  in  India  and  commercial  regulations  between  India 
and  England  are  more  favorable  than  for  persons  from  other 
nations.  The  profits  of  these  various  kinds  of  business  are  often 
large,  and  such  men  almost  invariably  return  to  England  with 
their  “ fortunes  ” in  a few  years.  In  these  various  ways,  namely, 
on  account  of  the  East  India  Company,  private  accumula- 
tions from  salaries,  and  the  profits  of  business,  the  amount  of 
money  or  property  transmitted  from  India  to  England,  is  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  £6,500,000  to  £8,000,000  yearly.* 
Thus,  though  the  national  or  general  government  of  England 
receives  nothing  directly  from  India,  yet  the  wealth  of  the  nation 
receives  a large  annual  increase  in  the  property  which  many 
thousand  individuals  in  various  ways  realize  from  that  country. 

EDUCATION. 

The  government  educational  institutions  are  under  the  super- 
intendence of  a Board  or  Council  of  Education  in  each  Presi- 
dency. These  institutions  are  of  different  kinds.  A few  of 
them  were  established  at  an  early  period  of  the  English  power 
in  India  for  particular  classes  of  people,  as  the  Madrissa,  in 
Calcutta,  for  the  Mohammedans,  and  the  Sanscrit  colleges  in 
Calcutta,  Benares,  and  Poona,  for  the  brahmins.  These  insti- 
tutions have  not  produced  the  results  which  were  expected,  and 
they  •udll  probably  soon  be  made  places  of  general  education, 
either  open  for  all  classes,  or  wiU  include  all  branches  of  learn- 
ing. Some  changes  of  this  character  have  recently  been  made 
in  them.  The  colleges  and  high  schools  established  by  the  gov- 
ernment within  a few  years  past  have  generally  tw^o  depart- 
ments, namely,  the  English  and  Native,  or  Indian.  In  the  former, 
the  English  language  with  its  science  and  literature  is  taught, 
and  in  the  latter,  the  vernacular  language  of  the  district,  with 
the  Sanscrit,  or  the  Persian,  or  the  Arabic  languages  and  litera- 
ture, at  the  option  of  the  scholars.  The  professors  and  teachers 
in  all  these  institutions  are  appointed  and  paid  by  the  govern- 

* Dr.  J.  Wilson,  who  lived  many  years  in  India,  after  describing  these  dif- 
ferent matters  says,  that  from  them  “ about  £8,000,000  sterling  annually  accrue 
to  Great  Britain.” 


27* 


318  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

ment.  Some  of  the  scholars  are  required  to  pay  a small  fee  for 
entrance  or  for  tuition,  and  some  of  them  while  pursuing  par- 
ticular branches  of  science  and  literature,  receive  some  allow- 
ance from  the  government  for  their  support.  The  number  of 
these  institutions  in  aU  the  different  parts  of  Lidia  has  become 
large,  and  is  likely  to  be  increased. 

There  is  probably  nothing  in  which  the  nations  of  Europe 
more  excel  those  in  Asia  than  in  the  knowledge  and  practice  of 
medicine  and  surgery.  In  India,  these  noble  departments  of 
science  have  always  been  much  mixed  up  with  superstition,  im- 
position, and  quackery,  which  have  often  caused  great  misery, 
and  not  unfrequently  the  loss  of  health  and  of  life.  To  remove 
these  evils  and  to  enable  the  native  population  to  realize  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  present  improved  state  of  medi- 
cal and  surgical  knowledge,  the  Enghsh  government  has  estab- 
Lshed  Medical  Colleges  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay. 
These  institutions  are  under  the  instruction  of  able  and  experi- 
enced EngUsh  professors,  generally  selected  from  the  surgeons 
in  the  service  of  the  government.  The  instruction  in  all  the 
departments  is  nearly  or  quite  gratuitous,  and  the  students  who 
enter  them  belong  to  respectable  classes  of  people.  In  these 
institutions  the  pecuLar  diseases  of  India,  the  physical  constitu- 
tions and  habits  of  the  different  classes  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
medical  skill,  so  far  as  there  is  any,  among  the  hakims  or  native 
doctors,  and  the  whole  materia  medica  of  the  country,  arc  made 
the  subjects  of  careful  and  thorough  inquiry  and  examination. 
These  medical  colleges  will  raise  up  and  prepare  well-qualified 
physicians  for  India,  which  she  has  never  yet  had,  and  so  will 
prove  of  great  advantage  to  aU  classes  of  people.  A new  era 
of  medical  science  has  commenced  in  India. 

The  government  supports  a large  number  of  vernacular 
schools  in  the  scattered  villages.  The  education  in  these 
schools  is  in  the  common  branches  of  learning,  corresponding  to 
the  common  free  schools  in  the  United  States.  They  arc  gen- 
erally under  superintendents  connected  with  the  Councils  of 
Education,  and  the  magistrates  of  the  respective  districts. 

The  sums  aj^propriated  by  the  government  for  education  have 
been  much  increased  within  a few  years,  and  now  amount  to 
nearly  ^500,000  annually.  It  is  expected  large  additions  will 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


319 


be  made  to  the  educational  institutions  under  the  renewed 
charter. 

Much  dissatisfaction  has  been  expressed  by  some  people  with 
the  government  system  of  education.  The  expenses  of  this 
system  are  defrayed  from  taxes  collected  from  the  native  popu- 
lation, who  consist  of  Hindus,  Mohammedans,  Parsecs,  and 
other  classes  of  various  religious  sentiments.  The  Hindus  are 
polytheists  and  idolaters.  The  Mohammedans  believe  in  only 
one  God,  and  abhor  aU  idolatry.  The  Parsces,  Jainas,  etc.,  have 
each  a different  creed.  These  different  classes  of  people  would 
naturally  feel  unwilling  to  be  taxed  for  the  support  of  schools  in 
which  their  religion  was  declared  to  be  false,  and  some  system 
wliich  they  abhor,  was  declared  to  be  true,  and  the  duty  of  aU 
to  practise  it.  It  was  also  supposed  that  people  would  be  un- 
willing to  send  their  children  to  schools,  in  which  such  principles 
and  doctrines  concerning  their  religion  made  a part  of  the 
course  of  education.  The  government,  in  view  of  these  facts 
and  circumstances,  resolved  to  exclude  from  their  course  of  edu- 
cation all  religion,  except  those  moral  precepts  and  general  prin- 
ciples in  which  all  classes  would  concur  — thus  making  the 
course  literary,  scientific,  and  moral,  but  not  religious.  The 
books  used  iu  the  schools  were  to  contain  and  the  instructors 
employed  were  to  inculcate  nothing  directly  opposed  to  Chris- 
tianity, or  to  Hinduism,  or  to  IMohammedanism,  or  to  the  relig- 
ion of  any  considerable  body  of  the  native  population.  Such 
have  been  the  general  principles  of  the  government  system  of 
education. 

This  neutral  or  common  ground  generally  occupied  by  the 
government  has  given  occasion  for  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  a 
portion  of  the  Christian  community,  saying  that  the  government 
being  professedly  Christian  in  its  principles,  ought  not  thus  prac- 
tically to  ignore  its  own  faith,  where  it  can  exhibit  and  inculcate 
the  truth  upon  its  subjects.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the 
government  could  pursue  any  other  course  than  has  been  pur- 
sued, consistently  vdth  its  professed  principles  of  non-interference 
with  the  religion  of  the  native  population.  And  further,  it  has 
been  the  wish  of  the  government  to  pursue  a course  wliich 
■would  excite  an  interest  among  the  native  population,  and  se- 
cure their  cooperation  in  carrying  forward  the  cause  of  general 


320 


IXDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

education,  and  also  to  prepare  and  publish  elementary,  literary, 
and  scientific  works,  which  would  be  acceptable  and  useful. 
And  these  objects  the  government  could  only  hope  to  accom- 
plish by  occupying  this  neutral  ground. 

But  the  government  course  of  education,  though  it  contains 
nothing  which  is  peculiar  to  any  particular  system  of  religion, 
or  which  is  of  a controversial  character,  yet  is  exerting  a strong 
influence  on  the  native  mind,  and  is  producing  important  results 
in  their  rehgious  opinions.  This  is  in  part  the  effect  of  the 
knowledge  they  acquire,  thus  removing  their  stupidity  and 
ignorance,  and  communicating  power  to  think,  compare,  reason, 
and  judge  on  religious  subjects ; and  in  part  fi-om  the  principles 
and  facts  of  modern  astronomy,  history,  geography,  etc.,  being 
utterly  at  variance  with  the  declarations  and  doctrines  of  the 
Hindu  Shasters,  so  that  no  person  who  believes  in  the  former 
(and  aU  educated  people  must  believe  them),  can  retain  any 
confidence  in  the  latter.  The  natural  consequence  of  this  course 
of  education  is  to  produce  a spirit  of  scepticism  in  respect  to  all 
religion.  It  destroys  aU  confidence  in  Hinduism,  and  does  not 
supply  its  place  with  any  other  religion.  This  consequence  is 
now  seen  in  the  religious  or  rather  irreligious  views  of  a propor- 
tion of  the  young  men,  who  have  been  educated  in  European 
science  and  literature,  in  the  government  institutions.  They  are 
generally  strongly  opposed  to  Christianity,  and  often  ridicule  its 
most  sacred  and  solemn  truths.  They  openly  avow  their  scep- 
tical and  deistical  sentiments,  but  they  have  hitherto  generally 
conformed  to  the  popular  superstitions  so  far  as  to  avoid  perse- 
cution, retain  their  social  position,  and  to  secure  and  enjoy  their 
property-rights.  IMany  of  them,  however,  are  very  uneasy  in 
their  present  state,  and  would  gladly  seize  any  opportunity  to 
emancipate  themselves  from  the  shacldes  of  caste  and  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  superstition,  which  they  clearly  see  have  exerted 
such  an  unhappy  influence  on  the  state  of  their  country  and  the 
character  of  their  nation,  but  which  they  have  not  yet  decision 
of  purpose  and  energy  of  mind  sufficient  to  renoimce.  But  the 
sure  and  steady  progress  of  knowledge  in  the  native  commu- 
nity, the  increase  of  those  who  are  embracing  similar  opinions, 
increasing  independence  of  mind  and  self-rehancc,  and  above 
all,  the  light  which  Christianity  is  shedding  over  the  country  — 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


321 


these  causes  will  erelong  produce  such  a state  of  feeling  and 
thinking  in  the  educated  classes  that  they  will  unite  in  breaking 
the  bondage  of  the  most  degrading  superstition,  which  apostate 
and  erring  men  ever  conceived,  or  human  nature  ever  endured. 

The  government  councils  of  education  in  the  diflerent  presi- 
dencies, include  among  their  objects,  the  preparation  and  publi- 
cation of  suitable  books  in  the  vernacular  languages  for  educa- 
tion and  general  reading.  They  have  done  much  in  the  way  of 
preparing  and  publishing  dictionaries,  grammars,  and  such  hke 
works,  which  without  their  aid  could  not  have  been  published. 
They  also  encourage  translations  and  original  works  upon  cer- 
tain specified  subjects  of  science  and  literature.  They  have 
also  always  evinced  a readiness  liberally  to  reward  the  authors 
of  works  of  merit  on  any  subject,  wliich  would  be  of  advantage 
to  the  native  population.  In  these  ways  a very  considerable 
number  of  valuable  works  have  been  produced  in  the  different 
vernacular  languages  within  a few  years  past,  and  if  this  course 
is  continued,  Lidia  will  soon  have  a valuable  mdigenous  lit- 
erature. 

From  these  facts  and  remarks  it  must  be  obvious  that  the 
course  which  the  government  is  pursuing  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion in  India,  is  destroying  the  confidence  of  the  people  in  their 
own  systems  of  religion,  and  introducing  speculative  scepticism 
and  deism.  INIotives  of  worldly  policy  may  lead  most  of  the 
present  generation  of  educated  young  men  through  life  to  show 
some  deference  and  respect  to  notions,  rites,  and  ceremonies, 
which  they  regard  as  false,  unmeaning,  and  superstitious.  Should 
these  views  pervade  the  masses  of  the  native  population,  they 
may  be  expected  to  develop  their  genuine  spirit  in  very  painful 
consequences.  How  far  Christianity  will  in  the  mean  time 
acquire  so  much  power  as  to  hold  such  evil  principles  under 
restraint  and  prevent  their  full  development,  remains  to  be  seen. 
Certainly  the  present  state  and  prospects  of  the  native  popula- 
tion of  India,  as  affected  by  the  course  of  education  we  have 
been  contemplating,  present  strong  reasons  for  Christians  to  use 
all  the  means  they  can  to  supply  such  erring  men  with  the  holy 
Scriptures  and  a Christian  literatvue,  that  through  the  Divine 
blessing  they  may  be  freed  from  the  mazes  of  scepticism  and  the 
darkness  of  deism,  and  embrace  the  truth. 


322 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Since  the  preceding  was  written  I have  seen  a despatch  from 
the  Court  of  Directors  to  their  governors  and  agents  in  India, 
on  the  subject  of  education.  They  have  taken  up  the  cause  wdth 
earnestness  and  appear  determined  to  redeem  the  pledges  and 
to  fulfil  the  promises  which  were  made  at  the  late  renewal  of 
their  charter.  Their  plan  is  to  establish  a university  at  the  seat 
of  each  Presidency,  namely,  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay, 
and  then  in  other  large  cities,  if  there  should  be  sufficient  encour- 
agement. These  universities  are  to  have  each  a chancellor,  vice- 
chancellor,  and  fellows,  who  are  to  constitute  the  senate  or  con- 
trolling power.  “ The  offices  of  chancellor  and  vice-chancellor 
are  to  be  filled  by  persons  of  high  station,  who  have  shown  an 
interest  in  the  cause  of  education.  The  senate  may  include 
natives  of  India  of  aU  religious  persuasions,  who  have  the  con- 
fidence of  the  native  communities.”  The  Directors  have  taken 
the  London  University  as  the  model  of  their  universities  in 
India,  only  making  such  changes  as  appear  to  be  necessary  to 
adapt  them  to  the  state  of  the  countiy.  Of  these  universities, 
the  colleges  supported  by  the  government,  and  missionary  high 
schools  and  seminaries  if  they  have  sufficient  literary  and  scien- 
tific character,  may  become  “affiliated  institutions,  in  which 
students,  after  being  matriculated  in  the  universities,  may  pursue 
their  course  of  study  tffl  required  to  repair  to  the  university  for 
the  final  examination  for  their  degrees.”  The  Directors  say : — 
“ The  examinations  for  degrees  will  not  include  any  subjects 
connected  with  religious  belief,  and  the  affiliated  institutions 
may  be  under  the  management  of  every  variety  of  religious  per- 
suasion. As  in  England,  various  institutions  in  immediate  con- 
nection with  the  Church  of  England,  the  Presbyterian  College 
at  Caermarthen,  the  Roman  Catholic  College  at  Oscutt,  the 
Wesleyan  College  at  Sheffield,  the  Baptist  College  at  Bristol, 
and  the  Countess  of  Huntington’s  College  at  Cheshunt,  are 
among  the  institutions  from  which  the  London  University  is 
empowered  to  receive  subjects  for  degrees.  So  in  India,  institu- 
tions conducted  by  all  denominations  of  Christians,  Hindus, 
Mohammedans,  Parsees,  Siklis,  Budhists,  Jainas,  or  any  other 
religious  persuasions  may  be  affiliated  to  the  universities,  if  they 
are  found  to  afford  the  requisite  course  of  study,  and  can  be  de- 
pended upon  for  the  certificates  of  conduct  which  will  be  re- 
quired.” 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


323 


The  number  of  vernacular  schools  is  also  to  be  largely  in- 
creased, and  special  efforts  are  to  be  made  to  increase  the  quali- 
fications of  the  teachers  and  to  improve  the  manner  of  in- 
structing, by  the  establishment  of  normal  schools  in  diflerent 
parts  of  the  country.  The  Directors  also  declare  their  intention 
to  grant  aid  to  private  and  missionary  schools  without  in 
any  way  interfering  with  the  religious  instruction  communicated 
in  such  schools,  if  they  only  impart  a good  secular  education, 
this  latter  being  the  object  of  the  government  in  all  its  educa- 
tional operations.  Schools  which  receive  grants  from  the  gov- 
ernment for  support,  will  be  inspected  by  the  school  inspectors, 
but  “ they  are  to  take  no  notice  whatever  of  the  religious  doc- 
trines which  may  be  taught  in  any  school,  the  duty  of  the  in- 
spectors being  confined  to  ascertaining  whether  the  secular 
knowledge  conveyed  is  such  as  to  entitle  it  to  consideration  in 
the  distribution  of  the  sum  which  will  be  applied  to  grants  in 
aid.” 

The  Directors  refer  to  female  education  in  a manner  which 
must  surprise  the  old  orthodox  Hindus,  but  which  will  be  grat- 
ifying to  many  of  their  sons  and  daughters.  The  Directors  say : — 

“ The  importance  of  female  education  in  India  cannot  be 
overrated,  and  we  have  observ^ed  with  pleasure  the  evidence 
which  is  now  afforded  of  an  increased  desire  on  the  part  of 
many  of  the  natives  of  India  to  give  a good  education  to  their 
daughters.  By  this  means  a far  greater  proportional  impulse  is 
imparted  to  the  educational  and  moral  tone  of  the  people  than 
by  the  education  of  men.  We  have  already  observed  that 
schools  for  females  are  included  among  those  to  which  grants  in 
aid  may  be  given,  and  we  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  our 
cordial  sympathy  with  the  efforts  which  are  being  made  in  this 
direction.  Our  Governor- General  in  Council  has  declared  in 
a communication  to  the  government  of  Bengal  that  the  govern- 
ment ought  to  give  to  native  female  education  in  India  its  frank 
and  cordial  support ; in  this  we  heartily  concur,  and  especially 
approve  of  the  bestowal  of  marks  of  honor  upon  such  native 
gentlemen  as  Bahadur  Magaubhai  Km*rumchund,  who  de- 
voted 20,000  rupees  ($10,000)  to  the  foundation  of  tv\m  native 
female  schools  in  Ahmedabad,  as  by  such  means  our  desire  for 
the  promotion  of  female  education  became  generally  known.” 


324 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


When  the  first  American  missionaries  arrived  in  India,  female 
education  among  the  Hindus  was  unknown,  and  all  their  prin- 
ciples and  all  their  prejudices  were  decided  and  strong  against 
it.  They  declared  that  such  education  never  had  been,  never 
should  be,  and  never  could  be.  The  missionaries  of  dif- 
ferent societies  and  denominations  showed  by  their  persevering 
efforts  that  native  female  education  was  practicable,  and  the  fe- 
males who  were  educated,  showed  that  it  was  desirable.  The 
educated  and  wealthy  young  men  were  soon  able  to  appreciate 
its  advantages,  and  began  to  wish  that  their  sisters  and  the  girls 
to  whom  they  had  been  betrothed  by  their  parents,  might  be 
educated.  In  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  the  cause  was 
taken  up,  and  Europeans  and  natives  united  in  supporting  and 
encouraging  it.  And  now  we  see  the  Court  of  the  Directors, 
of  the  East  India  Company,  the  supreme  government  of  India, 
including  female  schools  in  the  system  of  education  which  is  to 
receive  their  patronage,  giving  it  their  cordial  support,  and  rec- 
ommending it  in  the  strongest  way  they  can,  to  aU  the  native 
population. 

The  course  of  policy  which  the  government  will  pursue  in 
respect  to  religion  in  their  educational  operations,  is  thus  de- 
scribed : — 

“ Considerable  misapprehension  appears  to  exist  as  to  om 
views  with  respect  to  religious  instruction  in  the  government 
institutions.  Those  institutions  were  founded  for  the  benefit  of 
the  whole  population  of  India,  and  in  order  to  effect  their  object, 
it  was  and  is  indispensable  that  the  education  conveyed  in  them 
should  be  exclusively  secular.  The  Bible  is,  as  we  understand, 
placed  in  the  libraries  of  the  colleges  and  schools,  and  the  pupils 
are  able  freely  to  consult  it.  This  is  as  it  should  be ; and  more- 
over we  have  no  desire  to  prevent  or  to  discourage  any  explana- 
tions, which  the  pupils  may  of  their  own  free  wdU  ask  from  their 
masters  upon  the  subject  of  the  Christian  religion,  provided  that 
such  information  be  given  out  of  school  hours.  Such  instruc- 
tion being  entirely  volmitary  on  both  sides,  it  is  necessary  in 
order  to  prevent  the  sliglitest  suspicion  of  an  intention  on  our 
part,  to  make  use  of  the  influence  of  government  for  the  pur- 
pose of  proselytism,  that  no  notice  shall  be  taken  of  it  in  their 
periodical  visits.” 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


325 


The  Directors  also  say  that  edneation,  as  certified  by  exam- 
inations and  degrees,  will  be  regarded  as  an  important  qualifica- 
tion and  recommendation  for  employment  in  the  service  of  the 
government  of  India,  and  that  other  qualifications  and  claims 
being  equal,  the  best  educated  man  wiU  always  be  preferred. 
If  this  rule  is  carefully  followed  in  the  government  service,  it 
will  have  great  influence  in  promoting  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion. 

While  the  government  adheres  to  its  established  policy  not  in 
any  way  to  interfere  with  the  religion  of  the  native  population, 
the  Christian  character  of  missionary  seminaries  and  the  relig- 
ious principles  taught  in  them,  are  to  be  no  objection  to  their 
becoming  “ affiliated  institutions  of  the  Universities.”  This 
places  missionary  educational  institutions  upon  the  same  ground 
as  the  colleges  established  and  supported  by  the  government. 
And  further,  the  vernacular  schools,  male  and  female,  which  are 
estabhshed  and  supported  by  missionary  societies,  are  placed 
upon  the  same  ground  as  other  schools  for  receiving  “ grants  in 
aid  ” towards  their  support  from  the  government.  It  remains  to 
be  seen  how  far  missionary  societies  will  be  able  to  secure  ad- 
vantages from  this  system.  The  objection  sometimes  formerly 
made,  that  the  government  not  only  ignored  Christianity,  but 
purposely  excluded  it  from  aU  parts  of  its  system  of  education, 
can  no  longer  be  made ; for  it  is  placed  upon  the  same  basis  for 
government  patronage  and  public  favor  as  Hinduism  and  Mo- 
hammedanism, though  the  revenues  are  nearly  aU  paid  by  peo- 
ple professing  these  latter  forms  of  religion,  and  sincerely  at- 
tached to  them.  An  educational  system  more  favorable  to  the 
promotion  of  science  and  literature  and  to  the  propagation  of 
Christianity  cannot  reasonably  be  expected  from  a government, 
which  has  a due  respect  for  the  rights,  and  principles,  and 
property  of  its  subjects. 

If  these  plans  and  purposes  of  the  Directors  should  be  folly 
carried  into  effect  by  the  governors  and  other  agents  of  the 
Company,  it  wffl  commence  a new  era,  not  only  in  the  cause  of 
education,  but  in  the  government  of  the  country. 

28 


326 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


PUBLIC  WORKS. 

The  land-tax,  or  rent,  as  it  has  often  been  called,  has  always 
formed  the  principal  item  of  revenue  in  India,  And  as  this 
varied  with  the  estimated  productiveness  of  the  land,  it  has 
been  for  the  interest  of  the  government  to  make  land  as  produc- 
tive as  possible.  It  was  also  for  the  interest  of  rulers  to  in- 
crease the  resources,  population,  and  power  of  their  respective 
kingdoms,  as  they  had  often  to  defend  their  dominions  and  their 
subjects  against  the  encroachments  of  their  unscrupulous  neigh- 
bors. The  circumstances  and  opinions  of  the  people  of  India 
have  always  been  such  as  to  call  the  attention  of  their  govern- 
ments to  such  matters.  The  people  have  always  been  too  igno- 
rant to  devise  any  public  wmrks,  and  too  poor  to  execute  them 
by  private  means  or  united  capital.  They  regard  aU  such  mat- 
ters as  the  proper  work  of  the  government,  which  alone  has  the 
abihty  to  execute  them,  and  will  derive  the  principal  advantage 
from  them. 

The  ancient  Hindu  sovereigns,  in  accordance  with  such 
views  of  their  own  interests,  and  of  the  circumstances  and  ex- 
pectations of  their  subjects,  constructed  roads  and  bridges  to 
facilitate  travel  and  traffic,  and  made  canals  and  embanliments 
to  irrigate  lands  for  cultivation.  The  remains  and  the  ruins  of 
many  such  works  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
It  was  lately  stated  in  one  of  the  Indian  journals,  that  in  the 
Madras  presidency  alone,  there  are  43,000  works  for  irrigation 
in  a state  of  repair,  and  more  than  10,000  out  of  repair,  all 
which  were  constructed  before  the  Enghsh  obtamed  possession 
of  the  country.  These  works  greatly  increased  the  fertility  and 
resources  of  the  country,  and  the  wealth  and  happiness  of  the 
people.  They  furnish  means  for  carrying  on  cultivation  in 
times  of  drought,  and  so  prevent  sufferings  in  seasons  of 
scarcity  and  famine,  which  are  frequent  on  account  of  the  fail- 
ure of  the  rains  in  some  parts  of  India. 

Many  noble  public  works  \vere  also  constructed  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  India.  Previous  to  the  Mohammedan  invasion, 
roads  were  constructed  by  the  Hindu  Rajas  between  large  cities 
with  wells  of  water  and  caravanserais  at  convenient  distances. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


327 


The  Mohammedans,  who  have  been  often  described  as  semi- 
barbarians and  oppressors,  constructed  many  noble  public  works. 
Feroze  Toghluk,  who  was  emperor  of  Delhi  from  a.  d.  1351  to 
1389,  though  engaged  in  frequent  wars,  yet  found  time  and 
means  to  devise  and  execute  numerous  public  works  for  the 
benefit  of  his  subjects.  The  following  is  a list  for  the  main- 
tenance of  which  lands  were  assigned,  namely : — “ 50  dams 
across  rivers  to  promote  irrigation  ; 40  mosques,  30  colleges,  100 
caravanserais,  30  resers’oirs  for  irrigation,  100  hospitals,  100  pub- 
lic baths,  and  150  bridges.”  * 

Of  Acber  it  is  said  that  “ he  constructed  a series  of  canal- 
works  of  greater  extent  and  utility  than  any  previously  in  exist- 
ence.” The  canal  commonly  ascribed  to  Ali  Merdan  Khan, 
probably  because  it  was  constructed  under  his  superintendence, 
but  at  the  expense  of  the  emperor  Shah  Jehan,  was  yet  more 
extensive  and  completed  in  a superior  manner.  The  eastern 
Jumna  or  Doab  canal,  a large  work,  was  also  made  in  the  reign 
of  the  same  emperor.  These  canals  were  channels  of  traffic, 
supplied  water  for  cultivating  large  tracts  of  land,  and  furnished 
water  for  all  the  common  purposes  of  life  in  the  cities  through 
or  near  which  they  were  carried.  In  the  anarchy  which  ensued 
upon  the  dissolution  of  the  great  Mogul  government,  consequent 
upon  the  death  of  Aurungzeb,  many  of  these  works  for  want 
of  repair  and  preservation,  became  of  little  use. 

With  such  examples  of  the  former  governments  before  them 
and  the  remains  and  ruins  of  such  works  around  them,  it  does 
appear  strange  that  the  Enghsh  should  possess  these  territories 
for  more  than  half  a century,  and  have  done  so  little  in  the  way 
of  public  works.  And  it  does  not  appear  strange  that  the  native 

* Concerning  this  list,  which  is  taken  from  Ferishta,  Elphinstone  remarks : — 
“ The  round  numbers,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  some  of  the  items  suggest 
doubts  of  the  accuracy  of  the  list,  but  the  works  of  Feroze,  that  still  remain, 
afford  sufficient  evidence  of  the  magnitude  of  his  undertakings.  The  most 
considerable  of  these  is  not  specified  in  the  list.  It  is  a canal  from  the  point  in 
the  Jumna,  where  it  leaves  the  mountains  by  Carral  to  Hanse,  and  to  Hissar. 
It  reaches  to  the  river  Gagar,  and  in  former  times  was  again  connected  with  the 
Sutlegc,  the  nearest  of  the  rivers  of  the  Punjab.  It  seems  to  have  been  in- 
tended for  irrigation,  but  as  it  has  been  disused  pei'haps  since  the  death  of  Fe- 
roze, we  can  only  judge  of  it  by  the  part  of  it  restored  by  the  British  govern- 
ment, wliich  takes  in  the  whole  beyond  Hissar,  a distance  of  200  miles.” 


328 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

population,  while  suffering  the  consequences  of  these  works 
being  out  of  repair  and  comparatively  of  little  use,  should  com- 
plain of  the  EngUsh  government  over  India ; that  the  country 
was  governed  and  its  revenues  expended  too  much  for  the  inter- 
est of  themselves,  the  rulers,  and  too  little  for  the  good  of  the 
people,  their  subjects.  A few  years  ago  tliis  subject  of  internal 
improvement  was  taken  up  by  the  government,  and  if  the  plans 
formed,  the  promises  made,  and  the  pledges  given,  are  aU  canied 
into  effect,  they  wUl  produce  a new  era  in  India.  A few  good 
roads  have  been  made,  and  more  are  in  the  process  of  construc- 
tion. If  these  are  continued  till  the  large  cities  and  towns  are 
united  with  each  other  and  then  with  the  seaports,  they  will  be 
of  great  advantage  to  the  country. 

In  the  gieat  valley  of  the  Ganges,  much  progress  has  been 
made  within  a few  years  in  repairing  and  improving  the  old 
canals  and  in  constructing  new  ones.  The  entire  length  of  the 
great  canal  and  its  branches  is  445  miles,  and  the  amount  of 
land  irrigated  by  it  exceeds  1,000  square  miles.  The  population 
obtaining  their  subsistence  from  tliis  land,  is  estimated  at  300,- 
000,  and  the  revenue  collected  from  the  irrigated  land  exceeds 
$450,000  annually,  “ nearly  all  of  which  is  attributed  to  the  use 
of  the  canal.”  This  canal  answers  other  important  purposes 
besides  krigation.  The  amount  of  tolls  collected  on  the  traffic 
upon  it  and  the  rents  for  water-power  to  work  machinery,  are 
large.  There  are  several  other  canals  in  the  same  great  valley. 
The  aggregate  length  of  all  these  canals  is  765  miles.  The 
amount  which  the  English  government  has  expended  in  repair- 
ing and  constructing  them,  exceeds  7,500,000  dollars,  and  the 
revenue  from  navigation,  irrigation,  water-power,  etc.,  is  estima- 
ted to  vary  from  1,500,000  to  2,000,000  dollars  annually.  These 
results  are  not  less  beneficial  to  the  people  than  profitable  to  the 
government,  and  as  there  are  yet  large  tracts  of  land,  which  can 
be  brought  into  a state  of  new  or  improved  cultivation  by  the 
same  means,  it  is  expected  that  internal  improvements  will  be  car- 
ried on  vigorously  for  some  years  to  come. 

'I'he  government  of  India  was  much  censured  for  some  years 
in  England,  as  well  as  in  India,  for  not  undertaking,  and  not 
sufficiently  encouraging  the  construction  of  raihoads.  Great 
difficulties  were  anticipated  from  the  rainy  seasons,  and  from  the 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


339 


mountains  in  some  districts,  and  the  alluvial  nature  of  the  soil 
in  others,  where  the  railroads  were  most  needed.  After  much 
delay,  companies  were  formed  and  several  railroads  were  pro- 
jected. One  of  these  railroads  commences  at  Madras,  and  runs 
westward  to  Bangalore,  where  it  is  expected  one  branch  will 
proceed  to  the  western  coast  of  the  peninsula,  and  another  pro- 
ceed north  into  the  Dcckan,  probably  there  to  communicate  with 
one  leading  to  Bombay,  and  another  to  Calcutta.  One  is  to 
commence  at  Calcutta  and  proceed  to  Delhi,  and  another  is  to 
commence  at  Bombay  and  proceed  to  Delhi,  and  there  form  a 
junction  with  the  one  from  Calcutta.  From  Delhi  it  is  to  be 
extended  to  Lahore  in  the  Punjab.  These  railroads  are  now  in 
the  process  of  construction,  and  I saw  cars  running  on  one  of 
them  before  I left  India.  A large  part  of  the  capital  for  con- 
structing these  railroads  is  subscribed  in  England.  The  condi- 
tions are  such  that  capital  to  any  amount  required  can  be  read- 
ily obtained  on  the  fixed  dividend  or  interest  of  4,  41,  and  5 per 
cent.,  which  is  guaranteed  for  20  years,  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. When  these  railroads  are  completed,  they  will  form  the 
grandest  system  of  internal  improvement  ever  yet  accomplished 
in  any  country.  And  they  will  produce  greater  results  than  have 
yet  been  seen  produced  by  the  introduction  and  extension  of 
railroads  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

The  electric  telegraph  has  been  introduced  into  India,  and  the 
large  cities  of  Calcutta,  IMadras,  and  Bombay,  can  communicate 
simultaneously  with  each  other,  and  urith  the  large  cities  in  the 
northern  parts  of  India  as  far  as  Attock  on  the  Indus. 

Lidia  once  supplied  Europe  and  America  with  cotton  goods, 
but  her  manufactures  have  been  ruined  by  the  use  of  machinery 
in  England.  She  is  capable  of  producing  cotton  enough  to 
supply  all  Europe,  but  her  cotton  districts  are  far  from  her  sea- 
ports, and  the  means  of  transportation  are  slow,  difficult,  and 
expensive.  She  has  mines  of  coal  of  unknown  extent,  but  they 
have  hitherto  been  of  little  use  for  want  of  means  to  transport 
the  coal  to  the  seaports  and  other  places  where  it  has  been  re- 
quired, and  she  has  been  to  a great  extent  dependent  upon  Eng- 
land for  coal  for  her  steam-ships  and  her  machinery.  India  has 
valuable  iron  mines,  (the  writer  once  heard  a distinguished  geol- 
ogist who  had  been  inspecting  them  say,  they  contained  iron 

28* 


830 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


enough  to  supply  the  world,)  and  yet  nearly  aU  the  iron  used  in 
the  country  is  procured  from  Europe,  because  the  iron  mines 
are  in  one  province,  and  the  coal  is  in  another,  and  there  have 
been  no  means  for  bringing  them  together.  Among  her  great 
population  are  several  millions,  who  are  often  suffering  for  want 
of  employment,  and  who  are  ready  to  work  in  agriculture,  or 
mining,  or  manufactures,  for  less  wages  than  are  known  in  any 
country  in  Europe  or  America.  When  the  radroads  now  in  the 
process  of  consti’uction  shall  be  completed,  the  people  will 
require  only  the  additional  aid  of  machinery  to  change  her  cot- 
ton into  cloth,  and  again  supply  Europe  with  manufactured 
goods.  Her  mines  of  coal,  iron,  etc.,  hitherto  almost  wortliless 
and  useless,  will  become  of  incalctdable  value  and  utility.  The 
amount  of  sugar,  indigo,  grain,  etc.,  produced,  will  be  greatly 
increased,  and  the  natural  resources  of  the  country  will  be 
developed. 

England  has  yet  made  no  adequate  return  to  Lidia  for  the 
immense  wealth  she  has  drawn  from  it.  Let  some  of  this 
wealth  be  invested  in  the  public  works  now  in  progress  and 
projected.  Let  the  excessive  salaries  of  the  English  government 
agents  and  officers  be  reduced  to  a proper  standard,  and  the 
savings  be  expended  on  internal  improvements.*  Let  the  sur- 

* The  Court  of  Directors  previous  to  the  last  renewal  of  the  charter,  in  1853, 
had  the  patronage  of  the  government  of  India  chiefly  in  their  hands,  and  they 
had  also  the  determining  of  the  salaries  which  the  men  they  appointed  should 
have.  They  appointed  the  members  of  their  families  and  their  friends,  and  the 
salaries,  though  fixed  by  the  Directors,  were  yet  all  paid  out  of  the  revenues  of 
India,  and  whatever  these  salaries,  or  the  expenses  of  India  were,  no  Director 
of  the  company  or  proprietor  of  the  stock  contributed  any  part  towards  them, 
or  received  any  less  himself  on  account  of  them.  These  facts  will  account  in 
part  for  the  high  salaries  in  their  employment,  salaries  generally  quite  beyond 
the  value  of  any  services  rendered  to  India,  or  any  qualifications  required  for  the 
duties  to  be  performed.  This  must  be  evident  from  the  estimated  value  of  these 
appointments.  The  Directors  were  forbidden  by  severe  penalties  to  receive  any 
pecuniary  consideration  for  their  patronage,  but  it  was  still  very  valuable,  as 
they  could  bestow  it  upon  the  members  of  their  own  families  and  friends,  or 
uj)on  those  who  elected  them.  It  was  said  by  the  best  authorities  on  Indian  af- 
fairs, that  a commission  in  the  Civil  Service,  when  the  fortunate  possessor  cm- 
barkeil  for  India,  was  worth  from  ,C4,000  to  ,£5,000,  and  that  acommis.sion  in  the 
army  was  generally  worth  from  £ 1 ,000  to  £ 1 ,200.  Ileeent  changes  in  the  char 
ter  have  put  the  appointments  in  the  most  highly  paiil  departments  of  the  gov 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


331 


plus  and  suffering  population  of  India  be  employed  under  Eu- 
ropean direction  and  superintendence.  Let  the  system  of  edu- 
cation recently  promulgated  by  the  government  be  fully  carried 
into  effect.  Let  the  laws  for  securing  equal  religious  liberty  and 
protection  to  all  classes  of  people  be  faithfully  administered. 
Let  the  means  and  facilities  now  enjoyed  for  diffusing  religious 
knowledge,  be  continued  — and  then  the  English  compiest  and 
government  of  India  will  prove  as  advantageous  to  the  latter  as 
it  has  hitherto  been  profitable  to  the  former. 

GOVERNMENT  CONNECTION  WITH  IDOLuVTRV. 

INIucli  has  been  said  and  written  concerning  the  connection 
of  the  English  in  India  with  the  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  re- 
ligions, and  the  Indian  governments  have  been  often  and  se- 
verely censured  for  their  support  and  patronage  of  idolatry,  su- 
perstition, and  false  religion.  The  origin  and  nature  of  this  con- 
nection and  supposed  patronage  of  idolatry  and  superstition 
require  some  explanation. 

For  many  centuries  Brahminism  was  the  religion  of  the  govern- 
ments and  of  the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants  of  India.  During 
this  long  period  many  temples  were  erected  and  endowed.  In 
some  instances  temples  were  erected  by  individuals,  who  then 
endowed  them  or  procured  endovanents  for  them  from  the  gov- 
ernment. Li  some  places  temples  were  erected  and  endowed  by 
the  government  by  appropriating  a part  of  the  revenue  of  the 
district  for  a while  to  religious  purposes.  The  permanent  endow- 
ments generally  consisted  of  the  taxes  or  rents  of  certain  lands, 
often  of  villages  or  districts  in  whole  or  in  part,  for  keeping  the 
temples  in  repair  and  supporting  the  prescribed  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  worship  daily  and  on  holidays.  These  endowments 
were  made  in  form  something  like  a deed,*  describing  the  tem- 

ernment  of  India  (namely,  the  Civil  Service,  and  the  Engineers  and  Artillery  of 
the  Military  Service)  upon  the  competition  of  public  examinations  for  admission 
into  the  college  of  Haileyburj-  and  the  military  academy  at  Addiscombe.  There  is 
therefore  now  reason  to  expect  that  the  expenses  of  the  European  agency  in  India 
will  be  reduced,  and  the  saving  thus  effected  be  expended  on  internal  improve- 
ments. Such  a change  as  this  would  soon  produce  great  effects  in  develop- 
ing the  resources  of  the  countrj^,  and  in  improving  the  state  and  eircumstances 
of  the  inhabitants. 

* These  deeds  are  generally  called  sunnuds.  I have  seen  many  of  them. 


332 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

pie,  and  the  lands  and  property  given  to  it,  and  then  appointing 
a certain  family  or  families  and  their  descendants  to  be  the 
agents  or  trustees,  to  have  the  charge  of  the  temple  and  its  en- 
dowments, and  to  carry  into  effect  the  purposes  for  which  the 
latter  were  made.  Thus  these  families  became  the  trustees  of 
the  temple,  and  so  long  as  they  performed  their  part,  the  use  or 
income  of  the  endowments  belonged  to  them.  These  endow- 
ments were  often  of  far  more  value  than  the  services  required  in 
return  for  them.  Indeed,  one  object  in  giving  them  often  \\ms  to 
provide  for  the  liberal  and  permanent  support  of  the  individuals 
and  families,  to  whose  management  they  were  intrusted.  Thus 
important  and  valuable  personal  and  property  rights  became  in- 
volved in  these  endowments.  And  if  there  should  ever  be  any 
failure  on  the  part  of  the  trustees  or  agents  to  support  these 
temples  and  the  prescribed  worship  in  them,  then  the  inhabitants 
of  the  village,  district,  or  city,  for  whose  use  and  supposed  benefit 
these  temples  were  erected  and  endowed,  could  complain  to  the 
government,  and  it  became  the  duty  of  the  government  to  in- 
quire into  the  matter  and  to  cause  the  duties  for  which  the  en- 
dowments were  made,  to  be  performed. 

Another  class  of  endowments  consisted  of  annual  or  stated 
payments  of  money  from  the  taxes  or  revenue  of  a district  to 
certain  temples  in  it.  These  payments  were  made  at  first  by 
the  orders  or  formal  acts  of  the  government,  and  if  paid  for  a 
few  years  in  succession,  they  were  considered  to  be  of  the  nature 
of  a permanent  endowment.  Though  the  government  did  not 
generally  give  any  sunnud  or  deed  to  secure  its  payment  in  fu- 
ture, yet  the  brahmins  connected  with  the  temple,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  the  village,  district,  or  city,  always  expected  it 
would  be  continued  so  long  as  they  did  nothing  to  forfeit  it. 
Such  payments  were  made  to  the  brahmins  who  had  the  charge 
of  the  temple,  and  were  to  be  expended  for  certain  specified  pur- 
poses. These  purposes  or  objects  generally  were  to  keep  the 


They  arc  generally  engraved  on  plates  of  brass  or  copper,  and  are  often  many 
hundred  years  old.  Tran.slations  and  descriptions  of  several  such  ])latcs  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Asiatic  Researches,  and  in  the  .Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  So- 
ciety. They  generally  close  with  imprecations  of  the  displeasure  of  the  gods 
upon  any  government  or  individual,  who  shall  ever  in  .any  way  interfere  with 
the  endowments  or  prevent  their  object  from  being  carried  into  effect. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


333 


temples  in  a state  of  repair,  and  for  the  celebration  of  festivals 
and  holidays — works  in  which  the  people  joined,  and  so  ob- 
tained some  equivalent  for  the  money  they  paid  for  the  ex- 
penses. 

Another  class  of  endowments  consisted  in  a certain  sum  of 
money,  or  a certain  proportion  of  the  taxes  collected  in  each  vil- 
lage,' being  expended  for  religious  purposes  in  the  village,  gener- 
ally for  keeping  the  temples  in  a state  of  repair,  and  for  illumi- 
nations and  ceremonies  on  particular  occasions.  This  in  many 
places  became  an  established  usage,  and  was  regarded  as  a gov- 
ernment regulation  or  law. 

There  were  some  circumstances  of  a peculiar  character  con- 
nected with  some  of  these  temples  and  sacred  places.  The 
IMohammedans  had  established  their  power  in  India  several 
centuries  before  any  part  of  it  became  subject  to  the  English. 
Their  professed  object  in  conquering  the  country  was  to  destroy 
idolatry  and  to  convert  the  inhabitants  to  Islamism.  The  first 
conquerors  were  accustomed  to  demolish  the  Hindu  temples, 
pollute  their  sacred  places,  and  break  their  idols  in  pieces.  But 
after  a while  their  successors  became  more  tolerant  and  imposed 
taxes  on  temples  and  pilgrims,  endeavoring  in  this  way  to  dis- 
courage idolatry  by  mcddng  it  expensive  and  difficult,  and  also 
to  obtain  means  for  erecting  mosques  near  the  temples,  and  for 
other  purposes  of  revenue. 

And  sometimes  when  a temple  had  acquired  a high  character 
and  the  resort  of  people  to  it  had  become  great,  the  brahmins, 
who  had  the  charge  of  it,  exacted  a tax  from  all  the  pilgrims  for 
their  own  support  and  to  keep  the  temple  in  repair,  and  pay  the 
expenses  of  illuminations,  festivals,  etc.  In  some  instances  also 
Hindu  princes  imposed  a tax  upon  temples,  or  upon  pilgrims 
resorting  to  them,  for  purposes  of  revenue.  Taxes  of  this  kind 
were  collected  at  Gya,  Allahabad,  Juggunath,  Tripetty,  and 
many  other  places  by  the  Mohammedans  or  the  Hindus,  as 
either  power  happened  to  be  in  the  possession  of  the  shrines. 
The  presents  and  offerings  made  to  the  deities  at  the  gi'eat  fes- 
tivals were  often  very  valuable.  These  according  to  general 
usage,  became  the  property  of  the  officiating  brahmins,  but  dis- 
putes concerning  their  comparative  rights,  not  unfrequently  made 
it  necessary  for  the  government  agents  to  interfere  and  adjust 
matters  between  them. 


334 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

In  the  progress  of  their  conquest  the  English  acquired  posses- 
sion of  the  provinces  containing  these  celebrated  temples  and 
sacred  places,  and  so  succeeded  to  the  powers  and  rights  of  the 
previous  governments.  They  did  not  impose  any  new  taxes  on 
pilgrims  at  these  temples  and  sacred  places ; they  only  collected 
such  as  the  previous  governments  had  established  and  long  col- 
lected. The  amount  of  these  taxes  varied  with  the  rank  and 
caste  of  the  worshippers,  the  shrines  where  they  wished  to  wor- 
ship, the  ceremonies  they  wished  to  perform,  the  number  of  days 
they  wished  to  be  admitted,  etc.  These  taxes,  usages,  and  cer- 
emonies were  adjusted  by  the  artful  brahmins,  who  shared  in 
the  revenues  and  collections  of  the  temples,  so  as  to  exact  as 
much  as  possible  from  the  deluded  pdgrims.* 

What  has  been  said  about  the  Hindu  temples,  might  be  applied 
to  the  mosques,  in  respect  to  their  origin  and  the  management 
of  their  endowments.  I am  not  aware  that  any  taxes  were 
imposed  upon  them  or  exacted  from  any  persons  resorting  to 
them. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  temples  and  mosques  in  India, 
when  the  English  acquired  possession  of  the  country.  The 
English  then  became  the  governing  power,  but  the  people  all 
retained  their  religion,  their  language,  their  customs,  etc.,  un- 
changed. The  English  in  accordance  with  usage  among  civil- 
ized nations  in  such  cases,  acknowledged  the  laws  and  acts  of 
the  previous  governments,  especially  in  matters  involving  civil 
and  personal  rights  and  privileges.  For  instance,  if  any  foreign 
nation  should  conquer  the  United  States,  such  conquest  and  pos- 
session of  the  country  would  not  deprive  any  person  or  party 
of  their  property,  nor  any  church  or  college  of  its  endowments, 
or  its  chartered  rights  and  privileges.  So  the  conquest  of  India 
by  the  English,  did  not  deprive  the  temples  and  mosques  of  their 

* These  pilgrim  taxes  at  Tripetty  in  one  year,  amounted  to  $110,000  more 
than  the  expenses  of  the  temple.  They  were  nearly  as  large  at  Gya,  and  also 
at  Pruyag,  and  very  considerable  sums  were  collected  at  some  other  temples. 
These  ta.xes  are  now  said  to  be  relinquished,  or  the  management  of  the  temples 
to  be  intrusted  to  the  natives,  so  that  the  East  India  Company  has  no  direct 
relation  to  them,  has  no  management  of  them,  and  derives  no  benefit  from  them. 
The  amount  which  the  East  India  Company  realized  by  taxes  at  these  temples, 
from  the  time  they  came  under  their  control  and  management,  till  they  relin- 
quished them,  exceeded  £2,000,000  or  nearly  $10,000,000. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


335 


endowments,  nor  exonerate  the  men  intrusted  with  the  manage- 
ment of  these  endowments  from  their  obligation  to  use  them  for 
the  objects  for  which  they  were  origiiially  given.  The  English 
government  and  its  agents  thought  it  their  duty  to  enable  the 
brahmins  in  charge  of  such  endowments  to  collect  their  revenues 
and  rents,  and  then  to  compel  them  to  expend  such  income,  or 
so  much  of  it  as  might  be  required,  for  the  purposes  for  which 
the  endowments  were  originally  made,  and  to  which  they  had 
been  for  centuries  appropriated  and  expended.  In  some  places 
the  native  governments  having  long  been  in  a feeble  and  dis- 
tracted state,  the  temples  were  neglected  and  out  of  repair,  not 
because  the  people  had  changed  their  religion  or  become  indif- 
ferent to  it,  but  because  the  brahmins  either  could  not  collect  the 
income  of  the  endowments,  or  had  appropriated  it  to  their  own 
use.  In  such  cases  the  English  agents  thought  it  their  duty  as 
the  governing  and  administrative  power,  to  enforce  the  rights  of 
the  brahmins  to  the  endowments,  and  then  their  obligations  to 
the  temples  and  the  people.  In  carrying  out  this  policy  it  not 
unfrcquently  became  necessary  for  the  English  magisti-ates  to 
consider  and  decide  disputes  and  quarrels  between  difl'erent  per- 
sons and  parties  claiming  a right  to  the  management  of  the  tem- 
ples and  their  endowments,  and  in  some  cases  the  magistrates 
assumed  the  control  and  management  of  such  endowments 
and  the  temples  and  mosques  connected  with  them,  and  made 
the  arrangements  for  celebrating  their  festivals.  Thus  the  Eng- 
lish magistrates  became  apparently  the  superintendents  and 
managers  of  these  temples  and  mosques,  repairing  them,  ap- 
pointing priests  to  officiate  in  them,  fixing  and  paying  their  sal- 
aries, paying  for  illuminations,  festivities,  ceremonies,  etc.  These 
expenses  were  ostensibly  paid  out  of  the  endowments  of  the 
temples.  But  it  w^as  said,  and  probably  with  some  truth,  that 
the  expenses  sometimes  exceeded  the  income  of  the  endowments, 
and  that  the  deficiency  was  supplied  from  the  government  treas- 
ury, w’hile  in  other  cases  the  expenses  for  the  temples  were 
less  than  the  income  of  the  endowments,  and  that  the  surplus 
w^as  then  paid  into  the  government  treasury.  Thus  in  some 
districts  the  government  wns  supportmg  idolatry  by  payments 
directly  from  its  treasury,  and  in  other  places  it  was  realizing  a 
revenue  from  the  endowments  of  the  temples.  And  in  all  such 


336 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


cases  this  policy  of  the  government  in  supporting  Hinduism  and 
Mohammedanism  exhibited  the  appearance  of  approving  and 
banctioning  those  systems  as  true,  and  their  observance  as  for 
the  benefit  of  their  votaries.  Many  felt,  and  not  without  some 
reason,  that  so  long  as  the  English  government  should  pursue 
this  course,  little  good  could  be  expected  from  any  means  or 
efforts  to  introduce  Christianity,  or  to  promote  civilisation,  or 
even  any  reformation  of  morals  and  manners. 

In  respect  to  the  other  kind  of  endowments,  namely,  the  annual 
payments  of  money  to  temples,  and  allowing  a part  of  the  reve- 
nue or  taxes  of  villages  to  religious  purposes,  the  English,  in 
assuming  the  government  of  the  country,  generally  continued 
the  practice  of  the  native  governments  that  preceded  them. 
The  people  who  paid  the  taxes,  regarded  themselves  as  having 
a right  from  long  and  established  usage  to  these  payments 
for  religious  purposes.  The  English  government,  or  the  gov- 
ernors in  India  never  gave  any  pledges,  nor  made  any  engage- 
ment or  treaty  to  support  Hinduism  nor  Mohammedanism ; 
yet  they  were  expected,  both  by  the  native  princes  and  people, 
to  respect  the  established  laws  and  acts  of  the  previous  native 
governments.  And  when  they  had  once  begun  the  course  of 
policy  which  has  been  mentioned,  then  to  change  it,  to  refuse 
such  aid  and  support  when  the  people,  on  their  part,  had 
given  no  occasion  for  any  such  change,  appeared  to  them  to 
be  arbitrary  and  oppressive. 

In  this  way  the  English  government  in  India  became  in- 
volved in  the  control,  management,  and  support  of  heathenism 
and  Mohammedanism.  This  course  of  policy  was  commenced, 
as  successive  districts  and  temtories  became  subject  to  them,  by 
their  governors  and  agents,  in  the  exercise  of  the  discretionary 
power  intrusted  to  them.  And  this  course  was  carried  on  for 
some  years  before  the  Christian  public  and  proprietors  of  India 
stock  in  England  became  aware  of  its  nature  and  extent.  The 
speeches,  debates,  discussions,  and  despatches  on  this  subject, 
(especially  concerning  the  temple  of  Juggunath,)  are  generally 
known.  It  was  not  so  easy  for  the  governments  in  India  to 
change  their  policy  and  dissolve  all  conneclion  with  the  tem- 
ples and  mosques  and  their  endowments,  as  was  generally 
supposed.  The  Court  of  Directors  were  unwilling  to  take 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


337 


avowed  and  decisive  measures,  while  some  of  their  agents  in 
India  were  disposed  to  favor  and  support  Hinduism  and  Mo- 
hammedanism to  an  extent  quite  inconsistent  with  any  due  pre- 
ference for  Christianity.  "When  this  policy  of  the  government 
and  state  of  matters  in  India  became  known  in  England,  it  ex- 
cited strong  dissatisfaction.  Earnest  and  able  discussions  took 
place  among  the  proprietors  of  India  stock,  the  Directors  of  the 
Company,  and  the  Board  of  Control.  Memorials  and  petitions 
from  churches  and  missionary  and  other  religious  societies, 
were  sent  to  Parliament,  requesting  its  interference  to  prevent 
the  continuance  of  what  appeared  to  be  a recommendation  and 
approbation  of  Hinduism  and  Mohammedanism,  and  which 
could  not  be  otherwise  than  a great  obstacle  to  the  introduction 
and  progress  of  Christianity.  The  subject  was  in  various  ways 
kept  before  the  Christian  public  for  some  years,  and  it  became 
obvious  that,  whatever  might  be  the  opinion  of  the  Directors  and 
some  of  their  agents  in  India,  they  would  be  compelled  to  yield 
to  the  authority  of  public  opinion.  In  these  discussions  and 
debates,  Mr.  J.  Poynder,  and  Mr.  C.  Grant,  (subsequently  Lord 
Glenelg,)  took  a very  active  part,  and  performed  services  for 
Christianity  and  benevolence,  which  wUl  long  be  remembered. 

Peremptory  inquiries  and  instructions  were  at  length  sent  out 
to  India,  and  the  results  showed  that  the  government  had  a more 
intimate  and  extensive  connection  wdth  the  religions  of  the  coun- 
try than  had  been  supposed.  It  was  found  that  in  the  presi- 
dency of  Madras  alone,  the  government  had  under  its  care  and 
patronage  8,292  Hindu  temples,  and  that  the  sums  paid  to  them 
annually,  amounted  to  $400,000.  It  was  also  found  that  the 
fund  which  had  accumulated  from  the  excess  of  the  endowments 
above  the  expenses  of  these  temples,  amounted  to  $600,000  in 
the  government  treasury.  The  result  of  much  inquiry,  corre- 
spondence, and  discussion,  was  that  $400,000  of  this  accumula- 
ted fund  should  be  given  to  promote  education,  and  the  remain- 
ing $200,000  to  various  benevolent  and  charitable  objects ; and 
that  the  temples  and  mosques,  with  all  their  endowments, 
should  be  intrusted  to  the  management  of  committees  of  the 
inhabitants,  w^here  these  places  of  wmrship  are  situated.  These 
arrangements  have  in  most  places  been  carried  into  effect, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  those  who  began  this  w^ork 

29 


338 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


of  reform,  will  carry  it  on  till  the  English  government  in  India 
shall  be  entirely  unconnected  wdth  the  religion  of  its  native  sub- 
jects. 


NATIVE  PRINCES. 

The  native  princes  yet  remaining  in  India,  are  of  tvm  classes, 
namely,  those  who  receive  pensions  or  annuities  for  themselves 
and  their  families,  in  consideration  of  their  former  power  and 
possessions,  or  of  their  loss  and  misfortunes ; and  those  who 
stUl  retain  some  territory  and  power. 

Oriental  princes  have  always  been  fond  of  pageantry,  and  of 
indulging  in  habits  of  capricious  extravagance.  These  tastes  and 
habits  have  generally  made  their  personal  and  family  expenses 
very  large.  The  pensions  and  annuities  given  by  the  East  India 
Company  to  these  fallen  princes,  have  commonly  been  on  a 
princely  scale,  but  not  unfrequently  united  with  some  conditions 
of  a humiliating  nature,  though  regarded  by  the  English  as 
necessary  for  the  public  safety,  or  for  the  stability  of  their  own 
power.  Some  of  these  conditions  are  as  foUow: — Some  are  re- 
quired to  reside  in  certain  specified  cities  or  districts,  and  not  to 
go  out  of  them.  They  are  not  permitted  to  have  any  personal 
intercourse  nor  correspondence  with  other  pensioned  princes, 
nor  with  any  princes  stUl  retaining  power  and  territory  in  India 
or  out  of  India.  They  are  not  permitted  to  have  any  personal  in- 
tercourse or  correspondence  with  any  European,  except  the  Eng- 
lish agents  of  the  government.  In  short,  these  fallen  and  deposed 
princes,  though  retaining  their  titles,  and  living  in  pageantry  and 
luxury,  are  yet  kept  in  circumstances  which  are  painful  and  hu- 
miliating. Among  these  pensioners  upon  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, are  the  titular  Emperor  of  Delhi  the  Great  Mogul,  the  Na- 
bobs of  Bengal  and  the  Carnatic,  the  Rajas  of  Burdwan,  Benares, 
Tanjore,  and  Malabar,  the  families  of  the  late  Peishwa,  and  of 
Tippoo  Sultan,  and  many  others.  The  amount  of  pensions  and 
annuities  given  to  persons  and  famUies  of  this  class  and  charac- 
ter, amount  to  about  $7,000,000  annually.  These  are  generally 
continued  to  their  descendants,  but  as  such  families  often  be- 
come extinct,  and  some  of  them  forfeit  their  claims  by  improper 
conduct,  the  number  of  pensioners  and  the  amount  paid  on 
their  account,  are  yearly  diminishing.  The  very  liberal  manner 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


339 


in  wliich  the  English  in  India  have  provided  for  this  class  of 
people,  has  contributed  much  to  facilitate  their  conquest  of  the 
country,  and  to  consolidate  their  power. 

The  native  princes  and  nobles,  who  yet  retain  some  power 
and  territory,  are  numerous.  They  arc  to  be  found  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  country,  and  their  territories  vary  from  a few  vil- 
lages to  provinces  containing  several  millions  of  inhabitants. 
These  scattered  remains  of  former  kingdoms  and  governments, 
were  lately  estimated  to  contain  nearly  one  third  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Imlia,  or  50,000,000  of  people,  and  rather  more  than  one 
third  of  the  whole  territory  of  India.  Some  of  these  princes  re- 
tain but  little  power,  their  territories  being  chiefly  managed  by 
English  agents,  while  otliers  are  nearly  independent  in  their  own 
dominions.  But  none  of  them  are  permitted  to  hold  any  politi- 
cal intercourse  wdth  each  other,  nor  with  any  nation  or  power 
out  of  India.  Their  relations  to  the  East  India  Company,  now 
the  paramount  power  in  the  country,  vary  according  to  treaties 
and  agreements  made  at  different  times.  Their  armies,  so  far 
as  they  are  permitted  to  keep  any,  are  commonly  more  or  less 
under  the  command  of  English  officers,  and  a certain  amoimt 
of  English  force  is  generally  stationed  in  their  territories.  An 
accredited  English  agent  generally  resides  in  or  near  their  capi- 
tal. In  this  way  their  policy  and  the  state  of  their  territory  are 
always  well  known  to  the  English,  who  have  the  means  of  re- 
straining or  deposing  them,  should  there  at  any  time  appear  to 
be  reasons  for  doing  it.  The  courts  of  these  princes  have  the 
usual  amount  of  intrigue,  treachery,  feuds,  and  profligacy  found 
in  oriental  governments.  Hence  there  is  frequent  occasion  for 
the  interference  of  the  English  agents,  and  such  interference 
generally  results  in  loss  to  the  native  princes,  and  the  increase 
of  the  English  power. 

Formerly  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  leading  English  statesmen 
in  India,  that  these  scattered  remains  of  the  former  sovereigns 
and  princes  increased  the  stability  of  the  English,  and  so  were 
to  be  perpetuated.  But  for  some  years  past,  it  has  been  the 
policy  of  the  English  governors  and  agents  to  annex  aU  such 
territories  to  their  own  dominions,  as  soon  as  the  failure  of  male 
descendants,  or  political  disturbances,  or  misgovernment,  should 
furnish  occasion  or  excuse  for  doing  it.  Formerly  it  was  an 


340 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


established  usage  or  law  among  Hindus  and  Mohammedans, 
that  if  any  prince  had  not  any  male  issue,  he  could  adopt  a son, 
and  if  such  adoption  was  made  in  the  prescribed  form  and  ac- 
companied by  certain  religious  rites,  then  such  a son  became  the 
legal  heir  of  the  honors,  titles,  and  possessions  of  the  family. 
In  this  way  the  dynasties  of  the  native  princes  were  perpetua- 
ted. The  English  fomierly  allowed  the  native  princes  depen- 
dent upon  them,  to  transmit  their  power  and  perpetuate  their 
family  honors  and  possessions  by  adoption.  But  for  some 
years  past  they  have  generally  refused  to  allow  this  right,  and 
when  princes  and  noble  families  have  become  extinct  in  the 
direct  male  line,  they  have  annexed  their  possessions  to  their 
own  dominions.  In  this  way,  within  a few  years  past,  the  Eng- 
lish have  taken  possession  of  the  dominions  of  several  de- 
ceased princes,  as  of  the  late  Raja  of  Berar,  estimated  to  con- 
tain 4,000,000  of  inhabitants,  of  the  late  Raja  of  Sattara,  esti- 
mated to  contain  1,000,000,  and  some  others.  The  remaining 
princes  and  their  families  have  reason  also  to  expect  the  loss 
of  their  honors,  possessions,  and  wealth,  whenever  male  heirs 
in  the  direct  line  shall  fail.  This  change  of  policy  in  the 
English,  of  annexing  and  absorbing  the  territories  of  the  native 
princes,  instead  of  sustaining,  protecting,  and  perpetuating 
them,  which  they  formerly  did,  and  to  which  these  princes  and 
their  families  have  claimed  a right,  has  produced  strong  ex- 
citement in  India,  and  called  forth  earnest  memorials,  appeals, 
and  protests.  These  princes  and  their  families  must  contem- 
plate this  course  of  policy  and  the  consequent  prospect  be- 
fore them,  with  feelings  of  deep  anxiety.  And  many  others 
have  similar  feelings,  who  have  looked  upon  these  princes  and 
their  possessions  as  remaining  witnesses  of  their  former  nation- 
ality, and  who  have  cherished  some  vague  hope  that  they 
might  in  some  way  recover  their  former  power  and  dignity 
But  when  they  see  these  dynasties  annihilated,  or  the  repre- 
sentatives of  them  reduced  to  the  state  of  the  common  people, 
and  no  native  powers  remaining  to  raise  a banner,  and  no 
territory  on  which  it  could  be  raised  and  which  could  be  made 
a basis  for  any  political  organization,  their  hopes  of  any  future 
national  government  vanish,  and  they  feel  an  increasing  sense 
of  their  conquered,  humbled,  and  dependent  state.  There  are  far 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


341 


more  and  stronger  feelings  of  this  nature  among  the  middling 
and  higrher  classes  of  both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans,  than 
Europeans  generally  suppose.  It  is  not  likely  there  will  be  any 
change  in  the  present  policy,  which  has  been  deliberately  adopted 
in  India  and  in  England.  The  prospect  is  that  all  the  territories 
now  in  the  power  of  the  native  princes,  will  be  gradually 
brought  under  the  direct  government  of  the  English,  and  that 
the  descendants  and  representatives  of  the  emperors,  kings,  na- 
bobs, and  nobles  of  India,  will  decrease  in  number  and  power, 
until  they  eventually  become  extinct,  or  their  posterity,  if  any 
remain,  will  have  no  social  or  civil  distinction  among  the  com- 
mon people. 

In  a former  part  of  this  work  some-  account  was  given  of  the 
power  and  splendor  of  the  emperors  of  Delhi.  This  family,  de- 
scended from  Genghis  Khan  and  Tamerlane,  the  great  conquer- 
ors of  the  middle  ages  and  occupying  the  throne  of  Delhi 
through  a line  of  powerful  sovereigns,  (the  most  powerful  then 
in  the  world,)  must  be  viewed  with  peculiar  feelings  while  they 
continue  to  be  numbered  among  the  princes  of  India.  In  1803, 
Lord  Lake  took  Delhi,  which  had  for  some  years  been  in  the 
possession  of  Scindia,  one  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs.  The  empe- 
ror (or  Grand  Mogul  as  the  title  of  the  dynasty  was  for  some 
centuries  called)  and  his  family  then  came  under  the  protection 
of  the  English.  When  Lord  Lake  first  saw  him,  “ he  was 
seated  under  a small  tattered  canopy,  the  remnant  of  his  former 
state,  his  person  emaciated  by  indigence  and  infirmities,  and  his 
countenance  disfigured  by  the  loss  of  his  eyes,  and  marked  with 
extreme  old  age  and  settled  melancholy.”  Since  that  time  the 
emperor  has  lived  under  the  protection  of  the  English,  who  set- 
tled upon  liim  and  his  family  an  annuity,  first  of  10,  then  in- 
creased to  12,  and  subsequently  to  15  lacks  of  rupees;*  udth  as 
many  of  the  palaces  and  other  royal  buildings  of  his  ancestors 
as  they  have  occasion  to  use,  and  more  (as  their  state  shows) 
than  they  keep  in  repair.  The  following  account  given  by 
Bishop  Heber  of  his  interview  with  the  emperor  in  1826,  shows 

* Bishop  Heber’s  Journal,  vol.  2,  p.  311.  A rupee  is  nearly  half  a dollar, 
and  a lack  is  100,000;  so  the  annuity  or  pension  of  the  emperor  was  500,000, 
then  increased  to  600,000,  and  subsequently  to  750,000  dollars  yearly. 

29* 


342 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  pageantry  and  ceremony  observed  in  the  court  of  a fallen 
and  dependent  prince  in  India. 

“ The  31st  of  December  was  fixed  for  my  presentation  to  the 
emperor,  which  was  appointed  for  half  past  eight  in  the  morn- 
ing. Lushington  and  Captain  Wade  also  chose  to  take  the 
same  opportunity.  At  eight  I went  accompanied  by  Mr.  Elliot 
with  nearly  the  same  formalities  as  at  Lucknow,  except  that  we 
were  on  elephants  instead  of  in  palanquins,  and  that  the  proces- 
sion was  perhaps  less  splendid  and  the  beggars  both  less  numer- 
ous, and  far  less  vociferous  and  importunate.  We  were  received 
with  presented  arms  by  the  troops  of  the  palace,  drawn  up  within 
the  barbican,  and  proceeded  stiU  on  our  elephants,  through  the 
noblest  gateway  and  vestibule  I ever  saw.  It  consists  npt 
merely  of  a splendid  gothic  arch  in  the  centre  of  the  gate-tower, 
but  after  that  of  a long  vaulted  aisle  like  that  of  a gothic  cathe- 
dral, with  a small  open  octagonal  court  in  its  centre,  all  of  gran- 
ite, and  finely  carved  with  inscriptions  from  the  Koran  and  with 
flowers.  This  ended  in  a ruinous  and  exceedingly  dirty  stable 
yard!  where  we  were  received  by  Captain  Grant,  as  the  Mogul’s 
officer  on  guard,  and  by  a number  of  elderly  men  with  large 
gold-headed  canes,  the  usual  ensign  of  office  here,  and  one  of 
which  Mr.  Elliot  also  carried.  We  were  now  told  to  dismormt 
and  proceed  on  foot,  a task  which  the  late  rain  made  inconven- 
ient to  my  gown  and  cassock  and  thin  shoes,  and  during  which 
we  were  pestered  by  a fresh  swarm  of  miserable  beggars,  the 
wives  and  children  of  the  table  servants.  After  this  we  passed 
another  richly  carved,  but  ruinous  and  dirty  gateway,  where  our 
guides  withdrawing  a canvas  screen,  called  out  in  a sort  of  harsh 
chant,  “ Lo,  the  Ornament  of  the  World ! Lo,  the  Asyluln  of 
the  Nations!  King  of  Kings!  The  Emperor  Shah  Acber! 
Just,  fortunate,  victorious!”  We  saw  izi  fact  a very  handsome 
and  strildng  court  with  low  but  richly  ornamented  buildings. 
Opposite  to  us  was  a beautiful  open  pavilion  of  white  marble, 
richly  carved,  flanked  by  rose-bushes  and  fountains,  and  some 
tapestry  and  striped  curtains  hanging  in  festoons  about  it,  within 
which  was  a crowd  of  people  and  the  poor  old  descendant  of 
Tamerlane  seated  in  the  midst  of  them.  Mr.  Elliot  here  bowed 
three  times  very  low,  in  which  we  followed  his  example.  This 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


343 


ceremony  was  repeated  twice  as  we  advanced  up  the  stops  of 
the  pavilion,  the  heralds  each  time  repeating  the  same  expres- 
sions about  their  master’s  gi-eatness.  We  then  stood  in  a row 
on  the  right  hand  of  the  throne,  which  is  a sort  of  marble  bed- 
stead richly  ornamented  with  gilding,  and  raised  two  or  three 
steps.  Mr.  Elliot  then  stepped  forward,  and  with  joined  hands 
in  the  usual  eastern  way  announced  in  a low  voice  to  the  empe- 
ror who  I was.  I then  advanced,  bowed  three  times  and  offered 
a nuzzur  of  51  gold  mohurs  * in  an  embroidered  purse,  laid  on 
my  handkerchief  in  the  way  practised  by  the  Baboos  (native 
gentlemen)  of  Calcutta.  This  was  received  and  laid  on  one 
side,  and  I remained  standing  for  a few  minutes  while  the  usual 
court  questions  about  my  health,  my  travels,  when  I left  Cal- 
cutta, etc.,  were  asked.  I had  thus  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the 
old  gentleman  more  plainly.  He  has  a pale,  thin,  but  handsome 
face,  with  an  aquiline  nose  and  a long  wliite  beard.  His  com- 
plexion is  little  if  at  all  darker  than  that  of  a European.  His 
hands  are  fair  and  delicate,  and  he  had  some  valuable  looking 
rings  upon  them.  His  hands  and  face  were  aU  that  I saw  of 
him,  for  the  morning  being  cold,  he  was  so  wrapped  up  in  shawls 
that  he  reminded  me  extremely  of  the  Druid’s  head  on  a Welsh 
half-penny.  I then  stepped  back  to  my  former  place,  and  re- 
turned again  with  5 more  gold  mohurs  to  make  my  offering  to  the 
heir  apparent,  who  stood  at  his  father’s  left  hand,  the  right  being 
occupied  by  the  resident,  (i.  e.  Mr.  Elliot,  the  agent  of  the 
East  India  Company).  Next,  my  two  companions  were  intro- 
duced with  nearly  the  same  forms,  except  that  their  offerings 
were  less  and  that  the  emperor  did  not  speak  to  them. 

“ The  emperor  then  beckoned  to  me  to  come  forward,  and  IMr. 
EUiot  told  me  to  take  off  my  hat,  wliich  till  now  remained  on  my 
head,  on  which  the  emperor  tied  a flimsy  turban  of  brocade 
round  my  head  wdth  his  own  hands,  for  which  however  I paid 
4 gold  mohm's  more.  We  were  then  directed  to  retire  to  receive 
our  ‘ Khelats  ’ (honoraiy  dresses),  which  the  bounty  of  the 
‘Asylum  of  the  World’  had  provided  for  us.  I was  accord- 
ingly taken  into  a small  private  room  adjoining  the  Zennana, 
where  I found  a handsome  flowered  caftan  edged  with  fur,  and 

* Nuzzur  is  a present;  a mohur  is  a gold  coin  worth  15  rupees,  or  nearly  7 
1-2  dollars. 


344 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


a pair  of  common  looking  shawls,  which  my  servants  who  had 
the  delight  of  witnessing  aU  this  fine  show,  put  on  instead  of 
my  gown,  my  cassock  remaining  as  before.  In  this  strange 
dress  I had  to  walk  back  again,  having  my  name  announced  by 
the  criers,  as  ‘ Bahadur,  Boozoony,  Dowlutmund,’  etc.,  to  the 
presence  (the  emperor),  where  I found  my  two  companions,  who 
had  not  been  honored  by  a private  dressing-room,  but  had  their 
Khelats  ^rut  on  them  in  the  gateway  of  the  court.  They  were, 
I apprehend,  still  queerer  figures  than  I was,  having  their  hats 
wrapped  with  scarfs  of  flowered  gauze,  and  a strange  garment 
of  gauze,  tinsel,  and  faded  ribbons  flung  over  their  shoulders 
above  their  coats.  I now  again  came  forward  and  offered  my 
third  present  to  the  emperor,  being  a copy  of  the  Arabic  Bible 
and  the  Hindustanee  Common  Prayer,  handsomely  bound  in 
blue  velvet  laced  with  gold,  and  wrapped  up  in  a piece  of  bro- 
cade. He  then  motioned  to  me  to  stoop  and  he  put  a string  of 
pearls  round  my  neck,  and  two  glittering  but  not  costly  orna- 
ments in  the  front  of  my  turban,  for  which  I again  offered  5 
gold  mohurs.  It  was  lastly  announced  that  a horse  was  wait- 
ing for  my  acceptance,  at  which  fresh  instance  of  imperial  mu- 
nificence, the  heralds  again  made  a proclamation  of  largesse, 
and  I again  paid  5 gold  mohurs.  It  ended  by  my  taking  leave 
with  three  times  thi-ee  salams,  maldng  up  I think  the  sum  of 
about  threescore,  and  I retired  with  Mr.  Elliot  to  my  dressing- 
room,  whence  I sent  to  her  Majesty  (the  Queen.,  as  she  is  gener- 
ally called,  though  the  Empress  would  be  the  ancient  and  more 
proper  title)  a present  of  5 gold  mohurs  more,  and  then  the  em- 
peror’s chobdars  came  eagerly  up  to  know  when  they  should 
come  to  receive  their  bukshish  (presents). 

“ It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  interchange  of  civilities  was 
very  expensive,  either  to  his  Majesty  or  me.  All  the  presents 
which  he  gave,  the  horse  included,  though  really  the  handsomest 
which  had  been  seen  at  the  court  of  Delhi  for  many  years,  and 
though  the  old  gentleman  evidently  intended  to  be  extremely 
civil,  were  not  worth  much  more  than  300  rupees,  so  that 
he  and  his  family  gained  at  least  800  rupees  by  the  morn- 
ing’s work,  besides  what  he  received  from  my  two  compan- 
ions, which  was  all  clear  gain,  since  the  Khelats  which  they 
got  in  return  were  only  fit  for  May-day,  and  made,  I fancy,  from 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


345 


the  cast  off  finery  of  the  Begums  (princesses).  On  the  other 
hand,  since  the  East  India  Company  have  wisely  ordered  that  all 
the  presents  given  by  native  princes  to  Europeans,  shoiUd  be  dis- 
posed of  on  the  government  account,  they  have  liberally  at  the 
same  time  taken  on  themselves  the  expense  of  paying  the  usual 
money  nuzzurs  made  by  public  men  on  these  occasions.  In 
consequence  none  of  my  offerings  were  at  my  own  charge,  ex- 
cept the  professional  and  private  one  of  the  two  books,  with 
which  as  they  were  unexpected,  the  Emperor,  as  I was  told, 
was  very  much  pleased. 

“ While  in  the  small  apartment  where  I got  rid  of  my  sliining 
garments,  I was  struck  with  its  beautiful  ornaments.  It  was 
entirely  hned  with  white  marble,  inlaid  with  flowers  and  leaves 
of  green  serpentine,  lapis  lazuli,  and  blue  and  red  porphyry; 
the  flowers  were  of  the  best  Italian  style  of  workmanship,  and 
evidently  the  labor  of  an  artist  of  that  country.  AH,  however, 
was  desolate,  dirty,  and  forlorn. 

“ After  putting  on  my  usual  dress,  we  waited  a little,  till 
word  was  brought  us  that  the  ‘ King  of  Kings,’  ‘ Shah-in- Shah,’ 
had  retired  to  his  Zennana ; we  then  went  to  the  haU  of  audience 
which  1 had  previously  seen  but  imperfectly,  from  the  crowd  of 
people  and  the  necessity  of  attending  to  the  forms  which  I had 
to  go  through.  It  is  a very  beautiful  haU  of  white  marble,  open 
on  one  side  to  the  court  of  the  palace,  and  on  the  other  to  a 
large  garden.  Its  pillars  and  arches  are  exquisitely  carv’ed,  and 
ornamented  with  gilt  and  inlaid  flowers,  and  inscriptions  in  the 
most  elaborate  Persian  character.  Round  the  frieze  is  the 
motto,  recorded,  I beheve,  in  LaUa  Rookh, 

‘ If  there  be  an  Elysium  on  earth, 

It  is  this,  it  is  this.’ 

The  marble  floor,  where  not  covered  by  carpets,  is  all  inlaid  in 
the  same  beautiful  manner,  with  the  little  dressing-room  I had 
visited. 

“ The  gardens,  which  we  next  visited,  are  not  large,  but  in  their 
way  must  once  have  been  extremely  rich  and  beautiful.  A chan- 
nel of  white  marble  for  water,  with  httle  fountain  pipes  of  the 
same  material,  carved  like  roses,  is  carried  here  and  there  among 
these  parterres,  and  at  the  end  of  the  terrace  is  a beautiful  oc- 


346  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

tagonal  pavilion,  also  of  marble,  lined  the  same  Mosaic 

flowers  as  in  the  room  which  I first  saw,  with  a marble  fountain 
in  the  centre  and  a beautiful  bath  in  a recess  on  one  of  its  sides. 
We  were  then  taken  to  the  private  mosque  of  the  palace,  an 
elegant  little  building  also  of  white  marble,  and  exquisitely- 
carved.  We  went  last  to  the  ‘ Dewanee  aum,’  or  hall  of  pub- 
lic audience,  which  is  in  the  outer  court,  and  where  on  cer- 
tain occasions  the  Great  Mogul  sat  in  state,  to  receive  the  com- 
pliments or  petitions  of  his  subjects.  This  is  also  a splendid 
pavilion  of  marble,  not  unlike  the  other  hall  of  audience  in  form, 
but  considerably  larger  and  open  on  three  sides  only ; on  the 
fourth  is  a blank  wall,  covered  with  the  same  Mosaic  work  of 
flowers  and  leaves,  as  I have  described,  and  in  the  centre  a 
throne,  raised  about  10  feet  fi-om  the  ground,  with  a small  plat- 
form of  marble  in  front,  where  the  vizier  used  to  stand  to  hand 
up  petitions  to  his  Majesty.”  * 

REMARKS  ON  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 

The  professed  policy  of  the  East  India  Company  in  their 
government  over  their  Indian  subjects,  whether  Christians  or 
Jews  or  Mohammedans  or  Hindus,  has  been  neutrality  in  all 
matters  of  a religious  character.  It  was  also  a part  of  their 
policy  to  govern  each  class  of  people,  according  to  their  previous 
laws,  and  not  in  any  way  to  interfere  -with  their  religious  princi- 
ples, rites,  or  usages.  The  laws  and  usages  of  some  classes  are 
very  intolerant,  and  utterly  inconsistent  -vuth  any  equitable  re- 
ligious toleration  and  protection.  The  laws  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan and  Hindus  do  not  respect  the  rights  of  conscience,  nor  of 
private  judgment  in  religious  matters.  If  a Mohammedan 
should  renounce  his  religion,  their  laws  enjoin  persecution  even 
unto  death.  And  if  a Hindu  should  renounce  his  ancestral 
faith,  he  is  declared  to  be  an  outcaste^  and  then,  according  to 
Hindu  laws,  loses  aU  his  marital,  parental,  social,  and  civil 
rights.  He  is  to  be  expelled  from  his  house  and  his  home,  be 
disowned  by  his  family  and  his  friends,  and  be  deprived  of 
every  thing  which  in  their  view  makes  life  desirable,  we  may 
almost  say,  which  leaves  it  endurable. 


*IIcbci'’s  Journal,  vol.  2,  p.  297-304. 


TUE  GOVEUNMENT  op  INDIA. 


347 


Here  we  see  tliat  ihe  English  in  India  were  placed  in  peculiar 
circumstances.  If  they  administered  the  government  according 
to  the  previously  existing  laws,  and  any  Hindu  or  Mohamme- 
dan in  accordance  with  the  dictates  of  his  conscience,  should 
change  his  religion,  then  he  must  suffer  severe  persecution,  the 
government  enforcing  the  intolerant  and  persecuting  laws  of 
these  different  religious  systems,  or  quietly  allowing  the  people 
to  enforce  them.  And  if  the  government  should  change  these 
laws,  with  a view  to  secure  full  religious  toleration  and  protec- 
tion to  such  as  should  apostatize  from  their  ancestral  faith,  then 
nineteen  twentieths  of  the  people  would  complain  that  the 
English  had  begun  to  interfere  with  their  religion,  and  would 
soon  be  compelling  them  to  renounce  it.  It  has  often  been 
loudly  and  industriously  proclaimed,  and  by  many  believed, 
though  without  any  evidence,  that  the  English  in  taking  pos- 
session of  the  country  either  by  treaty  with  the  former  princes, 
or  by  promises  and  pledges  to  the  inhabitants,  had  solemnly 
engaged  to  make  no  changes  whatever  in  their  religion,  or  the 
laws  and  usages  connected  with  it.  Some  English  persons, 
high  in  authority,  as  well  as  many  natives,  affected  to  believe 
that  any  change  in  the  religious  laws,  or  interference  with  their 
superstitions,  would  be  the  signal  for  insurrection  through  all 
India,  and  not  unlikely  would  soon  terminate  in  the  expulsion 
of  all  Europeans  from  the  country.  Such  declarations  were 
frequently  and  confidently  made  in  speeches,  journals,  and 
pamphlets. 

None  of  the  Hindu  superstitions  have  excited  more  horror 
than  the  rite  of  Suttee,  and  we  cannot  well  conceive  of  any 
thing  which  called  more  urgently  for  the  interference  of  the 
government.  And  yet  Bengal,  the  part  of  India  in  which  this 
honid  rite  was  the  most  frequent,  and  where  700  or  800  wo- 
men were  every  year  burnt  alive  with  the  dead  bodies  of  their 
deceased  husbands,  had  been  subject  to  the  English  more  than 
75  years  before  they  forbid  this  horrid  and  inhuman  custom. 
And  though  no  insurrection  resulted  from  the  prohibition,  yet 
the  native  mind  was  strongly  excited,  public  meetings  were 
called,  resolutions  were  passed,  and  memorials  numerously 
signed  were  sent  to  the  Governor- General  against  the  law  de- 
signed to  put  an  end  to  this  horrid  rite.  And  when  it  was 


348 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


seen  that  no  means  that  could  be  used  in  India,  would  avail  any- 
thing, a large  sum  of  money  was  subscribed,  and  an  English 
barrister,  well  known  in  Calcutta,  was  sent  to  England  to  im- 
plore the  interposition  of  the  Parliament  to  annul  the  law  of  the 
Lidian  government  forbidding  Suttees.  This  effort  showed  the 
disposition  of  the  native  population  in  respect  to  any  legislative 
changes  in  their  religious  customs. 

The  conquest  and  government  of  India  by  England,  a coun- 
try situated  at  such  a distance,  not  one  tenth  of  its  size,  and 
containing  not  more  than  one  fifth  of  its  population,  form  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  chapters  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
No  nation  but  the  English  ever  had  the  moral  and  intellectual 
power  and  the  pecuniary  means  of  accomplishing  such  a work, 
and  in  no  country  but  India  could  such  a work  be  done.  Eng- 
land, by  the  conquest  and  government  of  India,  has  greatly  in- 
creased her  wealth  and  power.  And  what  has  been  the  effect 
upon  India?  On  this  subject  there  are  different  opinions,  as  aU 
know  who  have  read  the  proceedings  in  Parliament  and  the 
English  journals,  as  often  as  the  merits  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany’s government  has  come  under  consideration.  In  some 
respects,  the  change  of  India’s  having  become  subject  to  Eng- 
land, is  of  advantage.  There  is  now  general  religious  toleration 
and  protection  for  aU  classes  of  people  who  live  in  the  English 
territories,  a state  of  freedom  or  liberty  which  never  existed,  and 
which  could  scarcely  be  expected  ever  to  exist,  certainly  not  for 
a long  time  to  come,  under  any  native  government,  Mohamme- 
dan or  Hindu.  This  is  certainly  a great  change,  and  cannot 
but  prove  of  great  advantage  in  various  ways  to  the  country. 
Again  there  is  more  security  to  life  and  property,  better  laws 
and  better  administration  of  justice  under  the  English  govern- 
ment, than  there  was  generally,  perhaps  better  than  there  ever 
was,  under  the  native  governments.  The  country  is  preserved 
in  a state  of  more  quietness  in  respect  to  internal  difficulties  and 
agitations  and  to  external  wars,  than  it  was  when  under  a num- 
ber of  separate  and  independent  native  governments,  or  than 
when  nearly  all  India  was  subject,  as  it  once  was,  to  the  em- 
perors of  Delhi. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  East  India  Company,  many  am- 
ple fortunes  were  soon  acquired  in  India.  Salaries,  mercantile 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


349 


adventures,  monopolies,  presents  from  native  princes  for  po- 
litical influence,  and  bribes  for  judicial  favor,  all  contributed  to 
enrich  the  fortune-seekers  in  India.  The  East  India  Company 
also  often  paid  large  sums  of  money  from  the  revenues  of  India 
to  persons  and  parties  for  which  the  public  in  England  and  in 
India  could  see  no  sufficient  reasons.  Near  the  close  of  the 
last  century  various  laws  and  regulations  were  passed  by  Par- 
liament and  the  Directors  of  the  Company,  restraining  the  offi- 
cial conduct  of  the  agents,  and  defining  their  privileges,  rights, 
and  duties.  These  laws  reduced  the  afl’airs  of  India  to  system 
and  order,  and  exacted  responsibility  from  those  who  adminis- 
tered them.  Since  the  commencement  of  this  century,  there 
has  seldom  been  any  good  reason  for  complaint  of  the  abuse  of 
power  or  confidence  in  the  European  agents  of  the  government. 
Large  fortunes  are  now  often  accumulated  in  India,  but  they 
are  the  avails  of  salaries  which  are  large  in  the  service  of  the 
government,  or  of  legitimate  mercantile  pursuits  in  which  the 
English,  from  their  superior  knowledge  of  business  and  foreign 
commercial  connections,  have  many  advantages  over  the  natives. 

The  lower  and  middle  classes  (if  there  can  be  said  to  be  any 
middle  class  in  India),  are  better  satisfied  with  the  English  gov- 
ernment than  the  higher  classes.  The  former  are  better  pro- 
tected than  they  were  under  the  native  governments,  while  they 
are  as  well  rewarded  for  their  labor.  Formerly,  all  places  of 
honor  and  emoluments  were  in  the  hands  of  the  higher  classes 
of  natives,’ but  now,  all  the  power  and  the  high  situations  are  in 
the  hands  of  the  English  and  are  filled  by  them.  The  fixed  sal- 
aries and  emoluments  of  office  generally,  under  the  native  gov- 
ernments were  not  large,  often  not  so  large  as  some  natives  now 
obtain  in  the  service  of  the  English  government,  but  the  honor 
and  the  number  of  persons  employed  were  much  greater.  Many 
were  employed  merely  to  furnish  them  with  the  means  of  support, 
and  to  secure  their  good-will  and  influence.  But  the  policy  of 
the  English  is  to  employ  no  more  natives  than  are  necessary  to 
do  their  work,  while  the  order  and  system  they  have  introduced 
into  aU  the  departments  of  the  government,  enable  them  to 
accomplish  the  same  work  wdth  far  less  help.  The  salary  of  an 
English  secretary  of  the  government,  or  a judge,  or  a collector  of 
the  revenue,  is  often  sufficient  to  support  100  native  families  in 

30 


350 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


respectable  style,  and  this  sum,  under  native  governments,  would 
be  distributed  among  many  families  and  support  them  comfort- 
ably and  respectably,  who  now  for  want  of  employment  are 
often  in  very  straitened  circumstances.* 

But  while  many  of  the  higher  classes,  who  formerly  found 
employment  and  support  in  connection  with  their  governments, 
and  who  feel  from  their  caste,  or  social  position  or  family  con- 
nections that  they  still  have  a claim  for  similar  favor  from 
the  present  English  government,  are  dissatisfied  because  this 
claim  is  not  reahzed,  there  is  a portion  of  the  higher  class  who 
are  more  satisfied  with  the  present  state  of  matters  and  the 
course  of  the  government.  This  class  consists  of  the  wealthy 
merchants,  bankers,  and  those  who  live  upon  invested  and  accu- 
mulated property.  These  classes  are  better  protected  in  their 
property  and  all  their  rights  than  they  would  be  under  any  native 
government.  These  classes  of  people  live  in  the  large  cities, 
chiefly  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  and  their  suburbs. 
The  native  governments  were  often  very  oppressive  to  these 
classes  of  people,  not  unfrequently  exacting  heavy  and  arbitrary 
contributions  of  money,  and  sometimes  seizing  and  confiscating 
all  their  property  for  some  merely  pretended  reason.  No  such 
arbitrary  oppression  and  violence  have  ever  been  suffered  under 
the  EngUsh  government  in  India,  and  none  are  feared.  This  is 
is  a land  of  protection,  which  those  can  appreciate  who  enjoy  it, 
and  as  these  classes  are  generally  wealthy  and  intelligent,  their 
opinions  and  influence  do  much  to  strengthen  the  English  gov- 
ernment in  the  country.  Still  these  classes  regard  the  expenses 
of  the  government,  especially  of  the  European  agency,  as 
much  too  high,  and  urgently  requiring  reduction.  They  also 
complain,  and  not  without  good  reasons  for  it,  that  the  EngUsh 
government  has  done  but  little  to  develop  the  natural  resources 
of  the  country.  Yet  as  they  enjoy  protection  and  security  of 
life  and  property,  and  as  the  taxes  bear  more  heavily  upon  the 
agricultural  than  upon  the  commercial  and  wealthy  population, 
few  of  this  class  of  persons  would  wish  to  change  the  English 
for  any  native  government. 

There  has  long  been  much  dissatisfaction  among  the  mercan- 


♦ Sec  pages  300-304,  Also  I’amphlcts  on  Indian  Kefonn,  No.  I to  C. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


351 


tile  and  manufacturing  classes  in  England  with  the  government 
of  India  for  consulting  their  personal  interests,  and  expending 
the  revenues  in  high  salaries,  instead  of  making  internal  im- 
provements to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country,  and  so 
increasing  its  commerce  with  England.  When  the  renewal  of 
the  East  India  Company’s  charter  was  coming  under  the  consid- 
eration of  Parliament  in  1853,  an  Association  called  the  “ India 
Reform  Society,”  was  formed,  which  by  pamphlets,  speeches,  etc., 
endeavored  to  effect  great  and  important  changes  in  the  govern- 
ment of  India.  Some  of  these  pamphlets  contain  a list  of  the 
Association,  among  whom  are  the  names  of  36  members  of  Par- 
liament, and  several  of  them  among  the  most  prominent  mem- 
bers of  that  august  body.  The  charter  was  renewed  with  some 
organic  changes  in  its  constitution,  and  many  promises  respect- 
ing education,  canals,  railroads,  and  irrigation  were  made ; 
whether  these  promises  will  be  fulfilled  and  the  expectations 
thus  excited  will  be  realized,  remains  to  be  seen. 

The  question  is  often  asked  in  this  country,  — How  long  will 
India  continue  to  be  subject  to  England  ? To  this  inquiry  no 
answer  can  be  given.  The  native  kings  and  princes  of  India 
having  been  subdued  — some  dynasties  annihilated  and  all  pros- 
trated — the  withdrawal  of  the  English  power  would  leave  the 
country  in  a state  of  anarchy.  But  England  has  yet  made  no 
adequate  return  for  the  immense  wealth  she  has  drawn  from 
India,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  she  will  ever  make  any 
such  return.  At  each  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  East 
India  Company,  (as  in  1813,  1833,  and  1853,)  some  changes 
were  made  in  it,  which  were  expected  to  have  an  important 
influence  on  the  well-being  of  the  country.  At  such  times 
pledges  were  given  and  promises  were  made,  but  complaints  soon 
followed  that  the  former  were  not  redeemed,  and  the  latter  were  not 
fulfilled.  Still  considerable  progress  or  improvement  in  the  gov- 
ernment has  been  made,  and  there  is  now  reason  for  expecting 
that  this  progress  will  be  greater  during  the  period  of  the  present 
charter  (which  is  to  continue  till  1874),  than  all  that  has  been 
hitherto  made  since  the  English  obtained  pos.session  of  the  coun- 
try. These  changes,  if  made,  will  greatly  strengthen  the  con- 
nection between  the  two  countries.  As  no  English  colonies 
have  been  or  are  likely  to  be  formed  in  India,  there  can  be  no 


352 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


people  there  of  European  origin,  who  will  desire  a separation 
from  England.  For  the  mLxed  classes,  partly  of  European  and 
partly  of  native  origin,  are  not  hkely  to  be  sufficiently  numerous 
to  be  of  any  considerable  political  weight  and  importance,  and 
what  influence  they  have,  will  be  in  favor  of  the  Enghsh  gov- 
ernment. The  army  though  consisting  chiefly  of  natives,  yet  is 
not  likely  to  prove  unfaithful,  if  constituted  of  the  same  classes 
which  now  compose  it,  and  treated  in  future  as  they  have  hith- 
erto been.  The  difference  in  language,  rehgion,  and  caste  will 
long  be  an  obstacle  to  any  organization  or  cooperation  among  the 
native  population  against  the  Enghsh  government.  The  native 
kings,  princes,  and  nobihty  are  diminishing  in  number  and 
power,  and  there  will  soon  be  none  of  them  remaining  to  raise 
the  standard  of  war,  or  to  make  his  territory  the  rallying  ground 
for  conflict  or  for  attack.  There  will  be  no  party  which  will 
have  the  pecuniary  means  or  the  confidence  of  their  own  peo- 
ple enough  to  originate  and  sustain  any  efficient  and  permanent 
opposition.  The  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  the  progress  of 
Christianity  will  not  produce  those  changes  in  the  character  of 
the  inhabitants,  at  least  not  for  a long  time,  which  some  people 
confidently  expect.  Considering  all  these  facts  and  circum- 
stances, and  that  England  may  be  expected  to  be  as  determined 
in  using  aU  her  possible  policy  and  power  to  retain  India  in  per- 
manent subjection,  as  she  formerly  was  to  sustain  her  power 
over  her  North  American  colonies,  now  the  United  States  — con- 
sidering aU  these  things,  it  appears  probable  that  India  will  be 
subject  to  England  for  some  generations  yet  to  come. 

The  question  is  also  sometimes  asked,  — Where  will  be  the 
limit  of  British  conquest  and  power  in  the  East  ? The  answer 
to  this  inquiry  is  yet  more  in  the  future  — more  in  the  future 
providence  of  God  — than  the  previous  one.  A century  ago, 
the  English  possessions  in  India  consisted  of  only  five  or  six 
forts  for  the  protection  of  their  trade,  and  a few  square  miles 
of  territory  around  them.  Now,  they  are  masters  of  the  coun- 
try ; their  territory  contains  100,000,000  inhabitants,  and  they 
control  indirectly,  but  efi'ectually,  50,000,000  more,  who  live 
upon  the  scattered  fragments  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  former 
sovereigns  of  the  country.  Nor  is  the  English  power  limited  to 
India  properly  so  called.  They  have  acquired  a large  part  of 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 


353 


what  was  formerly  the  Burmese  empire.  And  yet  further  east 
they  have  Singapore,  Penang,  Malacca,  and  Hongkong,  which 
are  surrounded  with  nations  and  tribes  who  are  likely  soon  and 
often  to  furnish  occasions  for  the  English  to  interfere  to  secure 
their  own  rights,  or  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power  among 
their  neighbors,  as  is  said  of  their  interference  in  the  present  war 
between  the  Turks  and  Russians.  Looking  at  the  history  of 
the  British  power  in  the  southern  countries  of  Asia,  and  to  the 
present  state  and  prospects  of  those  nations,  we  believe  their 
power  has  not  yet  there  reached  its  limits.  In  1852,  they  en- 
gaged in  a second  war  with  the  Burmese,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  Governor-General,  unable  to  effect  a satisfactory  treaty  with 
the  Court  of  Ava,  took  possession  of  Pegu,  and  by  proclama- 
tion annexed  it  to  the  British  possessions  with  such  declarations 
as  were  expected  to  bring  the  war  to  a close,  by  inducing  the 
Burmese  to  cease  from  further  hostilities,  if  they  wished  to  pre- 
serve their  national  existence.  This  proclamation,  with  the 
reasons  for  it  and  the  policy  that  dictated  it,  was  the  subject  of 
numerous  articles  in  the  English  papers  of  India.  These  arti- 
cles doubtless  indicated  the  general  sentiment  of  the  English  in 
that  country,  which  was  that  the  annexation  of  Pegu  was  only 
one  step  in  their  progress  eastward,  and  that  extension  of  terri- 
tory, by  conquest  or  annexation  or  treaty,  would  continue  till 
the  Pacific  had  become  their  eastern  boundary,  — that  their 
reaching  that  boundary  was  merely  a question  of  time,  depend- 
ing upon  the  policy  of  their  governors,  and  the  revolutions  and 
changes  which  were  taking  place  in  the  intermediate  countries. 
The  Friend  of  India.,  which  has  always  been  supposed  to  in- 
dicate the  English  sentiment  in  India  more  than  any  other  pa- 
per in  the  country,  in  its  remarks  concerning  the  proclamation 
annexing  Pegu,  said,  — “ Every  one  out  of  England  is  now 
ready  to  acknowledge  that  the  whole  of  Asia  from  the  Indus  to 
the  sea  of  Ochotsk,  is  destined  to  become  the  patrimony  of  that 
race  which  the  Normans  thought  six  centuries  ago  they  had 
finally  crushed,  but  which  now  stands  at  the  head  of  European 
civilization.  We  are  placed,  it  is  said,  by  the  mysterious  design 
of  Providence  in  command  of  Asia,  and  the  people  of  England 
must  not  lay  the  flattering  unction  to  their  souls  that  they  can 
escape  the  responsibility  of  this  lofty  and  important  position  by 

30* 


354 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


simply  denouncing  the  means  by  which  England  has  attained 
it,”  Whether  England  is  thus  to  include  among  her  foreign 
possessions  “ the  whole  of  Asia  from  the  Indus  to  the  sea  of 
Ochotsk,”  comprehending  India,  China,  and  all  the  intermediate 
countries,  and  containing  more  than  half  of  the  human  race,  re- 
mains to  be  seen.  But  the  present  state  of  England  and  her 
achievements  in  India,  indicate  that  she  possesses  the  pecuniary 
and  physical  means  thus  to  extend  her  possessions,  and  also  the 
moral  and  intellectual  power  then  to  govern  them.  And  it 
does  not  now  appear  so  improbable  that  before  the  close  of  this 
century  her  power  w’ih  extend  over  all  these  countries  and  na- 
tions, as  it  appeared  at  the  beginning  of  this  century  that  her 
power  would  by  this  time  reach  its  present  limits. 

In  the  mean  time  another  great  power  is  beginning  to  take  an 
active  part  in  the  politics  of  Asia.  The  Afghan  war  of  1838^2, 
the  most  severe  and  unhappy  war  in  which  the  English  were 
ever  engaged  in  India,  originated  in  Russian  influence  and 
intrigues  in  central  Asia.  The  results  of  this  policy  not  corre- 
sponding to  her  expectations,  Russia  withdrew  her  agency  from 
the  scene,  but  as  was  then  believed  and  has  since  become  evident, 
only  to  renew  it  in  more  favorable  circumstances.  The  war  in 
which  Russia,  Turkey,  France,  and  England,  are  now  engaged, 
originated  in  the  aggressive  attack  made  by  Russia  upon  Tur- 
key, But  no  one  can  doubt  that  other  motives  than  the  defence 
of  Turkey  have  induced  England  to  engage  in  this  conflict. 
England  wishes  to  check  the  aggressive  spirit  of  Russia,  as  it  is 
likely  to  affect  her  possessions  in  southern  Asia.  Papers  recently 
from  India,  contain  accounts  of  Russian  agency,  pecuniary  and 
pohtical,  again  at  work  in  central  Asia.  And  the  same  papers 
contain  accounts  of  her  interference  in  the  affairs  of  China,  of 
her  having  obtained  a large  territory  from  its  northern  part,  and  it 
appears  not  unlikely  she  will  take  the  advantage  of  the  present 
distracted  state  of  that  empire  to  extend  her  power  over  a con- 
siderable part  of  it.  It  now  appears  likely  that  at  no  distant  day, 
the  greater  part  of  Asia  wiU  be  divided  between  Russia  and 
England,  each  power  extending  its  border  till  they  meet,  and  no 
one  can  now  say  where  this  will  be,  or  what  Asiatic  nations 
will  receive  their  laws  from  London,  and  what  nations  wiU 
receive  them  from  St.  Petersburg. 


PAKT  IV. 


THE  EUROPEAN  POPULATION. 

The  clifierent  classes  of  people  in  the  employment  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Lidia,  have  been  somewhat  brought  into  view  in  the 
dilTerent  parts  of  this  work.  And  these  classes,  including  the 
army  and  navy,  comprise  the  great  body  of  Europeans  ui  India. 
The  European  population,  uneonnected  in  any  way  with  the 
government,  is  comparatively  small.  They  live  cliicfly  in  the 
cities  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  and  their  suburbs,  and  are 
merchants,  agents,  and  manufacturers.  A few,  who  are  sugar 
and  indigo  planters,  live  in  the  rural  districts.  It  is  not 
easy  to  form  any  estimate  of  their  number.  Sir  John  Malcolm 
in  1826  said : — “ The  total  number  of  English  in  India,  not 
in  the  public  service,  has  been  computed  at  3,000,  of  which 
2,000  are  given  to  Bengal,  500  to  Madras,  and  500  to  Bom- 
bay. The  calculation  is  probably  beyond  the  actual  numbers, 
including  even  those  in  the  shipping  of  the  country.”  * The 
territory  subject  to  the  English  m India  has  been  much 
increased  since  1826,  and  the  European  population,  uncon- 
nected with  the  government,  has  probably  increased  in  a yet 
faster  ratio.  Should  we  suppose  this  European  population 
has  doubled  since  1826,  so  as  to  have  become  6,000  or  more, 
it  is  stiU  very  small  for  so  great  a country,  and  compared 
with  the  vast  native  population,  estimated  at  150,000,000. 

Should  the  small  number  of  the  European  population  uncon- 
nected with  the  government  in  India  appear  strange,  it  must  be 
considered  in  explanation  that  the  exclusive  powers  and  privi- 
leges of  the  English  East  India  Company  from  its  origin  in 
1600  till  comparatively  a recent  period  in  its  history,  enabled  its 
managers  and  agents  to  exclude  their  countrymen  from  settling 
permanently  or  residing  temporarily  in  any  part  of  their  terri- 

* Malcolm’s  Political  History  of  India,  vol.  2,  p.  246. 


(355) 


356 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

tories.  They  early  resolved  to  allow  no  Europeans,  except 
then’  own  agents,  to  reside  in  any  part  of  their  possessions. 
They  were  strongly  opposed  to  forming  European  colonies,  or 
to  permitting  any  to  be  formed  in  Lidia.  And  in  this  pohcy 
they  professed  to  have  the  good  of  their  countrymen  in  view,  as 
weU  as  their  own  mterests.  They  referred  to  the  state  of  the  col- 
onies of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  on  the  western  and  eastern 
coast  of  Airica,  and  in  the  southern  countries  and  islands  of  Asia, 
as  a warning  to  the  EngUsh  nation  to  pursue  a different  course. 
And  as  the  English  nation  acquired  more  knowledge  of  the 
state  and  character  of  the  people  of  India,  and  more  experi- 
ence of  the  influence  of  a Lopical  climate  upon  the  European 
constitution,  there  was  less  disposition  to  form  colonies  in  the 
East,  and  more  concurrence  in  the  policy  of  the  East  India 
Company. 

The  restrictions  which  formerly  existed  against  Europeans 
settling  in  India,  have  been  gradually  much  modified  if  not  en- 
tirely removed,  but  there  are  natural  causes,  now  better  under- 
stood than  formerly,  which  prevent  emigration  from  England  to 
India.  The  climate  of  India,  though  not  so  unhealthy  as  is 
generally  supposed  in  this  country,  must  yet  always  be  sickly 
and  enen^ating  to  • Europeans.  The  chmate  of  that  country 
generally  is  so  hot  that  the  European  constitution  cannot  en- 
dure out-door  labor,  nor  indeed  physical  labor  of  any  kind,  so 
much  as  is  necessary  for  the  ordinary  avocations  of  life,  in- 
cluding all  classes  of  people.  If  the  European  constitution  is 
subjected  to  ordinary  manual  labor,  and  exposed  to  the  ener- 
vating influence  of  the  chmate  in  India,  it  will  suffer  a certain 
and  sure  deterioration.  Though  this  effect  may  be  slow  and 
gradual,  yet  it  is  an  ascertained  and  settled  fact. 

Further,  the  price  of  labor  of  all  kinds  in  India,  is  so  low  that 
Europeans  can  never  hold  any  competition  with  the  nalives  m 
any  kind  of  work  which  the  latter  can  perform.  And  they  can 
perform  all  kinds  of  agricultural  and  common  labor,  and  if  they 
have  not  the  skiU  of  Europeans  in  some  of  the  mechanical  arts, 
still  they  understand  and  can  practise  all  such  arts  as  weU  as 
the  state  of  the  country,  and  the  taste,  the  habits,  the  wants,  and 
circumstances  of  the  inhabitants  require.  The  price  of  common 
labor  varies  in  different  parts  of  India  from  6 to  10  cents  per 


THE  EUROPEAN  POPULATION.  357 

day,  the  laborers  finding  their  own  food.  And  for  such  wages 
they  wUl  work  as  many  hours  daily,  as  hired  laborers  work 
in  this  country.  And  laborers  at  this  low  rate  are  abundant. 
Mechanics  have  higher  wages  in  proportion  to  common  laborers, 
than  in  the  United  States.  Still  their  wages  everywhere  in  that 
country  are  very  low. 

Now  it  must  be  obvious  that  Europeans,  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  nature  of  the  climate  of  India  and  with  the  state  of 
labor  there,  will  never  emigrate  to  that  country  to  follow  any 
kind  of  occupation,  which  the  people  there  understand  and  can 
perform.  So  it  has  been,  and  so  it  wiU  continue  to  be ; and  so 
there  is  not  now,  nor  is  it  likely  there  ever  will  be  in  India  any 
self-perpetuating  community  of  English  or  European  popula- 
tion engaged  in  private  business,  using  their  vernacular  lan- 
guage, and  preserving  their  own  religion,  customs,  and  manners.* 
The  introduction  of  railroads,  the  establishment  of  manufac- 
tures, the  extension  of  education,  and  the  spread  of  Christianity, 
wUl  occasion  some  increase  of  European  agency  for  the  man- 
agement of  such  kinds  of  business.  But  such  agency  wiU  not 
materiaUy  affect  the  state  and  circumstances  of  the  European 
population,  who  wUl  continue  in  future  to  sustain  the^same 
political  and  social  relations  to  the  inhabitants  which  they 
have  hitherto  sustained. 

The  Europeans  in  India,  though  so  smaU  a part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  country,  yet  possess  much  wealth  and  have  great 
influence.  Their  wealth  does  not  consist  so  much  of  property 
(though  many  of  them  are  rich),  as  of  large  and  fixed  salaries 
with  retiring  pensions  and  annuities.  Their  influence  consists 
in  then  high  political  situations,  which  give  them  the  distribution 
of  wealth  and  power  in  the  appointment  to  numerous  and  im- 
portant places  in  the  government  service.  There  has  been  a 
gradual  and  steady  improvement  in  the  moral  character  of  the 
European  population  of  India  since  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century ; and  if  many  stiU  yield  to  the  unhappy  influ- 
ence that  surrounds  them  and  act  unworthy  of  the  Christian 
name  and  of  their  nation,  there  are  many  others  who  are  exam- 
ples of  aU  that  is  lovely  in  human  nature  and  excellent  in  the 


* See  Appendix,  A. 


358 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Christian  profession.  Among  no  people  of  any  country  can  be 
found  more  hospitality,  more  Idndness  and  s}unpathy,  and  more 
liberality.  At  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  and  some  other 
places,  are  Bible,  Missionary,  Educational,  Book,  Tract,  Tem- 
perance, and  other  religious  and  benevolent  Societies,  which 
are  liberally  supported,  and  which  exhibit  evidence  to  the  native 
population,  of  the  principles,  views,  purposes,  etc.,  of  the  European 
inhabitants.  In  1852,  it  was  ascertained  that  the  donations  and 
subscriptions  from  the  European  population  for  the  support  of 
the  different  missions  and  the  societies  immediately  connected 
with  them,  in  the  previous  year  amounted  to  33,500  or  more 
than  ^160,000.  This  was  certainly  a noble  testimony  to  the 
interest  they  felt  for  the  conversion  of  the  native  population  to 
Christianity. 

For  the  European  population  the  government  supports  an 
Ecclesiastical  Establishment,  consisting  of  3 bishops  and  120 
chaplains  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  6 chaplains  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.*  The  number  of  chaplains  bears  a larger 
proportion  to  the  European  population,  than  the  number  of  min- 
isters bears  to  the  population  in  the  United  States.  But  the 
Euroj^ean  population  in  India  is  so  scattered,  often  only  a few 
families  living  in  the  same  place,  that  many  can  have  the  in- 
structions of  a chaplain  only  a part  of  the  time,  and  some  of 
the  small  civil  and  military  stations  are  seldom  visited  by  any 
chaplain.  This  want  has  been  in  part  supplied  by  the  mission- 
aries of  different  societies,  who  have  felt  it  their  duty  when  they 
found  professing  Christians  living  without  the  preaching  and 
ordinances  of  the  gospel,  to  devote  some  time  to  them.  At 
many  of  the  missionary  stations  religious  services  are  performed 
in  the  English  language,  once  or  twice  every  week,  and  with  a 
view  to  such  services  Europeans  have  often  contributed  lib- 
erally for  the  erection  of  mission  churches.  Religious  services 
are  sustained  in  English  in  more  than  70  mission  chapels.  The 
congregations  then  consist  of  Europeans,  Indo-Britons,  and  a 
few  natives  who  have  acquired  the  English  language.  These 
labors  of  missionaries  liave  been  much  blessed,  and  have  con- 
tributed to  produce  the  present  improved  state  of  moral  cliar- 


* Sec  page  303. 


THE  EUROPEAN  POPULATION. 


359 


acter  and  active  piety  among  the  European  population  of 
India. 

In  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  and  a few  other  cities,  are 
voluntary  Christian  societies  of  Europeans  and  Indo-Britons 
who  have  provided  their  houses  of  worship  and  support  their 
ministers.  These  societies  are  often  of  ditlerent  religious  prin- 
ciples from  the  chaplains.  Some  of  them  are  Independents, 
some  are  Presbyterians,  some  are  Baptists,  some  are  Methodists, 
etc.  These  churches  are  generally  in  close  connection  with  mis- 
sions of  their  own  denominations ; indeed,  they  have  generally 
had  their  origin  in  connection  with  the  missionary  cause.  Thus 
they  are  to  be  included  among  the  results  of  the  missionary  en- 
terprise, and  they  are  now  exerting  a strong  influence  in  pro- 
moting this  cause. 


THE  INDO-BRITONS. 

These  are  a class  of  people  who  occupy  an  intermedyite 
place  between  the  European  and  native  population.  They  are 
the  offspring  of  European  fathers  and  native  mothers,  and  their 
descendants.  They  have  been  known  by  diflerent  names  as 
Half-caste,  Eurasians,  Anglo-Indians,  and  Indo-Britons.  This 
last-mentioned  name  is  the  one  now  in  general  use,  and  appears 
hkely  to  be  perpetuated.  Their  fathers  were  of  diflerent  ranks, 
as  civilians,  officers,  soldiers,  etc.,  and  their  mothers  belonged  to 
different  classes  of  the  native  population.  I have  known  some 
instances  of  such  persons,  whose  mothers  were  Mohammedans, 
being  educated  in  that  faith,  and  becoming  mingled  with  the 
Mohammedan  population.  Instances  have  been  more  frequent, 
where  their  mothers  were  Roman  Catholics,  of  their  being  edu- 
cated in  that  religion,  and  mingling  with  that  class  of  the  native 
popiflation.  But  they  have  generally  been  brought  up  in  the 
Protestant  religion,  and  been  educated  in  the  Enghsh  language 
and  in  English  habits.  They  regard  themselves  as  forming  a 
branch  of  the  European  population  of  the  country.  They  have 
the  advantage  of  Europeans  in  being  acquainted  with  the  ver- 
naciflar  languages,  and  in  having  constitutions  more  adapted  to 
the  climate  of  the  country,  but  they  are  generally  deficient  in 
education  and  energy  of  character.  Some  among  them  have 


360 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

acquired  wealth,  influence,  and  respectability.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  form  any  estimate  of  their  number.  They  have  shared 
largely  in  the  instructions  of  missionaries,  as  they  have  often 
been  in  circumstances  deserving  special  sympathy  and  attention. 
Many  of  them  are  respectable  in  character  and  social  position, 
and  some  are  usefuUy  employed  in  the  missionary  work. 
Many  of  them  are  in  the  employment  of  the  government. 
They  are  also  merchants,  agents,  shop-keepers,  clerks,  etc.  The 
result  of  many  inquiries  lately  made  concerning  them  by  the 
Committees  of  Parliament  on  the  state  of  India,  when  the  re- 
newal of  the  East  India  Company’s  charter  was  under  consid- 
eration, did  not  exhibit  them  in  respect  to  numbers,  increase, 
character,  and  influence,  and  the  prospect  of  their  ever  acting 
any  prominent  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  country,  in  so  favorable 
a light  as  was  expected. 


PART  V. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


THE  FIRST  RELIGION  OF  INDIA. 

The  religion  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Lidia  consisted  in  the 
worship  of  local  deities,  some  supposed  to  be  benevolent,  and 
some  malevolent.  They  were  originally  supposed  to  be  spirits 
of  deceased  persons,  who  stiU  retaining  the  feelings  they  had 
when  alive,  haunted  the  places  of  their  former  residence,  and 
gratified  the  feelings  they  stUl  retained,  or  the  feelings  excited 
by  what  they  heard  and  saw.  They  were  believed  to  have 
the  power  of  assisting  their  friends  and  of  injuring  their  ene- 
mies. Thus  able  to  interfere  at  pleasure  in  human  affairs,  they 
became  objects  of  great  anxiety.  Rude  images  and  symbols  of 
them  were  set  up  in  particular  places,  sometimes  in  small  rudely 
constructed  temples  and  under  green  trees,  and  prayers  and 
offerings  were  made  to  them.  The  worship  of  them  partook 
more  of  fear  and  dread  of  e\il,  than  of  hope  and  expectation  of 
good  from  them.  To  these  beings  the  people  ascribed  acci- 
dents, misfortunes,  afflictions,  and  diseases,  and  so  they  resorted 
to  various  means  to  propitiate  them,  and  to  secure  their  favor. 
They  gave  offerings  of  food,  and  made  sacrifices  of  fowls  and 
animals.  They  sometimes  offered  human  victims  in  sacrifice, 
and  parents  in  the  fear  of  losing  all  their  children  in  times  of 
sickness,  would  sometimes  devote  one  of  them  to  some  of  the 
malevolent  demons.  And  people  would  sometimes  inflict  tor- 
tures upon  themselves,  in  the  hope  of  appeasing  these  malevo- 
lent beings,  or  of  exciting  their  compassion. 

The  authority  for  these  opinions  and  rites,  appears  to  have 
depended  on  traditions  and  local  usages ; for  if  they  had  any 
sacred  books,  none  have  come  down  to  the  present  time,  and 
none  are  mentioned  in  history.  There  was  no  hereditary  priest- 

31  (361) 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEEN. 


y62 


hood,  but  there  were  persons  who,  pretending  to  witchcraft, 
sorcery,  and  necromancy,  acquired  great  influence  in  rehgious 
matters.  These  persons  professed  to  have  intercourse  and  influ- 
ence with  these  supposed  deities  and  demons,  and  they  gen- 
erally officiated  in  religious  rites,  especially  on  important  occa- 
sions. The  Bheels  of  Central  India,  the  Coolees  of  Gujerat, 
the  Goands  of  Berar,  the  Santals  of  Orissa,  and  the  Shanars, 
and  other  tribes  in  the  peninsula,  are  apparently  the  remains 
of  these  ancient  inhabitants,  and  they  retain  among  them 
many  of  their  opinions  and  rites,  the  same  as  their  ancestors 
had  3,000  years  ago.  The  religion  of  these  classes  has  but 
little  affinity  with  the  system  commonly  called  brahminisra. 
Among  some  of  them  the  brahmins  have  never  been  acknowl- 
edged in  their  religious  character,  and  have  never  become  the 
officiating  priests.  And  in  many  districts  where  brahminism  is 
the  commonly  received  system  of  religion,  the  places  of  wor- 
ship and  pilgrimage,  the  deities,  rites,  and  ceremonies,  are  of  a 
mixed  character,  clearly  showing  that  the  brahminical  system 
in  its  progress,  incorporated  with  itself  many  of  the  previously 
established  local  superstitions. 

When  any  of  these  local  deities  were  found  to  have  a 
strong  hold  on  the  feelings  of  the  people,  they  were  declared 
or  assumed  to  belong  to  the  almost  infinite  number  of  the 
Hindu  gods,  and  supplemental  sections  were  added  to  some 
chapter  in  the  Purans  containing  the  popular  legends  concern- 
ing them,  and  thus  authorizing  their  worship.  Thus,  as  brah- 
minism enlarged  its  borders  and  increased  its  votaries,  it  also 
increased  the  names  and  number  of  its  recognized  deities. 
And  the  system  was  well  adapted  to  increase  in  this  way, 
as  the  sacred  books  do  not  contain  the  names  of  a thousandth 
part  of  their  gods,  any  one  of  whom,  if  he  has  revealed  him- 
self, becomes  a proper  object  of  worship.  It  is  in  part  owing 
to  this  mixed  origin,  that  brahminism  is  so  different  in  its 
usages  and  ceremonies  in  different  districts  in  India. 

The  first  inhabitants  of  India,  in  their  religious  state  and 
character,  much  resembled  the  aborigines  of  America  and 
Africa,  and  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Europe  in  a similar 
state  of  civilization.  Their  gods  were  local  deities,  originally 
the  supposed  spirits  of  deceased  persons  haunting  the  abodes 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


363 


of  their  former  residence,  still  retaining  the  feelings  they  for- 
merly had,  or  experiencing  in  view  of  what  they  might  see, 
similar  feelings  to  what  they  would  have  had,  if  still  living, 
and  having  power,  more  or  less,  to  gratify  these  feelings.  In 
all  their  worship,  their  prayers,  their  offerings,  their  sacrifices 
and  rites,  superstitious  fear  and  dread  appear  to  have  been  the 
principal  motives  of  the  people,  and  hypocrisy  and  fanaticism 
appear  to  have  formed  the  character  of  those  who  professed  to  be 
spiritual  guides,  and  who  officiated  in  their  religious  rites. 


BRAHMINISM  — THE  VEDAS. 

There  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  at  what  period  the  sys- 
tem of  religion,  commonly  called  Brahminism,  was  introduced 
into  India.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  religion  of  a nation 
or  people  who  invaded  the  country  from  the  north-west,  and 
established  their  government  along  the  banks  of  the  Jumna 
and  the  Ganges,  as  early  as  1300  or  1400  years  before  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  The  books  containing 
their  religion  at  that  time,  are  called  the  Vedas.  Of  these  there 
are  commonly  reckoned  4,  namely,  the  Rig,  th^  Yajur,  the 
Sama,  and  the  Arthar\'a.  The  Hindus  believe  that  these  books 
(the  language  of  them)  came  directly  from  the  mouth  of  Brahm, 
or  the  infinite  Spirit,  and  that  they  were  infallibly  pre- 
served by  tradition  till  put  into  the  state  in  which  they  now 
are.  Their  present  order  and  arrangement  are  ascribed  to 
a sage  of  great  celebrity,  called  Vyas,  and  sometimes  Ved- 
Vyas,  on  account  of  this  work.  An  analysis  of  their  con- 
tents shows  that  they  were  compiled  by  different  men,  and  at 
different  times.  There  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  when 
this  compilation  was  made,  but  it  is  the  general  opinion  of 
orientalists  who  have  investigated  this  subject  with  great 
care,  that  they  were  put  into  their  present  state  1300  or  1400 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  They  are  written  in  the  an- 
cient style  of  the  Sanscrit  language,  differing  so  much  from 
the  later  or  common  Sanscrit,  that  only  a small  part  of  the 
educated  brahmins  can  read  them  intelligibly.  Each  Veda 
consists  of  two  parts ; the  first  part  is  called  the  Sanhita,  and 
consists  of  prayers,  hymns,  invocations,  rites,  ceremonies,  etc., 


364 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


to  be  used  in  offering  oblations,  and  performing  sacrifices.* 
These  prayers  and  hymns  in  the  same  Veda  often  differ  but 
little  from  each  other.  And  the  same  hymns  with  but  little 
variation  are  found  in  the  different  Vedas.  The  second  part 
is  called  Brahmana,  and  treats  of  the  first  cause,  of  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants,  moral  precepts,  rehgious 
duties,  rewards,  punishments,  festivals,  purifications,  castes,  cer- 
emonies at  births,  deaths,  etc. 

These  books  have  always  been  held  in  great  veneration.  In 
the  early  age  of  India,  it  was  a part  of  the  prescribed  duty  of 
the  three  highest  castes  to  read  the  Vedas,  but  the  fourth  or  low- 
est caste,  including  the  great  body  of  the  people,  were  not 
allowed  to  read  them,  or  to  possess  them,  or  to  hear  them 
read.  If  a shudra  should  read  them,  or  hear  them  read,  or 

* The  following  is  a translation  of  the  first  hymn  of  the  Rig  Yeda.  It  was  de- 
signed to  be  used  in  offering  saerifiees  to  Agni,  the  god  who  presides  over  fire, 
and  who  manifests  himself  by  it.  Agni  is  also  one  of  the  names  of  fire,  which,  in 
the  mystical  and  pantheistical  notion  of  the  Hindus,  is  sometimes  worshipped,  as 
the  symbol  of  the  god ; so  that  in  their  worship  the  god  and  the  element  ap- 
pear to  be  confounded  together. 

“ I praise  Agjji,  (the  god  of  fire,)  the  high-priest  of  the  sacrifice,  the  all  re- 
splendent, the  conductor  of  the  sacrificial  rites,  the  chanter  of  the  invocation 
hymns,  and  the  chief  holder  of  the  precious  gifts  (that  reward  the  sacrificers). 

'*  Agni,  when  praised  by  the  sages  of  ancient  times,  assembled  the  gods,  and 
now  when  praised  by  us  the  modern  sages,  he  will  assemble  them  to  our  sacri- 
fice. 

“By  means  of  Agni,  the  sacrificer  obtains  without  fail,  dally  increasing  wealth, 
and  the  fame  connected  with  an  army  of  heroes. 

“ O Agni,  whenever  a sacrifice  proves  fortunate,  it  is  because  thou  art  there 
to  be  the  guardian  on  every  side  ; also  thou  goest  on  high  to  convey  it  to  the 
gods. 

“ Agni  is  the  chanter  of  the  invocation  hymns,  and  the  director  of  the  sacri- 
fice ; he  is  faithful  and  possesses  all  possible  renown ; himself  a god,  let  him 
now  accompany  the  gods. 

“ O Agni,  whatever  benefits  thou  couferrest  on  the  offerer,  these  will  turn  to 
thy  own  advantage;  of  this  be  assured,  O god  of  fire. 

“ O Agni,  daily,  yea  day  and  night,  do  we  approach  thee  with  reverential  awe, 
prostrating  ourselves  in*thy  presence. 

“ We  approach  thee  who  flainest  over  the  sacrifices,  the  preserver  of  truth, 
the  grand  illuminator,  and  who  growest  great  in  thy  own  sacred  recess  by  our 
offerings. 

“ Cherish  us,  O Agni,  as  a father  doth  his  children,  and  be  with  us  to  keep  us 
in  safety.” 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


•365 


should  commit  any  part  of  them  to  memory,  or  perform  any 
rite  or  ceremony  contained  in  them,  the  king  or  magistrate 
was  directed  immediately  to  put  such  a man  to  death.  In 
modern  times  the  brahmins  have  been  the  depositaries  of  these 
sacred  books.  And  so  faithful  were  they  to  their  trust  and  so 
cautious  in  their  conduct,  that  it  was  not  without  great  diffi- 
culty and  much  expense,  Europeans  could  procure  them.  But 
copies  of  them  are  now  to  be  found  in  public  libraries  in  India 
and  Europe,  and  translations  are  in  the  course  of  being  made 
and  published  under  the  patronage  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. * 

There  is  a class  of  works  called  Upanishads,  which  contain 
extracts  of  certain  portions  of  the  Vedas,  and  commentaries  upon 
the  doctrines  of  theology  contained  in  them.  Of  these  ex- 
tracts and  treatises,  there  are  said  to  be  52.  Some  of  them  are 
short.  They  are  designed  to  exhibit,  explain,  and  defend  the 
doctrines  of  the  Vedas.  There  is  also  a class  of  works  called 
Upa-Vedas,  which  are  supplementary  to  the  Vedas.  There  are 
4 of  them.  They  treat  of  diseases  and  medicines,  of  music 
as  an  aid  to  devotion,  of  the  use  of  arms  and  other  implements 
of  war,  and  of  the  mechanical  arts.  There  is  yet  another  class 
called  the  Vedangas,  that  is,  members  of  or  supplements  to  the 
Vedas.  These  treat  of  their  pronunciation,  the  manner  in 
which  they  should  be  read,  etc. 

There  are  also  6 works  called  Durshans,  each  professing  to 
contain  a system  of  theological  philosophy.  The  doctrines, 
definitions,  explanations,  etc.,  of  these  professed  systems,  partly 
fi'om  their  abstruse  nature,  their  technical  phraseology  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  subjects  are  treated,  are  very  obscure  and 
difficult  to  understand.  They  show  how  active  the  Hindu  mind 
was  at  that  early  age  in  such  philosophical  speculations.  But 
they  are  of  as  little  consequence  now  as  the  speculations  of  the 
schoolmen  of  the  middle  ages  would  be  to  us  at  the  present 
time. 

There  are  several  ancient  works  which  profess  to  explain  the 
meaning  of  the  Vedas.  Some  of  these  are  ascribed  to  Vyas, 
the  reputed  compiler  of  the  Vedas.  One  of  these  works  is 
called  the  Vedant  Sar,  which  is  said  “ to  contain  an  abstract  and 
quintessence  of  all  the  Vedas  brought  together.”  The  Brahm 

31* 


366 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Sutras  or  Aphorisms,  and  the  Bhagawat  Gita  are  also  ascribed 
to  the  same  writer. 


THE  INSTITUTES  OP  MENU. 

This  name  is  given  to  a code  of  religious  and  civd  laws,  and 
makes  a part  of  the  Hindu  Scriptures.*  The  general  opinion 
of  orientalists  is  that  it  was  compiled  about  9 or  10  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era,  which  would  be  soon  after  the  reign  of 
Solomon.  This  work  contains  a long  and  obscure  account  of 
the  creation  of  the  world,  the  origin  and  laws  of  the  different 
castes,  the  laws  which  kings  are  to  observe  in  administering  the 
affairs  of  their  governments  and  carrying  on  war,  penalties  and 
penances  for  offences,  rewards  and  punishments  after  death,  etc. 
These  Institutes  give  us  the  best  account  w'e  have  of  the  civil, 
social,  and  religious  state  and  character  of  the  nations  of  India 
at  the  time  they  were  compiled.  And  as  such  a work  is  in  part 
a compilation  of  previously  existing  usages  and  laws,  these  give 
us  a view  of  the  people  for  considerable  time  previous  to  the 
compilation’s  being  made. 

As  these  laws  profess  to  be  of  divine  origin,  kings  had  no  au- 
thority to  change  them ; their  duty  was  to  administer  their  gov- 
ernments according  to  them.  There  was  to  be  no  toleration  of 
any  neglect  or  violation  of  these  laws  by  any  class  of  people. 
In  these  respects  they  resembled  the  laws  given  by  Moses  and 
contained  in  the  Old  Testament,  In  no  nation  were  ever  civil 
and  religious  matters  more  closely  united  than  among  the  Hin- 
dus. All  the  rules  concerning  caste  were  to  be  fundamental 
laws  of  the  country,  and  kmgs  were  to  govern  according  to  them 
and  to  enforce  them.  Brahmins  were  the  expounders  and  inter- 
preters of  these  laws,  and  kings  and  all  invested  with  authority 
were  to  carry  these  laws  into  effect.  K this  system  of  civil  and 
religious  laws,  including  the  regulations  concerning  the  different 
castes  (and  these  regulations  were  regarded  as  of  the  highest 
importance)  contained  in  these  Institutes,  were  carried  into  effect 
according  to  their  sj)irit  and  intention,  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
of  any  despotism  more  absolute  and  unhappy  in  its  conse- 
quences. And  such  probably  the  ancient  governments  of  India 

* Sir  William  Jones  made  an  English  translation  of  this  work. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


367 


were.  Such  the  governments  in  heathen  nations  have  generally 
been. 


THE  PURANS. 

There  are  18  works  of  this  class  which  are  generally  known 
by  different  names,  as  the  Bhagawat  Puran,  the  Vishnu  Puran, 
the  Padma  Puran,  etc.  They  all  belong  to  the  Hindu  Scrip- 
tures. They  are  popularly  ascribed  to  Vyas,  and  were  formerly 
regarded  as  of  early  origin  in  the  history  of  India.  But  the 
general  opinion  of  orientalists  now  is  that  most,  if  not  all  of 
them,  were  written  since  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era.  They  are  generally  wnritten  in  the  form  of  dialogues  be- 
tween disciples  and  their  rehgious  teachers,  the  latter  supposed 
to  be  some  deity,  or  god  in  human  form,  or  some  inspired  sage. 
They  treat  of  the  creation,  preservation,  destruction,  and  reno- 
vation of  the  universe,  of  the  genealogy  of  the  gods,  of  chro- 
nology according  to  their  fabulous  system,  of  rites,  ceremonies, 
legends,  etc.  Some  of  them  were  wnritten  to  exalt  some  partic- 
ular one  of  the  gods,  and  to  set  forth  his  good  qualities  and  liis 
marvellous  actions.  There  is  much  of  repetition  in  them,  and 
much  that  is  contradictory,  absurd,  and  to  all  but  Hindus,  utterly 
incredible.  The  idea  of  using  any  reason  and  criticism  in  judg- 
ing of  the  contents  of  their  sacred  books,  or  of  comparing  dif- 
ferent professedly  inspired  works,  or  different  parts  of  the  same 
work,  with  each  other  so  as  to  ascertain  their  consistency  or  oth- 
erwise, appears  never  to  occur  to  the  Hindus  so  long  as  they 
believe  in  their  own  religious  system. 

There  is  also  a class  of  wmrks  called  the  Upa-Purans,  com- 
monly reckoned  18  in  number.  They  are  supplementary  to  the 
Purans,  containing  such  matter  as  the  writers  thought  had  been 
omitted. 

The  Ramayan,  and  the  Mahabharat  are  not  generally  classed 
with  the  Purans,  but  may  be  reckoned  among  the  Hindu  sacred 
books.  Of  the  former  name  are  two  works,  one  of  which  is 
ascribed  to  Vyas,  the  reputed  compiler  of  the  Vedas.  "What- 
ever he  wrote,  has  been  believed  to  be  inspired,  and  so  this  w^ork 
may  be  classed  wdth  the  Hindu  Scriptures.  The  other  w'ork 
was  written  by  Vahniki,  and  is  more  common  and  better  knowm. 


368 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Of  this  work  it  is  often  said,  and  perhaps  it  is  the  general  opin- 
ion of  the  Hindus,  that  it  was  all  written  before  the  events  and 
actions  described  in  it  took  place,  and  that  when  these  occurred, 
every  thing  was  found  on  comparison  to  have  occurred  exactly 
as  they  had  been  previously  written.  This  opinion  involves  the 
highest  degree  of  inspiration,  and  so  would  confirm  the  truth  of 
every  thing  in  it.  The  subject  of  the  Ramayan  is  the  life,  ac- 
tions, etc.,  of  Rama  or  Ramchundra,  king  of  Ayodya,  and  believed 
to  be  one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu. 

The  Mahabharat  is  also  ascribed  to  Vyas,  the  compiler  of  the 
Vedas.  The  principal  subject  is  the  life,  actions,  etc.,  of  Krishna, 
one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu.  These  works  were  written 
before  the  Purans,  and  evidently  furnished  much  of  the  materials 
of  which  they  are  composed.  The  Bhagawat  Gita,  sometimes 
called  in  India  the  5th  Veda,  and  which  has  excited  so  much 
attention  in  Europe,  is  an  episode  of  one  of  the  chapters  of  this 
work.  This  part  is  regarded  as  possessing  the  highest  degree 
of  inspiration,  the  author  or  speaker  being  no  other  than  Krishna, 
an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  or  of  Vishnu  himself  incarnate  in  the 
person  of  Krishna.  It  teaches  and  illustrates  Vedantism  or 
pantheism. 

THE  SUPREME  BEING. 

The  Vedas  say  in  repeated  texts  that  “ There  is  in  truth  but 
one  Deity,  the  supreme  Spirit,  the  Lord  of  the  universe,  and 
whose  work  is  the  universe.”  A brahmin  who  was  learned  in 
the  Vedas  gave  the  following  view  of  the  Deity,  as  his  character 
is  described  in  these  works : — “ Perfect  truth,  perfect  happiness, 
without  equal,  immortal,  absolute  unity ; whom  neither  speech 
can  describe  nor  mind  comprehend  ; aU-pervading,  all-transcend- 
1 ing ; delighted  with  his  own  boundless  intelligence,  not  limited 
I by  time  or  space ; without  feet,  moving  swiftly ; without  hands 
grasping  all  worlds  ; without  eyes,  all-surveying;  without  ears, 
I all-hearing ; without  any  intelligent  guide,  understanding  all ; 
without  cause,  the  first  of  all  causes ; all-ruling,  all-powerful ; 
the  creator,  the  preserver,  and  the  transformer  of  aU  things ; such 
I is  the  Great  One.”  This  Being  the  Hindus  call  Brahm.  A 
'distinguished  writer  on  the  history,  religion,  etc.  of  the  Hin- 


THE  XATIVE  POPULATION. 


369 


dus,  and  long  a resident  in  India,  says,  “ The  primary  doctrine 
of  the  Vedas  is  the  unity  of  God.”  The  same  author,  referring 
to  the  Institutes  of  Menu,  says,  “ The  doctrine  of  Monotheism 
prevails  throughout  the  Listitutes,  and  it  is  declared  towards  the 
close,  that  of  idl  duties,  the  principal  is  to  obtain  from  the 
Upanishads  the  knowledge  of  one  supreme  God.” 

The  meaning  of  such  language  appears  to  be  plain  and  ex- 
plicit, and  we  should  naturally  expect  that  this  asserted  unity  of 
God  would  pervade  all  their  religious  views,  and  that  he  alone 
would  be  the  object  of  their#  homage  and  worship.  But  it  is 
necessary  before  we  can  understand  the  religious  principles  and 
practices  of  the  Hindus,  to  see  what  other  doctrines  their  sacred 
books  contain.  And  here  we  find  that  it  is  said  in  the  account 
they  give  of  the  creation,  that  the  eternal  and  infinite  Spirit,  or 
Brahm  first  created  the  god  Brahma,  and  “ he  created  an  assem- 
blage of  inferior  deities  with  divine  attributes  and  pure  souls, 
and  a number  of  genii  exquisitely  delicate.”  These  deities  are 
declared  to  be  worthy  to  be  adored,  and  their  favor  and  protec- 
tion are  to  be  sought  and  procured  by  prayers  and  offerings. 
Some  of  these  deities  are  described  .as  presiding  over  the  elements 
and  intrusted  with  the  performance  of  certain  parts  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  world.  Agni  is  the  god  of  fire,  Pavun  is  god  of 
the  wind,  Warun  is  the  god  of  water,  Indra  is  god  of  the  skies, 
Yama  is  god  and  judge  of  the  dead,  etc.  Prayers,  praises,  obla- 
tions, and  sacrifices  are  to  be  offered  to  these  deities.  Indeed, 
no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  Vedas  consists  of  prayers,  praises, 
rites,  and  ceremonies  to  be  used  in  oblations  and  sacrifices  to 
these  gods.  The  Institutes  of  Menu,  which  are  regarded  as  of 
divine  authority,  in  the  account  they  give  of  the  creation,  men- 
tion the  names  of  many  deities  who  are  declared  to  be  “ lords  of 
created  beings,  eminent  in  holiness,  and  who  are  to  be  adored 
and  worshipped.”  Thus,  though  according  to  the  Hindu  sacred 
books,  there  is  only  one  self-existent,  eternal,  and  unchangeable 
Deity,  yet  they  also  teach  that  he  or  Brahma  by  his  power, 
“ created  an  inunense  assemblage  of  inferior  deities  with  divine 
attributes,”  that  these  deities  are  intrusted  \\dth  powder  in  the 
government  of  the  world,  that  they  can  interfere  w’henever  they 
please  in  human  afi’airs,  and  so  are  to  be  feared,  praised,  propi- 
tiated, and  worshipped.  The  number  of  these  deities  is  almost 
infinite. 


370 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


In  the  early  history  of  the  Hindu  religion  and  in  their  oldest 
sacred  books  nothing  is  said  of  idolatry.  Images  are  mentioned 
as  worthy  to  be  reverenced,  but  whether  these  were  images  of 
their  deities  or  of  their  ancestors,  is  uncertain ; probably  they 
were  the  latter.  But  an  ignorant  and  ^superstitious  people  like 
the  Hindus,  with  such  a system  of  polytheism,  were  not  likely 
long  to  retain  and  practise  only  the  spiritual  worship  of  such 
deities.  It  was  easy  and  natural  for  them  to  conceive,  form, 
and  use  some  material  and  visible  objects  as  the  likeness 
or  symbols  or  representatives  of  their  deities.  And  we  find  that 
such  things,  as  objects  or  pretended  aids  in  worship,  were  soon 
introduced  and  in  common  use  among  them. 

These  deities,  and  the  supposed  incarnations  of  them,  are  be- 
lieved to  have  the  control  of  human  affairs,  and  to  have  the 
power  of  conferring  any  favors  which  can  be  enjoyed,  and  of  in- 
flicting any  evils  which  can  be  endured  in  this  life.  So  they 
are  the  objects  of  religious  homage  and  worship.  Their  favor  is 
desired,  and  means  are  used  to  obtain  it ; their  displeasure  is 
dreaded,  and  means  are  used  to  avert  it.  But  the  Hindus  have 
yet  stronger  reasons  for  worshipping  these  inferior  deities,  for 
their  shastras  further  teach  that  the  supreme  and  self-existent 
Spirit  feels  no  interest  and  takes  no  part  in  the  affairs  of  man- 
kind. Kapila  declares  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Vedas  to  be  that 
“ the  Supreme  Spirit  has  nothing  to  do  with  creatures,  nor  they 
with  him.”  He  is  described  as  existing  in  a state  of  serene  re- 
pose or  quiescence,  quite  indifferent  to  every  thing  exterior  to 
himself ; sometimes  he  is  described  as  unconcious  of  every  thing 
whatever,  like  persons  in  a state  of  sleep,  and  in  this  state  he 
will  continue  till  the  end  of  the  world  — all  the  affairs  of  the  cre- 
ated universe  being  superintended  and  managed  in  the  mean 
time  by  the  inferior  deities  he  has  created.  So,  as  the  infinite 
and  self-existent  Spirit  takes  no  interest  in  human  affairs,  all  wor- 
ship or  fear  of  him,  all  prayers  or  praise  or  gratitude  or  love  to  him, 
are  vain  and  useless.  To  him  no  temple  is  ever  consecrated, 
no  worship  is  ever  offered.  The  Hindu  sacred  books  contain 
declarations  concerning  the  Supreme  Being  and  their  learned 
men  often  use  expressions  concerning  him,  which  would  natu- 
rally be  understood  by  one  not  acquainted  with  their  philosophy 
ami  their  religious  system,  to  exclude  all  other  deities  and  make 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


371 


liim  the  only  object  of  adoration.  And  Europeans  have  some- 
times been  surprised  on  furtlier  acquaintance,  to  learn  how 
much  they  had  mistaken  some  of  the  first  principles  and 
usual  practices  of  Brahminism.  But  the  meaning  intended  by 
such  expressions  is  quite  consistent  in  the  opinion  of  the  Hindus 
with  their  whole  system  of  polytheism,  and  with  the  worship 
paid  to  its  numerous  deities.  By  such  expressions  they  do  not 
mean  the  unity  of  the  infinite  Spirit  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
gods,  any  more  than  to  the  exclusion  of  men.  They  mean  that 
he  alone  is  the  self-existing  God,  primarily  the  Creator  of  all 
things,  and  into  whom  all  created  beings  and  things,  spiritual 
and  material,  will  hereafter  be  absorbed,  so  that  as  he  alone  ex- 
isted at  first,  so  he  alone  will  exist  at  the  close  of  this  dispensa- 
tion or  kalpa. 

Thus,  though  expressing  views  of  the  Unity  of  God,  which 
have  often  appeared  to  Europeans  to  be  inconsistent  with  the 
worship  of  any  other  deity,  the  Hindus  have  ,a  system  of  poly- 
theism containing  gods  more  numerous,  multiform,  monstrous, 
and  immoral,  than  any  other  nation  ancient  or  modern.  The 
number  of  these  deities  is  declared  to  be  330,000,000,  and  any 
one  of  these  deities  may  be  worshipped.  Some  of  these  have 
gi-eat  power,  and  others  are  comparatively  small  and  feeble. 
Some  are  male  and  others  are  female.  Some  are  parents  and 
others  are  children.  Some  have  a form  in  which  they  generally 
appear  — a kind  of  natural  form  — and  yet  they  can  assume  any 
form  they  please,  and  become  visible  or  invisible  as  may  best  suit 
their  purpose  or  convenience.  Strange  and  monstrous  forms  are 
common  among  them.  Some  have  eyes  on  different  parts  of 
their  bodies.  Some  have  faces  on  aU  sides  of  the  head.  Some 
have  four,  and  others  have  many  more  hands.  And  as  though 
these  variations,  distortions,  and  perversions  of  the  human  form 
were  not  enough,  some  of  the  Hindu  deities  have  forms  partly  hu- 
man and  partly  animal,  and  some  are  entirely  in  the  animal  form. 

Brahminism  has  yet  another  form  — it  is  not  only  monotheistic 
and  polytheistic,  but  it  is  also  pantheistic.  And  this  is  generally 
the  system  of  the  learned,  and  the  primary  doctrine  of  the  Vedan- 
tas.  They  say  that  the  supreme  Spirit  and  the  universe  are  one 
and  the  same  — that  he  does  not  exist  separate  from  the  crea- 
tion, nor  is  the  creation  separate  from  him.  The  universe  is 


372 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


only  an  expansion  of  the  Deity,  and  the  expansion  of  the  Deity 
produces  the  universe.  So  with  mind  and  so  wdth  matter. 
There  is  no  mind  or  spirit  in  the  world  which  is  really  separate 
from  the  infinite  Spirit.  Nothing  but  this  Spirit  exists  in  the 
universe,  and  all  which  appears  to  be  material,  actual,  and  sub- 
stantial, is  such  only  in  appearance  and  not  in  reality  — it  is  all 
illusion.  It  is  only  the  endlessly  varied  energetic  operations  of 
the  all-pervading  infinite  Spirit,  the  all-pervading  and  animating 
principle  or  agent  in  the  world.  He  alone  has  any  real  existence, 
and  he  produces  by  his  immediate  and  direct  agency,  aU  the 
phenomena  in  the  universe.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  substance 
or  matter,  and  all  that  appears  to  be  such,  is  only  the  infinitely 
varied  and  diversified  operation  of  the  self-existing  and  aU-per- 
vading  Cause.  The  advocates  of  this  system  say  that  it  is  ow- 
ing to  the  ignorance,  dulness,  and  darkness  of  the  human  mind, 
or  to  the  qualities  which  produce  this  state  in  human  beings, 
that  men  think  they  are  separate,  distinct,  and  individual  beings, 
and  have  the  power  of  voluntary  action  and  moral  respon- 
sibility, that  if  men  could  in  any  way  acquire  sufficient  Imowl- 
edge,  discernment,  purity,  and  light,  they  would  at  once  lose  aU 
consciousness  of  individual  existence,  and  their  spirits  be  ab- 
sorbed into  union  with  the  infinite  Spirit. 

The  following  extracts  show  these  sentiments : — “ Bramh, 
(the  infinite  Spirit)  and  individuated  spuit  are  one.”  — “ That 
which  pervading  all  the  members  of  any  body,  is  the  cause  of 
life  or  motion,  is  called  individuated  spirit ; that  which  pervades 
the  whole  universe  giving  life  or  motion  to  all,  is  one.  That 
which  pervades  the  members  of  the  body,  and  that  which 
pervades  the  universe,  imparting  motion  to  all,  are  one.  So 
Bramh  and  all  individuated  spirits  are  one.  All  life  is  the 
Creator  or  Bramh ; he  is  the  soul  of  all  creatures.  All  spirits 
are  one,  not  two,  and  the  distinctions  I,  thou,  he,  etc.,  are  all 
artificial,  existing  only  for  present  purposes.  The  universe  is 
only  an  expansion  of  the  divine  substance.  The  human  spirit 
like  the  divine,  is  eternal  and  uncreate.  The  highest  object  of 
religious  meditation  is  to  discover  that  the  worshipper  is  himself 
God,  or  a part  of  God,  and  the  ultimate  reward  of  such  discov- 
ery is  absorption  into  the  Deity.  As  soon  as  a man  can  fully 
realize  that  God  is  every  thing  and  every  thing  is  only  a part  of 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


373 


God,  he  will  no  longer  retain  any  conscious  existence  — his 
spirit  or  what  he  thought  was  his  spirit,  will  be  united  with  or 
absorbed  into  the  infinite  Spirit  from  whom  he  emanated.” 


MINOR  DEITIES. 

In  the  accounts  given  of  the  creation  of  the  world  it  is  said 
that  the  supreme  Spirit  Bramh  created,  or  rather  by  his  author- 
ity the  god  Brahma  created,  among  other  beings  “an  assemblage 
of  inferior  deities  with  divine  attributes  and  pure  souls,  and  a 
number  of  genii  exquisitely  delicate.”  It  is  said  that  the  number 
of  these  deities  is  “immense,”  and  they  are  declared  to  be  “lords 
of  other  created  beings,  to  be  eminent  in  holiness  and  to  be 
adored  and  worshipped.”  They  are  also  declared  “to  have  control 
over  human  affairs,  and  to  interfere  with  them  whenever  they 
please.”  The  world  where  these  deities  reside,  is  Mem  or  Su- 
raeru,  a mountain  supposed  to  be  north  from  India.  This  moun- 
tain is  said  in  the  Purans  to  be  600,000  miles  high.  Its  form 
is  like  an  inverted  cone,  being  128,000  miles  in  circumference  at 
the  base,  and  tvidce  as  much,  namely,  256,000  miles,  at  the  top. 
Here  the  principal  gods,  as  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Sheva,  Indra,  etc., 
have  each  their  separate  places  of  residence  where  they  live  with 
their  wives  and  children.  Some  of  these  places  are  described  as 
being  gorgeous  and  splendid,  abounding  wdth  every  thing  which 
can  contribute  to  their  gratification.  They  have  palaces,  gar- 
dens, servants,  musicians,  courtesans,  etc.  These  gods  and  god- 
desses are  often  engaged  in  domestic  quarrels  and  in  disputes 
and  contests  about  their  comparative  rank,  power,  etc.  They 
are  described  as  having  a natural  and  generally  preser\"ed  form 
and  appearance,  but  they  have  power  to  assume  any  form,  to 
become  invisible,  and  to  proceed  to  any  place  at  their  pleasure. 
They  can  descend  to  the  earth  at  any  time,  assume  any  shape 
or  appearance,  and  manifest  themselves  to  any  human  being 
whenever  they  please. 

Among  these  deities  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Sheva  hold  the 
highest  place  in  the  Purans  and  in  the  general  opinion  of  the 
Hindus.  They  are  sometimes  called  the  Hindu  triad.  Brahma 
is  often  called  the  creator,  Vishnu  the  preserver,  and  Sheva  the 

destroyer,  of  the  world.  Some  account  of  them  will  be  given. 

oo 


374 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


BRAHJL\. 

The  creation  of  the  world  is  generally  ascribed  to  Brahma. 
The  Ayeeni  Acberry  says  there  were  16  different  accounts 
among  the  Hindus  of  the  creation  of  the  world.  Some  of  these 
accounts  are  long,  obscure,  contradictory,  and  much  of  them 
unintelhgible.  The  more  commonly  received  opinion  is  that 
Brahma  first  created  the  waters,  then  the  earth,  then  a great 
number  of  inferior  deities,  good  and  bad  genii,  etc.  Then 
he  created  the  brahmins,  who  came  from  his  mouth ; the 
kshatryas,  who  were  produced  from  his  arms ; the  vaishyas 
from  his  thighs,  and  the  shudras  from  his  feet.  These  constitu- 
ted the  four  primitive  castes. 

Brahma  is  described  as  of  a bright  yellow  or  golden  color, 
with  four  faces  and  four  hands,  dressed  in  shining  garments,  and 
riding  upon  a bird  resembling  a swan.  In  one  hand  he  holds  a 
portion  of  the  Vedas,  in  one  he  holds  a vessel  of  water,  one  is 
raised  as  bestowing  a blessing,  and  the  fourth  as  offering 
some  gift.  No  temples  are  ever  dedicated  to  him,  and  he  is 
never  worshipped  alone  or  separate  from  the  other  gods.  The 
brahmins  sometimes  make  prayers  to  him,  and  perform  some 
ceremonies  in  his  name.  It  appears  strange  that  this  god,  who 
is  declared  to  have  created  the  universe,  and  who  is  always  men- 
tioned first  in  enumerating  the  deities,  should  receive  no  worship 
from  the  great  body  of  the  people,  and  have  no  temple  dedica- 
ted to  him.  The  reason  of  this  neglect  and  dishonor  is  stated 
in  the  Purans  to  be  that  in  some  matters,  which  involved  the 
honor  and  veracity  of  Vishnu  and  Sheva,  Brahma  not  only  told 
what  he  knew  was  false,  but  hired  two  witnesses  to  confirm  what 
he  said.  The  gods,  on  knowing  this  iniquity,  deprived  liim  by 
their  curse,  of  all  homage  and  worship.  Sheva  was  so  angry  (the 
falsehood  was  concerning  him,)  that  he  cut  off  one  of  Brahma’s 
heads.  Before  this  he  had  five,  but  since  then  he  has  had  only 
four  heads.* 

These  are  not  all  which  is  said  in  the  Purans  concerning 
Brahma.  When  spirituous  liquors  were  first  made,  all  the  gods, 

* Some  accounts  ascribe  Slicva’s  cutting  off  one  of  Brahma’s  beads  to  another 
and  yet  more  disrei)utablc  cause. 


TEE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


375 


genii,  etc.,  used  them,  and  often  to  intoxication.  One  day 
Brahma  having  become  intoxicated,  made  an  attempt  upon  the 
virtue  of  his  own  daughter.  In  one  of  the  Purans,  it  is  said 
that  he  lived  in  a state  of  incest  with  his  daughter  for  100 
years. 

Tlie  residence  or  heaven  of  Brahma  on  Sumeru,  is  said  in  the 
Mahabharat  to  be  800  miles  long  and  400  miles  broad.  His 
reputed  son  Narad,  when  inquired  of  concerning  the  place, 
declared  he  could  not  describe  it  in  200  years,  and  that  it  con- 
tained in  a superior  style  all  tliat  is  in  the  heavens  of  the 
other  gods,  and  that  whatever  of  beauty,  splendor,  and  glory 
exists  in  all  the  creation  of  Brahma  on  the  earth,  may  be  seen 
there  in  its  highest  perfection. 

VISHNU. 

This  god  has  acquired  the  character  of  the  preserver  of  the 
world.  He  is  commonly  described  in  the  form  of  a dark,  or  blue 
or  black  man  with  four  arms,  holding  in  one  hand  a war-club, 
in  another  a conch-shell,  in  another  a weapon  called  chuckra, 
and  in  the  fourth  a water-lily.  The  vehicle  on  which  he  rides, 
is  a creature  partly  human  and  partly  bird.  This  god  is 
chiefly  worshipped  in  the  form  of  the  supposed  incarnations, 
which  he  at  diflerent  times  assumed  for  the  preservation  of  the 
world. 

The  incarnations  of  this  god  called  Aioatars,  form  so  promi- 
nent a part  in  the  Hindu  system,  that  their  probable  origin  and 
nature  appear  to  deserve  some  consideration.  Some  have  sup- 
posed that  Brahminism  is  indebted  to  Christianity  for  this  pecu- 
liarity in  its  system,  or  at  least  for  the  suggestion  of  it.  But  the 
incarnation  of  the  Hindu  gods  were  aU  so  different  in  their  na- 
ture and  object  from  any  thing  contained  in  the  Christian  sys- 
tem, that  it  does  not  appear  necessary  nor  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  they  ever  had  any  connection  whatever.  The  account  of 
these  incarnations  are  contained  in  the  Purans,  which  are  chiefly 
made  up  of  poems  and  traditions.  The  early  poetry  of  the 
Hindus  was  of  a very  fanciful  and  extravagant  character.  The 
Hindus  have  always  been  exceedingly  credulous,  ready  to  be- 
lieve almost  any  thing  however  strange,  improbable,  and  unrea- 


376 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


sonable.  This  spirit  is  apparent  in  then-  accounts  of  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  of  astronomy,  geography,  etc.  The  conduct 
and  character  of  their  heroes  must  be  such  as  to  excite  wonder 
and  admiration.  The  circumstances  of  their  birth,  the  actions 
of  their  life,  and  the  manner  of  their  death  must  all  be  marvel- 
lous. Descriptions  and  representations  of  this  character’  were 
suited  to  the  general  taste,  pleased  the  national  vanity,  and  flat- 
tered the  pride  of  kings  and  princes,  on  whose  patronage  the 
poets  were  dependent. 

The  Romans  were  accustomed  to  deify  their  heroes  and 
emperors  after  their  death,  and  to  set  up  their  iiuages  in  their 
temples,  and  then  include  their  names  among  their  deities. 
The  Hindus  proceeded  stiU  further.  In  the  Satya,  the  Treta, 
and  the  Dwapar  yugas  or  ages,  the  gods  are  described  as  often 
assuming  the  human  form  and  associating  familiarly  with  men 
for  a while,  and  then  suddenly  appearing  in  their  superhuman 
character.  Contemplating  the  fanciful  and  marvellous  actions 
ascribed  by  the  poets  to  their  heroes,  the  Hindus  instead  of  un- 
derstanding these  feats  and  exploits  as  the  fictions  and  flatteries 
of  the  writers,  assumed  them  to  be  true,  and  then  as  such 
actions  altogether  exceeded  human  power,  they  declared  the 
actors  must  be  deities  in  human  form,  or  incarnations  of  some 
of  the  gods.  And  when  this  had  been  assumed,  and  was  be- 
lieved in  respect  to  one  instance,  it  was  easy  and  natural  to 
extend  this  mode  of  understanding  the  marvellous  parts  of  their 
early  history,  all  comprehended  as  it  was  in  the  works  of  their 
poets.  In  this  way  the  legends  of  heroic  poetry  came  to  be 
taken  for  the  facts  of  history,  and  the  character  of  the  per- 
sonages were  elevated  to  be  deities  in  some  assumed  form, 
called  awatars,  or  incarnations,  in  order  to  account  for  their 
being  able  to  accomplish  the  wonderful  things  ascribed  to 
them. 

And  this  manner  of  understanding  the  Hindu  legends  and  tra- 
ditions was  not  limited  to  things  performed  by  human  agency. 
There  were  legends  and  traditions  of  strange  events  and  actions, 
in  which  other  agents  were  concerned.  Some  of  these  were 
also  declared  to  be  true,  and  to  be  effected  by  divine  interposition. 
The  mystical  notions  of  pantheism,  that  the  Deity  is  the  aU- 
pervading  and  animating  spirit  of  the  universe,  that  the  spirit  of 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


377 


man  is  only  a modified  existence  of  the  infinite  Spirit  united 
with  matter  in  the  human  form,  and  after  death  to  exist  in  the 
form  of  brutes,  reptiles,  fish,  and  of  vegetables  and  minerals  — 
these  notions  of  the  Deity  made  it  easy  for  the  Hindus  to  be- 
lieve almost  any  marvellous  legend  or  fiction,  and  ascribe  the 
agency  to  the  interposition  of  some  of  the  gods.  Hence  some 
of  the  Aicatars  occurred  in  the  form  of  animals,  and  one  in  the 
form  of  a fish,  and  in  such  incarnations  or  manifestations  the 
Hindus  saw  nothing  inconsistent  with  the  attributes,  or  deroga- 
tory to  the  character  of  their  deities. 

The  first  incarnation  of  Vishnu  is  called  Matsa  Awatar,* 
when  he  is  reputed  to  have  assumed  the  form  of  a fish  and 
recovered  the  Vedas,  which  a demon  had  purloined  and  con- 
cealed in  the  sea. 

The  second  incarnation  is  called  Vuraha  Awatar.  “ A mon- 
ster-demon delighted  in  afllicting  the  earth,  and  at  last  roUed  it 
into  a shapeless  mass  and  plunged  down  with  it  into  the  abyss. 
Vishnu  seeing  this  assumed  the  form  of  a boar  which  soon 
became  of  immense  size,  his  voice  was  like  thunder  and  shook 
the  universe.  He  plunged  into  the  ocean,  found  the  earth  at  the 
bottom,  and  bringing  it  up  on  his  tusks,  restored  it  to  its  former 
shape  and  state.” 

The  third  incarnation  is  called  the  Kurma- Awatar  in  which 
Vishnu  assumed  the  form  of  a tortoise.  The  circumstances 
connected  with  this  awatar,  the  object  to  be  accomplished  by  it 
and  the  different  kinds  of  agency  connected  with  it,  are  more 
unreasonable  and  absurd,  if  possible,  than  the  awatars  already 
mentioned. 

The  fourth  incarnation  is  called  the  Nursu  Awatar,  and  in  its 
nature  and  object  has  more  the  appearance  of  possibility.  A 
wicked  and  unbelieving  man  was  persecuting  his  son  and  threat- 
ening to  kill  him  for  his  faith  in  Vishnu  and  for  worshipping 
him.  After  much  angry  disputation  the  father  asked  his  son,  in 
contempt  and  derision  of  the  pretended  power  and  omnipresence 
of  Vishnu,  if  the  god  was  in  a certain  pillar  then  before  them, 
at  the  same  time  giving  the  piUar  a kick.  At  that  instant  the 
pillar  parted  and  the  god  became  manifest  in  the  shape  of  a man 


* The  fish-incarnation. 

32* 


378 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

with  the  head  and  paws  of  a lion.  He  instantly  seized  the  blas- 
phemer and  destroyed  him.  He  then  disappeared  and  the  pillar 
resumed  its  former  shape. 

The  fifth  incarnation  is  called  the  Waman  Awatar.  This 
awatar  consisted  in  Vishnu’s  assuming  the  form  of  a dwarf- 
brahmin  to  deceive  and  destroy  a king  who  was  giving  gi-eat 
trouble  to  the  Hindu  gods. 

The  sixth  incarnation  was  the  Awatar  of  Pursuram,  a brah- 
min-warrior, who  in  a great  war  between  the  brahmins  and  the 
kshatryas  overcame,  and  as  some  say,  annihilated  the  latter,  or 
the  military  caste. 

The  seventh  incarnation  was  the  Awatar  of  Rama  or  Ram- 
chundra,  the  celebrated  king  of  Ayodhya,  whose  life,  misfortunes, 
and  exploits  form  the  subject  of  the  celebrated  epic  poem  called 
the  Ramayan.  According  to  this  work,  Rama  was  the  son  of 
Dushurath,  Idng  of  Ayodhya,  the  modern  Oude.  He  was  mar- 
ried early  in  life  to  Seeta,  a daughter  of  the  king  of  Mithili. 
Some  domestic  troubles,  occasioned  by  the  intrigues  of  his  moth- 
er-in-law, compelled  him  and  Seeta  to  retire  into  a forest.  While 
in  this  seclusion,  Rawun,  king  of  Singul-Dwip  or  Ceylon,  is  said 
to  have  carried  away  Seeta  to  his  own  capital.  Rama  then  col- 
lecting a large  force  and  assisted  by  allies  in  the  Deckan,  pro- 
ceeded towards  Ceylon,  and  building  a causeway  across  the 
strait  of  the  sea,  invaded  the  island,  defeated  and  killed  Rawun, 
recovered  his  wife  and  returned  to  Ayodhya.  But  Rama’s 
troubles  were  not  yet  at  an  end.  Having  by  his  imprudent 
conduct  caused  the  death  of  his  brother  Luxuman,  who  had 
shared  with  him  in  all  his  dangers  and  his  success,  he  was  in  so 
much  distress  of  mind  that  he  threw  himself  into  a river,  and 
was  reunited  to  the  Deity.  The  allies  who  joined  Rama  in  the 
Deckan,  and  assisted  him  in  this  expedition,  are  described  as  a 
class  of  monkeys  under  the  command  of  a leader  called  Hunnu- 
man.  He  is  described  as  Rama’s  principal  military  leader,  and 
as  possessing  superhuman  qualities  of  body  and  mind.  He  is 
declared  to  be  an  incarnation  of  one  of  the  gods.  His  image 
in  the  form  of  a monkey  is  very  common  in  temples,  and  per- 
haps there  is  no  god  more  worshipped  through  the  Deckan. 

Krishna  is  generally  reckoned  the  eighth  incarnation.  But 
many  say  that  Balarama,  a celebrated  military  hero,  was  the 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


379 


eighth,  and  that  “ Krishna  was  greater  than  and  distinct  from 
all  the  awatars,  which  had  only  a portion  of  the  divinity  in 
them,  while  he  was  the  very  person  of  Vishnu  himself  in  a hu- 
man form.” 

The  ninth  incarnation  took  place  in  the  person  of  Budh,  who 
was  a teacher  of  a false  religion.  It  is  said  that  Vishnu  assumed 
this  form  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the  enemies  of  the  gods ! 
Budh  is  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  yet  the  doc- 
trines he  taught  are  declared  to  be  heretical,  and  those  who 
believe  and  practise  them  are  declared  to  be  deserving  persecu- 
tion. The  origin  and  object  of  this  incarnation,  the  circum- 
stances that  accompanied  it  and  the  consequences  that  followed 
it,  are  among  the  most  marvellous  things  of  Hindu  mythology 
or  theology. 

“ The  tenth  awatar  ” says  Sir  W.  Jones,  “ we  are  told  is  yet 
to  come,  and  is  expected  to  appear  mounted  on  a white  horse 
with  a scimetar  blazing  like  a comet  to  mow  down  all  the  in- 
corrigible and  impenitent.” 

The  life  of  Krishna  is  the  principal  subject  of  the  great  poem 
called  Mahabharat.  As  no  one  of  the  Hindu  gods  is  more  wor- 
shipped than  Krishna,  and  as  he  is  declared  “ to  be  not  an  incar- 
nation of  Vishnu  but  to  be  Vishnu  himself,”  and  also  to  be 
the  “ eternal  and  self-existing  Creator  of  the  universe,”  it  is 
proper  to  give  some  further  notice  of  him.  He  was  the  son  of 
Vasudeva  and  Devaki,  and  of  the  royal  family  of  Kousa.  Cir- 
cumstances are  narrated  concerning  his  birth,  which  decency 
will  not  permit  here  to  be  mentioned.  His  infancy  and  child- 
hood were  remarkable  for  mischievous  pranks  and  actions, 
which  would  be  marvellous,  if  they  were  not  mcredible,  puerile, 
and  foolish.  When  he  grew  up  to  manhood  he  manifested  his 
superhuman  powers  chiefly  in  amorous,  wanton,  and  licentious 
intercourse  with  the  women  of  the  district  where  he  then  Lived. 
The  Hindus  say,  “ as  he  was  divine,  he  was  not  subject  to  the 
moral  laws  binding  on  human  beings,  and  so  it  was  lawful  for 
him  to  do  what  he  pleased  among  the  women.  And  in  regard 
to  their  husbands,  they  could  have  no  right  which  tended  to  the 
exclusion  of  any  god.  So  the  women  could  do  what  they 
pleased,  irrespective  of  any  moral  obligation  to  their  husbands 
or  their  families.” 


380 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


At  a more  advanced  age  he  engaged  in  the  feuds  among 
the  famihes  with  which  he  was  connected.  He  acted  a con- 
spicuous part  in  the  great  war  between  the  Yadus  and  the 
Pandus,  in  which  his  feats  and  prowess  contributed  largely  to  the 
success  and  final  triumph  of  the  latter.  After  a long  course  of 
adventures  he  put  to  death  most  or  all  his  own  offspring,  and 
was  shot  by  an  arrow.  Of  his  wives,  eight  immolated  them- 
selves with  his  dead  body  upon  the  funeral  pile. 

“ Krishna,”  says  Elphinstone  in  his  History  of  India,  “ is  the 
gi-eatest  favorite  with  the  Hindus  of  all  their  divinities.  Of  the 
sectaries  who  revere  Vishnu  to  the  exclusion  of  other  gods,  one 
sect  almost  confine  their  worship  to  Rama ; but  though  com- 
posed of  an  important  class,  as  including  many  of  the  ascetics 
and  some  of  the  boldest  speculators  in  rehgious  inquiry,  its 
numbers  and  popularity  bear  no  proportion  to  another  division  of 
the  vaishna  sect,  which  is  attached  to  the  worship  of  Krishna. 
This  comprises  all  the  opulent  and  luxurious,  almost  all  the 
women,  and  a very  large  proportion  of  all  ranks  of  Indian 
society.  The  greater  part  of  these  votaries  of  Khrisna  maintain 
that  he  is  not  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  but  Vishnu  himself,  and 
likewise  the  eternal  and  self-existing  Creator  of  the  universe.” 
This  statement  refers  more  to  Bengal  than  to  India  generally. 
Ward  says,  “ six  parts  out  of  ten  of  the  whole  Hindu  population 
of  Bengal  are  supposed  to  be  the  disciples  of  this  god.”  He  is 
called  by  different  names,  and  images  of  him  used  in  his  wor- 
ship correspond  to  his  supposed  appearance  at  different  periods 
of  his  fife.  Anquetil  Du  Perron  says,  “ The  whole  history  of 
Krishna  is  a tissue  of  Greek  and  Roman  obscenities,  which 
among  the  fanatics  of  all  descriptions  conceal  the  most  abomi- 
nable enormities.”  Buchanan,  in  his  work  on  Mysore,  speaking  of 
a temple  of  Vishnu  which  he  saw,  says,  “ The  rath,  or  chariot,  be- 
longing to  it  is  very  large  and  richly  carved.  The  figures  upon  it 
representing  the  amours  of  that  god,  in  the  form  of  Krishna,  are 
the  most  indecent  I have  ever  seen.”  When  in  India  I saw 
chariots  or  cars  of  this  god,  which  were  covered  or  ornamented 
with  imagery  as  obscene  as  could  be  conceived.  On  these  cars 
images  of  the  god  arc  placed  on  festival-days  and  they  are  then 
surrounded  by  immense  crowds  of  people  who  worship  them. 
I saw  in  one  celebrated  temple  a great  ziumber  of  stone 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


381 


statues,  in  one  part  of  it  a long  series  of  them,  representing  the 
amours  of  Krishna,  which  were  of  the  most  obscene  character, 
which  if  exhibited  or  offered  for  sale,  as  statues,  or  pictures,  or 
engravings,  or  in  any  form,  or  described  in  any  language  in  this 
country,  would  subject  the  exhibiter  or  seller  to  severe  but  mer- 
ited punishment  from  the  laws.  And  yet  such  representations 
make  a part  of  the  Hindu  religion,  as  publicly  exhibited  and  cel- 
ebrated. To  reasoning  and  arguments  about  the  worship  of 
such  gods  the  Hindus  reply,  “ They  were  not  men  but  gods,  and 
so  were  not  subject  to  moral  laws  as  we  are.  They  could  do  as 
they  pleased.  Actions  which  would  be  sinful  in  us  were  not 
sinful  in  them,  for  being  subject  to  no  law  they  could  do  what 
they  pleased  without  doing  any  wrong  or  committing  any  sin.” 

The  residence  or  heaven  of  Vishnu  is  Vykunt,  and  is  situated 
on  mount  Sumeru.  According  to  the  Purans  it  is  85,000  miles 
in  circumference  and  is  chiefly  of  gold.  The  edifices  in  it  are  of 
jewels  and  precious  stones.  There  are  numerous  pools  of  water 
containing  lilies  and  other  flowers  of  every  variety  of  form  and 
color.  There  are  gardens  with  flowers  of  surpassing  beauty, 
fragrance,  etc.  There  Vishnu  and  Luxumee  appear  shining 
like  the  sun.  Before  and  around  them  the  inferior  deities,  the 
musicians,  and  various  orders  and  classes  of  heavenly  beings 
gaze  on  their  dazzling  and  divine  forms,  and  chant  their  praises. 
Into  this  heaven  the  votaries  of  Vishnu  of  every  class  say  they 
hope  to  be  admitted  and  to  enjoy  its  pleasures  till  the  merit  of 
their  actions  shall  be  exhausted.  They  must  then  return  to  the 
earth,  here  to  assume  another  birth. 

SEEVA. 

Sheva,  often  called  the  destroyer,  has  the  third  place  in  the 
order  of  the  Hindu  deities.  This  god  is  described  in  several 
different  ways.  In  one  form  he  has  five  faces,  three  eyes,  and 
four  hands.  In  another  form  he  has  one  head,  three  eyes,  in- 
flamed by  his  intemperate  habits,  two  hands,  with  a horn  in  one 
and  a drum  in  the  other,  is  riding  upon  a buU,  and  his  body  is 
covered  with  ashes.  But  he  is  commonly  worshipped  by  a sym- 
bol with  the  figure  of  a buU  (his  favorite  vehicle)  looking  at  it. 
The  origin  of  the  worship  of  this  thing  as  the  symbol  of  Sheva 


382 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


is  contained  in  the  Purans,  but  it  is  too  indecent  to  be  translated, 
or  the  account  to  be  narrated  in  the  English  language,  and  so  it 
must  be  omitted.  Sheva  is  described  as  having  the  appearance 
of  a religous  mendicant,  intemperate  in  his  habits,  filthy  in  his 
person,  every  way  disgusting  and  contemptible,  except  perhaps 
in  the  occasional  manifestation  of  ungovernable  temper  and  ter- 
rible power.  When  he  was  about  to  be  married  to  Parwuttee, 
her  mother  and  the  neighbors  cried  out,  “Ah ! ah ! ah ! this 
image  of  gold,  this  most  beautiful  damsel,  the  greatest  beauty 
in  the  three  worlds,  to  be  given  in  marriage  to  such  a fellow  — 
an  old  fellow  with  three  eyes,  wdthout  teeth,  clothed  in  a tiger’s 
skin,  covered  with  ashes,  encircled  with  snakes,  wearing  a neck- 
lace of  human  bones,  with  a human  skuU  in  his  hands,  with 
filthy  hair  twisted  round  his  head,  who  chews  and  smokes  in- 
toxicating drugs,  has  inflamed  eyes,  rides  naked  on  a bull,  and 
often  behaves  hke  a madman.”  The  Skand  Puran  makes  Sheva 
describe  himself  thus : “ Parwuttee  must  be  very  foolish  to  prac- 
tise so  severe  a penance  to  obtain  me,  a wandering  mendicant, 
who  gets  a rag  from  the  dung-hfll  to  clothe  his  nakedness,  rides 
an  ox,  carries  in  his  hand  an  axe  and  a young  deer ; who  wan- 
ders here  and  there  like  a madman,  dancing  with  demons  in  sol- 
itary places  where  corpses  are  burnt ; who  adorns  himself  with 
garlands  made  of  snakes  and  heads  of  dead  men,  and  rubbing 
ashes  on  his  body  goes  about  begging  with  a skuU  in  his  hand.” 

But  this  is  not  his  necessary  form,  for  he  can  at  any  time  as- 
sume any  form  he  pleases.  But  this  is  the  form  and  the  course  of 
conduct  in  which  he  most  delights.  Among  the  many  strange 
things  in  the  Hindu  superstition  there  is  nothing  more  strange 
than  that  a being  of  such  conduct  and  character  should  ever  be- 
come an  object  of  religious  worship. 

There  is  much  contradiction  in  the  Purans  in  respect  to  the 
comparative  rank  and  honor  of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Sheva. 
A sage  called  Attencin,  becoming  convinced  that  he  ought  to 
worship  only  one  deity,  thus  addressed  them  : — “ O you  three 
Lords,  know  that  I recognize  only  one  God ; inform  me  there- 
fore, which  of  you  is  the  true  divinity  tliat  I may  address  to  him 
alone  my  vows  and  adorations.”  The  three  gods,  Brahma, 
Vishnu,  and  Sheva  becoming  manifest  to  him,  replied : — “ Learn, 
O devotee,  that  there  is  no  real  distinction  between  us ; what  to 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


383 


you  appears  such  is  only  by  semblance  ; the  single  Being  appears 
under  three  forms,  by  the  acts  of  creation,  preservation,  and 
destruction,  but  he  is  one.” 

Some  of  the  Purans  appear  to  have  been  ^\^itten  to  exalt 
Vishnu,  and  others  were  written  to  exalt  Sheva.  The  votaries 
of  each  claim  the  highest  honors  and  attributes  for  their  favorite 
deity,  and  each  party  can  adduce  the  authority  of  the  Purans  for 
their  opinions.  By  the  votaries  of  Vishnu  he  is  declared  to  be 
the  Supreme  God  and  the  Creator  of  the  universe,*  and  that 
Sheva  and  all  the  other  gods  are  inferior  and  subordinate  to  him. 
The  votaries  of  Sheva,  calling  him  Maha  Deva  or  the  Great  God, 
set  up  the  same  claims  for  him  and  depreciate  Vishnu  and  aU 
the  other  gods.  These  disputes  and  quarrels  have  sometimes 
been  so  violent  as  to  require  the  interference  of  the  government. 

OTHER  HINDU  DEITIES. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  any  further  particular  accounts  of 
the  Hindu  deities.  Their  number  is  almost  infinite.  Some  of 
them  are  gods  and  some  are  goddesses.  In  their  conduct  there 
is  little  for  imitation,  and  in  their  character  nothing  for  admira- 
tion, and  seldom  any  thing  to  procure  respect.  The  same  deities 
are  called  in  different  districts  by  different  names,  and  worshipped 
by  different  rites  and  ceremonies.  Probably  some  of  them  were 
the  deities  and  demons  worshipped  by  the  rude  tribes  before 
they  embraced  the  religion  now  generally  called  Brahminism. 
Some  are  monsters  in  form.  Gunesh  who  is  much  worshipped, 
has  an  elephant’s  head  on  a human  body.  Hunnuman  who  is 
also  much  worshipped,  is  believed  to  have  been  an  incarnation 
of  one  of  their  gods  in  the  form  of  a monkey.  Some  of  them 
^re  believed  to  be  malevolent  and  to  delight  in  cruelty,  torture, 
and  bloody-offerings.  They  all  show  how  low  human  nature 
can  sink  in  its  conceptions  of  deity,  and  how  debasing  has  been 
the  religion  of  India  for  some  thousand  years  past. 

* One  account  of  the  creation  of  the  -world  says  that  at  the  close  of  a kalpa, 
Vishnu  -\Tas  sleeping  on  the  -waters  of  the  deluge,  and  a lotus,  or  water-lily,  grew 
up  from  his  navel.  From  this  flower  sprung  Brahma,  who  in  the  form  of  Nar- 
ayan  proceeded  to  create  the  world,  etc.  I have  often  seen  pictures  and  engrav- 
ings thus  representing  Brahma  springing  from  Vishnu.  The  votaries  of  Vishnu 
declare  that  he  was  really  the  Creator ; they  call  him  so  and  say  that  Brahma 
in  all  he  did  in  creating  the  world  was  only  the  agent  of  A^ishnu. 


384 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


DEMONOLATRY. 

The  Hindus  are  very  superstitious  in  respect  to  spiritual 
beings,  who  are  supposed  to  have  the  power  and  the  disposition 
to  interfere  in  human  affairs.  Accidents,  misfortunes,  and  afflic- 
tions are  often  ascribed  to  the  malevolent  agency  of  such  beings. 
So  also  are  insanity,  epilepsy,  sudden  attacks  of  iUness,  and 
extreme  sickness.  To  appease  such  beings  and  to  avert  their 
displeasure,  deprecatory  prayers  are  addressed  to  them,  and  offer- 
ings of  food  are  made  in  places  where  they  are  supposed  to 
resort.  Almost  every  town  and  village  contain  places  which 
are  believed  to  be  haunted  by  evil  spirits  and  are  carefully 
avoided,  or  if  it  is  necessary  to  pass  by  them  or  to  go  to  them, 
some  prayer  is  offered  or  ceremony  is  performed  to  appease  the 
evil  spirit.  Houses  are  often  believed  to  be  haunted  and  so  stand 
empty  till  they  fall  to  ruin.  In  such  cases  the  evil  being  is  gen- 
erally supposed  to  be  the  spirit  of  some  deceased  person  who 
formerly  lived  there. 

The  question  whether  magic  originated  in  Egypt,*  or  in  India, 
will  probably  forever  remain  undetermined.  But  a belief  in 
magic,  sorcery,  and  witchcraft  has  long  existed  among  all  classes 
of  people  in  India.  And  for  this  belief  they  have  high  author- 
ity, for  the  Artharva  Veda  contains  principles  and  doctrines  of 
magic,  and  ways  and  means  of  practising  it.  Some  people  are 
supposed  to  be  acquainted  with  these  mysterious  rites,  mystical 
formulas,  and  secret  incantations,  and  to  have  power  over  spirit- 
ual beings,  who  can  thus  be  controlled  and  even  compelled  to 
be  submissive  and  subservient.  By  these  means  evil  spirits  can 
be  restrained  and  ejected.  It  is  a common  opinion  that  people 
who  are  skilled  in  magic  and  sorcery  can  by  such  means  inflict 
evils,  sickness,  and  even  death  upon  their  enemies.  It  is  natu- 
ral that  persons  supposed  to  be  possessed  of  such  power,  should 
be  much  dreaded.  Many  of  the  annoyances,  troubles,  and  afflic- 
tions of  life  are  ascribed  to  witches,  and  there  are  few  towns  or 
villages  without  persons  suspected  or  accused  of  such  arts  and 
powers.  Jugglers,  in  India  rather  a numerous  class,  are  believed 


* Gen.  41:  8.  Exo.  7 : 11,22.  8:  18,19.  9:  11. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


385 


to  have  acquired  their  knowledge  and  skill  by  intercourse  with 
evil  spirits,  and  to  perform  their  tricks  and  feats  by  the  assistance 
of  such  beings. 

There  is  also  among  them  another  kind  of  superstition.  It  is 
what  they  believe  to  be  possession,  or  inspiration  by  some  deity 
or  demon.  Instances  of  this  state  are  very  common  among  some 
classes  and  in  certain  districts.  Sometimes  this  influence  is  ex- 
perienced unexpectedly,  and  sometimes  it  is  obtained  by  prayers, 
ceremonies,  etc.  It  generally  occurs  when  people  are  engaged 
in  some  kind  of  religious  duties.  It  is  sometimes  partial,  and 
sometimes  complete.  When  complete,  the  individual  is  not 
supposed  to  hav'e  any  control  over  his  bodily  actions,  or  men- 
tal facidties,  and  when  he  speaks  it  is  believed  to  be  the 
deity  or  demon  speaking  with  his  organs.  At  the  festivals 
of  some  of  the  gods,  generally  some  local  deity  or  demon, 
the  people  go  to  his  temple,  or  set  up  his  image  in  some 
place,  and  perfuming  it  with  incense,  and  celebrating  his 
praise  and  worship  with  a kind  of  music  used  only  on  such 
occasions,  some  of  them  bow  down  before  the  image  and 
invoke  the  deity  or  demon  to  come  into  them  and  take  posses- 
sion of  them.  Of  those  who  thus  engage  in  this  worship, 
some  are  generally  soon  in  the  state  they  desire,  and  begin  to 
appear  like  insane  persons.  The  others  then  take  possession  of 
these  persons,  carefully  observe  what  they  say,  make  inquiry 
concerning  matters  they  wish  to  know,  implore  the  protection 
and  blessmg  of  the  deity  or  demon  in  them,  etc.  This  state 
generally  continues  only  for  a few  hours.  In  most  cases  the 
possession  or  inspiration  ceases  soon  after  the  w^orship  and 
music  cease. 

I knew  some  persons  who  are  sceptical  in  respect  to 
the  truth  of  such  possessions  and  inspiration,  but  the  people 
generally  appeared  to  have  entire  confidence  in  the  reality  of 
such  things.  The  Scriptures  contain  numerous  instances  of  the 
possession  of  persons  by  evil  spirits  or  demons  in  the  time  of 
our  Saviour  and  the  Apostles,*  and  there  is  no  intimation  and 
no  reason  to  believe  that  they  were  peculiar  or  limited  to  that 
age  or  those  nations.  The  Scriptures  assure  us  that  the  devil 

*Matt.8:16.  9:34.  10:1.  Mark  1 : 34.  3:11.  16:17.  Luke4:41.. 

8:2.  9:1.  Acts  5:  16.  8:7.  16:18.  19:12-16. 

33 


386 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

has  access  to  the  minds  of  men,  and  if  people  renounce  the 
true  God,  worship  other  deities  and  demons,  invoke  them  to  en- 
ter into  them,  and  then  carefully  observe  the  operations  of  then- 
own  minds  to  perceive  the  expected  and  desired  influence,  is  it 
unreasonable  to  believe  that  such  persons  may  really  experi- 
ence what  they  seek  and  desire  ? that  they  do  really  become 
possessed,  or  inspired  by  the  devil  or  some  of  his  demons,  and 
that  these  beings  have  had  a greater  and  more  direct  agency  in 
originating  and  perpetuating  idolatry  and  the  various  systems 
of  superstition  and  false  religion,  which  exist  in  the  world,  than 
is  generally  believed?  And  may  not  those  who  wrote  the 
books  containing  these  false  religions,  have  had  assistance,  or 
inspiration  much  beyond  what  is  generally  ascribed  to  them  ? 

IDOLS. 

Idols  are  made  of  various  materials,  as  gold,  silver,  brass, 
stone,  (black  and  white  marble,)  wood,  clay,  baked  and  dried, 
etc.  They  are  of  different  materials  and  sizes,  as  may  suit  the 
means  and  convenience  of  the  worshippers.  They  are  intended 
to  be  in  the  form  of  the  deities  in  whose  worship  they  are  to  be 
used  — to  have  the  same  shape  the  gods  are  described  as  having 
in  their  respective  heavens.  So  some  of  the  idols  have  several 
heads,  many  arms  and  hands,  and  eyes  on  different  parts  of  them. 
These  idols  are  made  by  any  persons  who  have  sufficient  inge- 
nuity and  mechanical  skill,  as  goldsmiths,  sculptors,  carpenters, 
potters,  etc.  These  images  are  not  regarded  as  fit  to  be  wor- 
shipped till  they  have  been  consecrated.  The  consecration  of 
the  idol  of  a common  village  temple  or  of  those  kept  in  dwell- 
ing-houses, is  performed  by  one  or  two  brahmins  without  much 
ceremony.  But  the  consecrating  of  large  temples  and  the  idols 
in  them  is  celebrated  wdth  much  ceremony,  and  great  congrega- 
tions of  people  assemble  to  join  in  them.  The  most  learned 
brahmins  are  employed,  and  the  rites  are  sometimes  repeated 
and  {)rolonged  for  several  days.  Among  the  rites  are  bathing 
the  idols  in  milk,  burning  incense  before  them,  invoking  the  god 
to  take  up  his  residence  in  them,  etc.  Bands  of  music  are  em- 
ployed to  extol  the  j)raises  of  the  god,  and  when  the  image 
becomes,  by  the  rites  of  consecration,  a fit  object  to  be  worship- 
ped, then  all  the  people  present  begin  to  worship  it. 


IIIE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


387 


In  large  temples  and  in  sacred  places  idols  are  kept  with  great 
care,  and  no  person  of  low  caste  is  allowed  to  touch  them,  nor 
even  enter  the  inclosure  or  yard  surrounding  them,  'i’hey  are 
often  bathed  in  water  from  the  (ianges  or  some  other  sacred 
place,  and  sometimes  costly  clothes  and  jewels  arc  put  upon 
them.  Idols  in  common  temples  are  kept  with  less  care.  These 
as  well  as  idols  set  up  in  gardens,  in  fields,  and  in  groves,  are 
often  exposed  to  any  treatment  that  people  may  show  them,  but 
fear  of  being  discovered  and  dread  of  the  displeasure  of  the 
god  generally  preserve  such  idols  and  places  from  contempt  and 
profanation. 


TEMPLES. 

The  temples  of  Lidia  are  of  almost  every  size  and  form. 
They  are  not  built  to  accommodate  assemblies  of  people  like 
churches,  as  there  is  no  social  prayer,  nor  praise,  nor  hearing  in- 
struction in  their  worship.  The  first  and  chief  purpose  of  erecting 
a temple  is  to  have  a suitable  place  to  contain  the  idol,  the  ob- 
ject to  be  worshipped.  The  space  inclosed  in  the  temples  is 
generally  large  enough  to  allow  the  priest  who  has  the  charge 
of  the  idol,  to  walk  around  it.  Sometimes  the  idol  is  placed 
near  the  wall  opposite  to  the  door.  People  of  all  classes  ex- 
cept the  lowest,  go  into  many  of  the  village  temples  scattered 
over  the  country,  but  only  the  brahmins  are  allowed  to  enter  the 
largest  temples  and  those  which  claim  peculiar  sanctity.  At 
such  places  the  other  castes  are  allowed  to  come  only  to  the 
door.  In  some  temples  the  distance  to  which  dilfercnt  castes 
are  allowed  to  approach  towards  the  idol  is  fixed  in  view  of 
their  supposed  respective  purity.  Some  of  the  temples  have 
walls,  and  even  several  walls,  one  within  another,  surrounding 
them  like  the  temple  in  Jerusalem.  Some  of  these  temples  have 
more  the  appearance  of  forts  than  of  places  of  worship,  and  in 
the  former  unsettled  state  of  the  country,  they  were  often  made 
places  of  refuge  and  defence.  Temples  of  this  character  are 
now  most  frequently  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  India.* 

* The  temple  of  Seringham,  on  an  island  in  the  river  Coleroon,  near  Trichin- 
opoly,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  India.  “ It  is  composed  of  7 square  inclosures, 


388 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


Many  large  and  fortified  temples  were  taken  and  destroyed  by 
the  Mohammedans  in  northern  India  in  their  early  wars  with 
the  Hindus.  Temples  are  generally  of  brick  and  stone,  and  are 
more  substantially  built  than  the  dwelling-houses.  Temples 
are  often  found  in  a state  of  good  preseiA’ation  among  the  ruins 
and  rubbish  of  deserted  villages  and  cities.  Li  this  way  the 
Hindus  show  their  respect  for  religion. 

The  temples  have  generally  been  erected  by  individuals. 
Sometimes  the  members  of  a family  have  united  to  erect  one, 
and  in  some  instances  they  have  been  erected  by  the  native  gov- 
ernments. Many  temples  have  endowments.  In  the  western 
part  of  India,  a part  of  the  revenue  of  the  village  is  often  ap- 
propriated to  keeping  one  or  more  of  the  temples  in  repair,  to 
lighting  them  and  performing  ceremonies  in  them  on  particular 
holidays.  Wealthy  individuals  or  families  generally  endow  the 
temples  they  build.  These  endowments  often  consist  of  the 
rents  of  lands,  sometimes  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  rent  of 
villages  which  belonged  to  the  builders.  Sometimes  the  builder 
and  the  people  of  the  village  or  district  would  obtain  an  endow- 
ment from  the  government.  In  such  cases  whether  the  endow- 
ments are  from  individuals  or  from  the  government,  the  care  of 
the  temple  is  intrusted  to  some  brahmin  or  brahmins  and  their 
families  in  succession,  who  are  to  receive  the  income  of  the 
endowments  and  in  return  are  to  keep  the  temple  in  repair,  and 
to  perform  certain  specified  rites  and  services  in  it.  It  was 
regarded  as  the  duty  of  the  government  to  enforce  the  terms  of 
such  endowments.  The  brahmins  and  their  successors  were 
required  to  perform  the  duty  for  which  the  endowments  were 
made,  and  were  enabled  to  realize  the  income.  Some  such 
endowments  were  made  several  centuries  ago  and  a large  num- 
ber of  families  are  supported  by  them. 

These  endowed  temples  have  sometimes  a band  of  music 

one  ■within  another,  the  ■walls  of  which  are  25  feet  high  and  4 feet  thick.  These 
inclosures  are  350  feet  distant  from  one  another,  and  each  has  4 large  gates 
with  a high  tower,  which  are  placed  one  in  the  middle  of  each  side  of  the  inclo- 
surc,  and  opposite  to  the  four  cardinal  points.  The  outward  wall  is  nearly  4 
miles  in  circumference,  and  its  gateway  to  the  south  is  ornamented  with  pillars, 
several  of  which  arc  single  stones  33  feet  high,  and  nearly  5 feet  in  diameter, 
and  those  which  form  the  roof  arc  still  larger.”  This  temple  has  endowments 
to  the  amount  of  more  than  20,000  dollars  annually. 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


389 


attached  to  them,  who  attend  on  festival  days,  and  who  also 
every  morning  at  sunrise  and  again  at  sunset  celebrate  the 
praises  of  their  god.  I have  seen  many  such  temples,  and  in 
one  instance  the  brahmins  in  charge  wished  to  decorate  me 
with  flowers,  and  thus  honoring  me  at  the  temj)le,  then  to  accom- 
pany me  with  their  band  of  music  some  distance  on  my  way. 
This  was  on  the  Coromandel  Coast,  where  I could  but  imper- 
fectly use  the  language  of  the  people,  and  it  was  some  time 
before  I could  make  them  understand  why  I declined  the  honor 
they  intended  to  show  me. 

Princes  and  wealthy  people  often  have  private  temples  in 
their  gardens  and  parks.  People  often  have  a place  in  their 
houses,  in  which  the  idols  they  worship  are  placed.  This  place 
is  sometimes  a small  room  or  closet  or  niche  in  the  wall,  in 
which  several  idols  are  placed.  Sometimes  a brahmin  is  em- 
ployed to  perform  the  daily  rites  of  the  idols,  and  sometimes 
some  one  of  the  household  * will  do  it.  The  idols  are  often 
bathed,  incense  is  burned,  flowers  and  articles  of  food  are  offered, 
the  worshipper  joins  his  hands  and  bows  his  head  or  prostrates 
himself,  repeats  prayers,  etc. 

The  worsliip,  rites,  etc.,  at  some  of  these  temples  are  such  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  character  of  their  deities.  The  fol- 
lov\'ing  is  an  extract  from  the  author’s  journal  written  while  at 
Jejury  in  1833. 

“ Here  is  a celebrated  temple  of  Khundoba,  who  is  believed  to 
be  an  incarnation  of  Sheva.  His  incarnation,  it  is  believed,  took 
place  in  this  vicinity,  and  after  accomplishing  the  object  for 
which  it  was  assumed,  the  god  ascended  to  heaven  from  the  top 
of  a hill  in  front  of  the  village.  Hence  this  place  became  the 
principal  seat  of  his  worship.  A work  on  India  published  some 
years  ago  contains  the  following  description  of  this  temple.  ‘ It 
is  built  of  fine  stone,  is  situated  on  a high  hill  in  a beautiful 
country,  and  has  a very  majestic  appearance.  Attached  to  it  is 
an  establishment  of  dancing  girls  amounting  to  250  in  number. 
This  temple  is  very  rich,  £ 6,000  being  annually  expended  on 
account  of  the  idol,  who  has  horses  and  elephants  kept  for  him, 
and  with  his  spouse  is  daily  bathed  in  rose  and  Ganges  water, 
although  the  latter  is  brought  from  a distance  of  more  than 


* See  Judges,  17;  5,  12,  13. 

33* 


390 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


1,000  miles.’  Since  this  description  was  written  the  temple  has 
apparently  suffered  somewhat  in  its  revenues  and  popularity. 
The  rites  of  idolatry,  however,  are  still  performed  here  with  much 
parade  and  pomp.  The  ‘ dancing  girls  ’ are  females  who  have 
been  dedicated  to  the  god,  generally  by  their  parents,  though 
sometimes  children  have  been  purchased  for  this  purpose.  Tliis 
dedication  is  made  professedly  in  the  fulfilment  of  vows,  though 
the  true  reason  sometimes  is  the  inabihty  of  the  parents  to  form 
marriage  connections  for  their  daughters.  On  arriving  at  a cer- 
tain age  the  unhappy  girl  is  brought  to  the  temple,  and  in  a pre- 
scribed form  is  dedicated  and  presented  as  an  offering  to  the  god. 
The  customary  ceremony  of  marriage  is  then  performed  betv^een 
her  and  the  idol,  and  this  is  the  only  marriage  state  she  ever 
enters.  This  dedication  to  the  god  with  the  succeeding  cere- 
mony of  marriage  to  the  idol,  is  only  an  introduction  to  a life  of 
prostitution,  which  is  begun  and  followed  without  fear  of 
sin  or  sense  of  shame  on  the  part  of  the  unhappy  woman  pr  of 
her  connections ; her  dedication  to  the  god,  instead  of  requiring 
holiness  of  heart  and  life,  becoming  a reason  why  she  may  fol- 
low such  a course  without  incurring  infamy  or  guUt.  A few  of 
these  women  are  employed  in  the  temple,  where  they  assist  in 
performing  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  worship,  and  as  many  as 
can  find  means  of  support,  live  in  the  village  near  the  temple. 
But  the  greater  part  of  them  are  scattered  in  the  large  vil- 
lages and  cities  through  the  country  and  visit  the  idol  only  at  fhe 
festivals.  The  number  of  this  unhappy  class  who  arc  thus  in- 
troduced, we  may  say  forced,  into  this  course  of  prostitution  and 
wretchedness  for  fife  without  any  choice  or  agency  on  their  part 
is  very  large,  and  they  spread  around  a pernicious  influence.” 
There  are  other  temples  similar  in  the  character  of  their  dei- 
ties and  the  conduct  of  their  votaries.  Tims  some  people  can 
be  as  wicked  as  they  please,  and  yet  be  serving  Iheir  gods. 
But  in  these  practices  the  Hindus  are  not  wmrse  than  ancient 
heathen  nations : not  wmrse  than  the  Canaanitcs  who  w’crc 
driven  out  of  their  country,  or  destroyed  l)y  the  Hebrews ; and 
not  wmrse  than  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  Tlie  gods  of 
the  Hindus  are  not  worse  than  Bacchus,  Venus,  and  Laverna, 
or  than  Moloch,  Baal-pcor,  and  Astarte.  History  slunvs  that 
heathenism,  in  its  deities,  its  practices,  and  its  influence,  has 
been  essentially  the  same  in  ail  ages  and  in  all  nations. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


391 


CAVE-TEMPLES. 

The  excavated  rock-temples  in  the  western  part  of  the  Deckan 
and  m the  Concan  are  the  most  remarkable  and  wonderful  mon- 
uments of  superstition  in  India,  or  in  any  country  of  the  world. 
These  temples  are  excavated  in  solid  rock,  and  so  are  subterra- 
nean. Some  of  them  are  Budhist,  some  are  Brahminical,  and 
some  of  them  contain  the  symbols  and  images  of  both  these  sys- 
tems. The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  temples  of  Ele- 
phanta  and  Kennery,  near  Bombay,  and  of  Karlee,  Adjunta,  and 
Elora,  in  the  Deckan. 

The  Elephanta  temples  are  on  an  island  a few  miles  east  from 
Bombay,  across  the  harbor.  They  are  excavated  in  the  rock  of 
a hill  300  or  400  feet  high,  and  about  half-way  up  its  ascent. 
The  principal  temple  is  130  feet  long,  123  feet  wide,  and  15 
feet  high.  The  roof,  or  ceiling,  is  flat,  and  supported  by  rows  of 
pillars,  which  as  well  as  the  images,  are  a part  of  the  natural 
rock  of  the  hill.  Most  of  these  piUars  are  now  fallen  or  mu- 
tilated. Tradition  among  the  inhabitants  says  that  the  ]Mo- 
hammedans  or  the  Portuguese  placed  cannon  at  the  entrance  of 
the  temple  and  battered  down  the  pillars  and  images  as  far  as 
they  could.  The  images,  which  were  once  numerous  and  some 
of  them  very  large,  are  nearly  aU  now  in  a mutilated  and  de- 
cayed state.  But  the  principal  figure  of  the  temple,  the  image 
of  the  god  to  whom  the  temple  was  apparently  dedicated,  stfll 
remains  nearly  entire,  though  somewhat  decayed.  It  consists 
of  a gigantic  bust  with  three  faces  at  the  end  opposite  to  the 
principal  entrance.  This  figure  is  richly  ornamented,  and  shows 
a style  of  sculpture  superior  to  what  is  generally  seen  in  such 
temples.  There  are  apartments  communicating  with  the  sides 
of  this  temple  with  images  and  symbols  of  the  Hindu  deities, 
descriptive  of  scenes  and  events  in  their  sacred  history,  and 
shrines  for  performing  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  their  worship. 
The  images,  symbols,  and  shrines,  in  this  temple,  are  brahmini- 
cal. There  is  no  inscription  in  it,  and  no  mention  is  made  of 
it  in  any  Hindu  work.  So  there  are  no  means  of  ascertaining 
when  it  was  made,  or  when  or  why  it  was  abandoned.  The 
general  opinion  of  Europeans  who  have  examined  this  temple  is, 


392 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


that  it  was  made  subsequent  to  the  Christian  era,  and  some  be- 
lieve it  was  made  as  late  as  the  9th  or  10th  century. 

The  Kennery  temples  are  in  the  island  of  Salsette,  about  25 
miles  north  from  Bombay.  They  consist  of  b«’o  large,  and  a 
great  number  of  small  excavations.  They  are  all  apparently  of 
Budhist  origin  and  construction,  and  appear  once  to  have  formed 
a large  monastic  establishment.  Probably  this  was  a large 
Budhist  theological  seminary  at  the  time  when  our  Saviour  was 
on  the  earth.  There  are  some  inscriptions  on  the  walls  in  some 
ancient  character,  which  have  occasioned  much  speculation 
among  orientalists.  There  is  no  well-authenticated  history  of 
these  caves ; and  when  they  were  made,  how  long  they  were  used, 
and  why  they  were  abandoned,  wiE  probably  always  be  un- 
known. 

The  Karlee  temple  is  near  the  road  from  Bombay  to  Poona. 
It  is  a large  and  beautiful  excavation  about  130  feet  long  and 
40  feet  wide,  with  a high-arched  roof.  Like  the  Kennery  temple, 
it  is  of  Budhist  origin  and  has  twm  rows  of  pillars  terminating 
in  a semicircle.  The  temple  and  imagery  are  well  preserved, 
and  altogether  form  one  of  the  most  beautiful  temples  I saw  in 
Lidia.  There  are  several  smaller  excavations  near  the  temple, 
but  they  are  in  a dilapidated  state,  or  were  never  finished. 

The  Adjunta  temples  are  near  a village  of  this  name,  situated 
40  miles  north-east  from  Aurangabad.  These  temples  are  ex- 
cavated in  the  rocks  on  the  side  of  a deep  ravine.  They  are  nu- 
merous ; 25  had  been  examined  when  I left  India,  and  it  is 
said  that  others  have  been  since  discovered.  One  of  these  temples 
Is  100  feet  long  and  40  feet  wide.  On  each  side  is  a row  of  large 
piUars,  12  feet  high,  and  converging  at  the  end  opposite  to  the 
entrance  so  as  to  form  a semicircle.  The  roof  between  these  pil- 
lars and  the  walls  is  flat,  but  between  the  pillars  it  is  arched,  and 
at  the  end  it  is  semicircular.  This  temple  contains  many 
images,  and  has  also  many  figures  pamted  upon  the  walls. 
There  is  one  excavation  which  is  80  feet  square,  with  a flat 
roof,  or  ceiling,  supported  by  28  pillars.  In  the  sides  of  this  ex- 
cavation are  many  small  cells,  apparently  designed  for  dormito- 
ries. There  are  two  temples  each  64  feet  long  and  62  feet 
wide.  The  roof  of  each  is  flat,  and  is  supported  with  20  pil- 
lars. These  temples  contain  images  and  paintings  on  the  walls. 
These  temples  are  of  Budhist  origin  and  worship. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


393 


The  Elora  temples,  so  called  from  a village  of  this  name  near 
them,  are  16  miles  north-west  from  Aurungabad.  These  temples, 
in  number,  size,  and  magnificence,  exceed  any  works  which  idola- 
try or  superstition  has  made  in  India.  One  of  these  temples 
called  Kylas,  or  the  paradise  of  Sheva,  is  a temple  formed  of  a 
single  rock,  which  is  an  integral  part  of  the  mountain,  in  an  ex- 
cavated court  247  feet  long  and  150  feet  wide.  The  walls  of 
this  court  are  the  rock  in  which  the  excavation  is  made,  and 
they  vary  in  height  from  50  to  100  feet.  In  these  walls  are  many 
excavated  rooms,  halls,  and  galleries,  some  of  them  of  two  sto- 
ries. In  the  centre  of  this  court  is  the  grand  temple,  142  feet 
long,  60  feet  wide,  and  90  feet  high  to  the  apex.  In  this  temple 
is  one  large  room  with  16  pillars  to  support  the  superincumbent 
mass  of  rock.  There  are  also  many  small  rooms  and  shrines. 
The  outside  of  this  temple  is  entirely  covered  with  sculptured 
figures,  representing  actions  and  events  described  in  the  Purans. 
This  temple,  with  its  rooms,  halls,  galleries,  shrines,  images,  and 
courts,  consists  of  the  original  rock  of  the  mountain,  reduced  to 
their  present  state  and  form  internally  and  externally,  by  exca- 
vation and  sculpture.  The  genius,  skill,  and  labor,  exhibited  in 
its  design  and  execution,  place  it  among  the  most  remarkable 
works  of  any  age  or  nation. 

Near  Kylas  is  a temple  which  has  three  stories,  or  rather  the 
excavation  consists  of  three  large  temples,  one  above  the  other. 
The  lower  temple  is  117  feet  long,  42  feet  wide,  and  12  feet 
high,  with  a large  recess  for  the  principal  image.  The  second 
temple  is  114  feet  long,  66  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  high,  with  a 
recess,  and  the  third  temple  is  110  feet  long,  66  feet  wide,  and 
12  feet  high,  with  a recess.  Near  this  is  an  excavation  which 
contains  two  large  temples,  one  above  the  other.  The  lower 
temple  is  103  feet  long,  46  feet  wide,  and  14  feet  high,  and  the 
upper  one  is  apparently  of  the  same  size.  There  are  many 
other  large  temples  excavated  in  the  mountain,  either  of  which, 
if  alone,  would  excite  admiration,  but  as  in  a city  of  palaces, 
one,  which  would  be  an  ornament  and  honor  to  any  common 
city,  excites  but  little  attention  where  it  is,  so  here  a temple  ex- 
cavated in  sohd  rock  as  large  as  our  largest  churches,  being  only 
one  of  many  similar  to  it,  excites  little  surprise  or  admiration. 

There  are  also  excavated  rock-temples  at  Juneer,  Nasseek, 


394  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Badami,  and  other  places,  but  they  are  not  equal  in  size  and 
magnificence  to  those  at  Elora.  There  are  no  means  of  ascer- 
taining at  what  time  these  w'onderful  works  were  made.  Some 
of  them  are  Budhistical,  some  are  Brahminical,  and  some  show 
a mixture  of  both  systems.  The  Budhist  temples  appear  to  be 
more  ancient  than  the  Brahminical,  and  in  the  temples  of  a 
mixed  character,  the  images  and  symbols  of  the  latter  appear  to 
have  been  ingrafted  upon  those  of  the  former.  The  apotheosis 
of  Budh  is  generally  supposed  to  have  taken  place  in  the  6th 
century  before  Christ,  and  about  250  years  B.  c.  a power- 
ful prince  by  the  name  of  Asoka,  whose  capital  was  Magadi, 
was  very  zealous  in  propagating,  and  generous  in  supporting 
Budhism.  A long  and  severe  controversy  was  carried  on  be- 
tween the  rival  systems,  which  resulted  in  the  triumph  of  the 
brahmins  and  their  votaries,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Budlusts 
from  India  and  their  taldng  refuge  in  Ceylon.  The  oldest 
Budhist  temples,  it  is  believed,  were  made  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  some  of  them  were  probably  made  after  that  epoch. 
The  brahminical  temples  were  probably  made  in  the  early  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era. 

The  Budhist  temples  would  naturally  be  abandoned  when  the 
votaries  of  that  system  were  driven  out  of  Lidia,  unless  the 
brahmins  should  convert  them  to  their  own  use.  But  we  know 
not  what  should  cause  the  brahmins  and  their  votaries  to  aban- 
don these  temples,  the  works  of  so  much  labor,  and  which  could 
be  used  to  so  mueh  effect  in  supporting  their  system  of  idolatry 
and  superstition.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  Mohammedans 
profaned  these  temples,  and  so  forcibly  interfered  with  the 
Hindus  using  them.  But  the  Mohammedans  did  not  take  pos- 
session of  the  western  provinces  of  India  till  near  the  close  of 
the  13th  century,  and  I am  not  aware  that  there  is  any  mention 
of  their  profaning  or  injuring  these  temples  in  any  Hindu  or 
Mohammedan  history.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  Portu- 
guese, who  obtained  possession  of  Bombay  and  Salsctte  early 
in  the  16th  century,  profaned  and  mutilated  some  of  these  tem- 
ples, and  there  is  some  such  tradition  among  the  natives.  But 
had  this  been  done,  it  is  very  improbable  that  the  Portuguese 
historians  of  that  age  should  not  have  mentioned  it. 

These  works  were  made  long  before  the  discovery  of  gunpow- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


39o 


der,  and  Ihe  labor  of  executing  them  ajjpears  to  be  incalculable 
and  incredible.  They  show  the  power  of  false  religion  and  su- 
perstition over  former  generations  of  the  inhabitants  of  India. 
Whether  the  labor  of  executing  these  works  was  i)erformed 
voluntarily  from  the  strong  and  enduring  feelings  of  superstition, 
or  in  reluctant  obedience  to  despotic  power,  or  for  wages  from 
the  treasuries  of  Idngs,  (for  none  but  kings  could  pay  for  such 
things,)  we  know  not,  and  apparently  the  world  will  never 
know. 

Some  of  these  excavated  temples  were  monastic  establish- 
ments and  so  would  be  places  for  religious  education  as  well  as 
for  devotion.  In  India  such  education  would  include  the  whole 
circle  of  philosophy,  science,  and  literature.  Among  the  Budh- 
ists,  celibacy  is  an  essential  qualification  for  the  priesthood,  and 
much  of  the  labor  of  making  these  excavations  may  have  been 
performed  by  those  who  occupied  them,  or  expected  to  become 
their  inmates. 

In  the  present  state  of  these  temples,  abandoned  and  partly 
filled  with  rubbish,  the  images  mutilated  and  the  paintings  de- 
faced, it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  they  must  have  appeared  when 
the  system  of  superstition  to  which  they  were  dedicated,  was  in 
its  glory,  and  when  brahmins  and  budhists  ministered  at  these 
shrines,  and  appeared  to  be  the  companions  as  well  as  the 
priests  of  these  deities.  In  these  vast  halls  and  gloomy  recesses, 
secluded  firom  the  light,  (for  there  is  evidence  of  curtains  and 
screens  having  been  once  used,)  surrounded  by  gigantic  images 
of  the  gods  and  paintings  of  sacred  scenes,  all  arranged  and 
managed  so  as  to  produce  the  most  striking  effect,  the  pretended 
mysteries  and  the  solemn  rites  and  imposing  ceremonies  of  poly- 
theism and  idolatry  were  performed.  And  we  cannot  conceive 
of  any  circumstances  fitted  more  powerfully  to  affect  the  minds 
of  an  ignorant  and  superstitious  people  like  the  Hindus. 

In  view  of  the  influence  which  these  temples  must  have  ex- 
erted in  supporting  and  perpetuating  idolatry  and  superstition, 
we  cannot  regret  seeing  them  in  the  state  in  which  they  now 
are.  Indeed,  so  far  from  feelings  of  regret,  we  have  reasons  for 
gratitude  and  thankfulness  to  God  that  in  the  course  of  his 
providence,  by  means  unknown  to  us,  these  idols  have  been 
broken,  the  rites  and  ceremonies  once  performed  here  are  forgot- 


396 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ten,  and  that  these  palaces  of  the  powers  of  darkness  have 
become  desolate  and  forsaken. 

SACRED  PLACES. 

Sacred  places  are  very  numerous  in  India.  The  fame  of  some 
of  them,  as  Juggunath,  Benares,  Hurdwar,  Dwarka,  Nasseek, 
extend  through  aU  the  country,  and  people  go  from  the  extreme 
parts  of  India  on  pilgrimage  to  them.  These  places  are  cele- 
brated for  the  manifestation  of  some  god,  or  some  other  remark- 
able events  mentioned  in  their  sacred  books,  and  great  merit  is 
believed  to  be  acquired  by  making  pilgrimage  to  them,  and  there 
performing  religious  rites  and  ceremonies.  It  is  believed  that 
people  who  die  at  some  of  these  places,  obtain  emancipation 
from  future  birth  and  sufferings,  and  so  devotees  and  rich  men 
often  go  there  to  end  their  days.  There  are  hundreds  of  sacred 
places  of  less  notoriety  scattered  aU  over  the  country,  to  w'hich 
people  in  the  districts  resort  on  pilgrimage.  These  pilgrimages 
are  generally  festivals,  and  continue  often  for  2 or  3 days.  A 
part  of  the  time  is  spent  in  religious  rites,  a part  often  in  trans- 
acting business,  a part  in  hearing  the  Purans  read,  seeing 
shows,  etc.  At  some  of  the  large  temples  the  idols  are  placed 
on  large  cars  and  drawn  round  the  temple.  The  people  have 
then  an  oppoidunity  of  worshipping  the  gods  and  of  manifest- 
ing their  homage  by  drawing  the  cars.  The  brahmins  who  have 
the  charge  of  such  temples,  contrive  many  ways  to  extort 
money  from  all  classes  of  the  pilgrims.  Thieving,  robbing, 
lewdness,  and  all  kinds  and  forms  of  villany  and  wickedness  are 
rife  at  such  places.  Many  lose  aU  their  means,  and  then  have 
to  beg  their  way  home.  The  sufferings  endured  and  the  super- 
stition manifested  on  such  pilgrimages  are  very  great.*  Travel- 
ling in  India  is  slow,  and  in  the  hot  and  the  rainy  months  is  un- 
healthy, and  great  numbers  die  of  cholera,  smallpox,  and  other 
diseases  at  the  places  of  pilgrimage,  and  in  going  and  returning. 

* I have  often  seen  persons  proceeding  on  pilgrimage,  who  measured  the  dis- 
tance 1)}'  i)rostrating  tliemselvcs  on  the  ground,  repeating  every  time  the  name 
of  the  god,  or  of  the  place  to  which  they  were  going.  Such  labor,  fatigue,  and 
sudering  are  believed  to  be  peculiarly  pleasing  to  the  god  and  to  secure  his 
favor.  Such  pilgrimages  are  generally  made  in  the  performance  of  vows. 


THE  NATIVE  TOPULATION. 


397 


Devotees  who  have  become  weary  of  life  and  are  without  any 
social  or  domestic  connections  to  bind  them  to  their  fellow- 
creatures,  sometimes  go  to  such  places  with  the  purpose  of 
sacrificing  themselves.  Some  pilgrims,  who  are  reduced  to  dis- 
tress by  sickness  or  the  death  of  friends,  form  the  same  purpose. 
And  some  persons  of  a superstitious  spirit,  becoming  excited 
almost  to  a state  of  frenzy  by  what  they  see  and  hear,  sud- 
denly resolve  to  devote  themselves  to  the  deity  there  worship- 
ped. In  view  of  such  circumstances,  it  does  not  appear  strange 
that  some  persons  should  throw  themselves  under  the  ponder- 
ous car  of  Juggunath,  or  leap  into  the  most  holy  places  of  the 
Ganges,  expecting  to  go  immediately  to  the  heaven  of  the  god 
to  whom  they  sacrifice  themselves.  Shocking  as  such  instances 
of  self-immolation  are,  yet  to  those  acquainted  with  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Hindus  and  the  nature  of  their  religious  system,  such 
acts  are  only  the  natural  result  of  their  idolatry  and  supersti- 
tion. Such  acts  of  self-destruction  are  less  frequent  now 
than  formerly,  partly  because  there  is  less  enthusiasm  and  fanat- 
icism among  the  Hindus,  and  partly  because  the  English  gov- 
ernment has  enacted  laws  inflicting  punishment  upon  any  who 
shall  aid  or  cooperate  in  such  acts  of  self-destruction,  and  in 
some  places  such  self-immolation  cannot  be  performed  v.’ithout 
religious  rites  and  ceremonies,  which  require  the  aid  and  coop- 
eration of  other  persons. 

PRIESTS  AND  SPHUTUAL  GUIDES. 

The  brahmins  form  the  hereditary  priesthood  in  India.  None 
but  brahmins  can  teach  and  explain  the  Vedas,  and  according 
to  the  Vedas  they  alone  can  properly  perform  any  religious  rites. 
And  any  brahmin  who  has  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  prescribed 
formularies,  can  perform  the  rites  required.  But  many  of  the 
brahmins  do  not  possess  this  knowledge,  and  so  are  not  compe- 
tent to  perform  the  rites  of  their  religion  in  the  manner  required. 
And  further,  in  some  parts  of  the  country  the  right  and  duty  of 
performing  aU  the  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  in  a particular 
vfilage  or  district  was  assigned  by  the  native  governments  to  a 
particular  family  and  its  descendants.  In  such  cases  the  indi* 
vidual  or  families  claim  the  right  of  performing  all  the  religious 

32 


398 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ceremonies,  and  of  receiving  the  remrmeration  for  them  in  their 
respective  village  or  district.  The  governments,  native  and  Eu- 
ropean, protect  them  in  these  rights,  and  if  any  other  brahmin 
should  perform  any  such  rites  in  such  village  or  district,  he  is 
liable  to  prosecution  and  penalty.  The  temples  also  are  always 
under  the  care  of  particular  individuals  or  families,  who  manage 
the  endowments,  if  there  are  any,  and  appropriate  to  their  own 
use  the  offerings  made  to  the  god. 

In  some  instances  the  officiating  priests  in  the  temples  are  not 
brahmins,  but  belong  to  some  of  the  numerous  castes  into  which 
the  shudras  have  become  divided.  This  arrangement,  so  differ- 
ent from  the  precepts  of  the  Vedas  and  the  prerogative  of  the 
brahmins,  probably  had  its  origin  in  a period  anterior  to  the 
brahminical  system’s  being  received  in  these  districts.  It  is 
probably  a relic  of  the  superstition  of  the  primitive  or  aboriginal 
tribes.  Brahminism,  in  its  gradual  progress,  incorporated  into  its 
pantheon  the  local  deities  or  demons,  and  had  continued  to  tol- 
erate usages  and  customs,  which  it  has  not  power  to  extinguish 
or  to  reform.  I saw  many  temples  of  this  kind  in  India.  Some 
of  them  are  large  and  well  endowed.  Brahmins  seldom  wor- 
ship in  such  temples,  and  learned  brahmins  generally  look  upon 
them  and  all  connected  with  them  with  feelings  of  contempt. 

Men  of  different  castes  often  set  themselves  up  for  religious 
teachers,  principally  in  the  way  of  using  and  teaching  mystical 
words  and  phrases,  fortune-telling,  etc.  Such  men  often  acquire 
great  influence  among  people  of  their  own  caste.  They  are  com- 
monly called  GuruSi  and  their  followers  often  worship  them,  say- 
ing, “ they  are  to  us  instead  of  God.”  They  are  supposed  to  ac- 
quire great  influence  with  the  gods.  Their  favor  and  blessing  are 
earnestly  desired,  and  their  displeasure  and  curse  are  exceedingly 
dreaded.  They  often  select  particular  favorites  among  their  fol- 
lowers, pretend  to  impart  to  them  special  instructions,  and  so 
prepare  them  to  become  their  successors  in  spiritual  power  and 
influence.  These  fanatics  and  impostors  have  sometimes  given 
the  governments,  Hindu,  Mohammedan,  and  English,  gicat 
trouble,  and  it  has  been  necessary  to  employ  military  force  to 
restrain  and  to  subdue  them. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


399 


SACRED  DATS. 

The  number  of  sacred  days  in  fhe  Hindu  religion  is  very  large. 
Among  these  are  the  days  of  the  new  and  full  moon,  and  also 
certain  days  in  its  increase  and  in  its  decrease.  Their  name  for 
Sunday,  as  with  us,  is  derived  from  the  Sun,  and  this  is  regarded 
as  more  sacred  than  any  other  day  of  the  week.  Nearly  every 
month  has  some  great  hoKday.  Some  of  them  continue  for 
only  one  day,  and  others  continue  for  2 or  3 and  more  days. 
These  are  observed  in  honor  of  some  god  or  mythological  event. 
Business  is  generally  suspended,  and  people  spend  their  time  in 
religious  rites,  visiting,  amusements,  etc.  On  some  of  these 
days,  the  rites  and  revelry,  and  the  songs  and  amusements  are 
of  a very  exceptionable  character,  and  exert  an  unhappy  in> 
fluence  upon  the  moral  state  of  the  people.  One  of  these  called 
Holee,  which  usually  takes  place  in  ]March,  resembles  the  Satur- 
nalia of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  continues  for  several  days. 
The  amusements  in  which  the  men  engage,  the  songs  they  sing, 
and  the  scenes  which  are  witnessed  in  the  streets  at  these  times, 
are  so  exceedingly  indecent  and  obscene  that  the  native  women 
avoid  being  seen  in  the  streets  or  in  their  houses. 

The  Hindus  are  also  very  superstitious  in  respect  to  lucky  and 
unlucky  days.  Their  almanacs  are  chiefly  valued  for  the  in- 
formation they  are  supposed  to  contain  on  these  subjects.  The 
large  and  small  concerns  of  hfe  are  managed  in  a full  belief  of 
such  lucky  and  unlucky  days,  and  the  trouble,  loss  of  time,  and 
difficulties  which  such  a belief  occasions,  are  among  the  burdens 
which  the  Hindus  suffer  from  their  religious  system. 

ATORSmP,  RITES,  ETC. 

The  Hindus  can  scarcely  be  said  ever  to  worship  the  self-ex- 
isting and  eternal  Sphit.  Some  say  it  is  impossible  to  worship 
him,  as  it  transcends  our  capacities  in  our  present  state,  and  that 
he  does  not  take  any  cognizance  of  worship,  and  not  having 
commanded  it,  so  he  wdU  not  regard  it.  Others  have  a more  nat- 
ural and  common  sense  opinion  on  this  subject  and  talk  more 
reasonably,  but  their  opinions  have  little  influence  upon  their 


400 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


conduct.  Temples  are  never  without  idols,  and  people  if  they 
wish  to  worship,  always  procure  an  idol  or  get  to  one,  if  possible. 
But  when  this  is  impracticable,  they  caU  upon  their  gods  by 
repeating  their  names,  offering  short  petitions,  making  vows,  etc., 
and  they  believe  that  the  gods  hear  them.  INIental  and  spiritual 
worship  is  thus  sometimes  practised  among  them,  but  only  when 
no  access  can  be  had  to  idols.  One  way  of  worship  is  for  the 
worshipper  to  stand  before  the  idol,  fix  his  eyes  upon  it,  join  his 
hands,  and  bowing  his  head,  repeat  the  name  of  the  god,  adding 
perhaps  a short  petition.  Another  way  is  to  perambulate  the 
idol,  bowing  to  it  as  often  as  the  worshipper  comes  before  it. 
Another  way  is  to  prostrate  the  body  on  the  ground  before  the 
idol.  Garlands  of  flowers  are  often  put  upon  idols,  and  offerings 
of  flowers,  fruit,  sweetmeats,  jewels,  money,  etc.,  are  put  before 
them.  All  such  offerings,  unless  designed  to  be  placed  upon 
the  idols,  belong  to  the  priests,  who  have  the  charge  of  the  idols, 
and  are  appropriated  to  their  own  use.  Li  some  instances  the 
idols  on  certain  festival  days  are  removed  from  the  temples, 
placed  on  large  cars,  and  drawn  round  their  temples. 

The  rites  and  duties  prescribed  for  the  brahmins,  if  aU  were 
performed,  would  require  a large  part  of  the  time.  They  con- 
sist of  repeating  the  names  of  thg  different  gods,  reading  the  sa- 
cred books,  ablutions  intermixed  with  many  ceremonies,  repeat- 
ing the  Gayutree  * and  other  mystic  verses,  at  the  same  time 
keeping  the  head  and  body  in  various  positions,  etc.  Few 
brahmins  now  perform  the  whole  routine  of  daily  ceremonies, 
and  many  perform  only  a small  part  of  them.  The  other  castes 
also  have  their  daily  rites,  though  compared  with  those  of  the 
brahmins,  they  are  few  in  number  and  easily  performed.  But 
the  Hindu  religion  is  emphatically  one  of  ceremonies.  Religious 

* Gayutree  is  the  name  of  a holy  and  mystical  sentence,  or  text,  in  the  "fedas 
which  brahmins  repeat  in  performing  their  rites.  It  is  variously  translated, 
as  : — “ Let  us  meditate  on  the  ailorable  light  of  the  divine  ruler;  may  he  direct 
our  intellects.”  “ AVe  meditate  on  that  adorable  light  of  the  resplendent  sun ; 
may  it  direct  our  intellects.”  “ AVe  meditate  upon  the  supercxcellcnt  light  of 
the  resplendent  sun ; let  him  direct  our  intellects.”  “ AA'e  meditate  upon  the 
glorious  sun  ; may  he  illuminate  our  minds.”  They  must  look  at  the  sun,  if 
visible,  when  repeating  the  words,  and  when  the  natural  eyes  gaze  at  the  sun 
the  mind  should  be  fixed  upon  the  Supreme  Being,  to  whom  the  prayer  as  some 
pretend  is  really  addressed. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


401 


rites  arc  enjoined  to  be  performed  at  birth,  or  rather  before 
birth,  and  at  all  the  personal  and  relative  changes  in  life.  Nor  do 
these  cease  with  life.  As  death  approaches,  the  dying  person,  if 
near  the  Ganges,  is  hurried  to  the  banks  of  the  river,  where  a 
part  of  the  rites  is  to  fill  his  mouth  with  water,  all  which  must 
aggravate  his  sufferings  if  it  does  not  hasten  his  death.  If  not 
living  near  the  Ganges,  the  dying  person  must  be  removed  so  as 
to  die  upon  the  ground.  The  Hindus  generally  burn  their  dead, 
though  some  who  have  not  means  to  meet  the  expense  of  burn- 
ing, and  some  devotees  and  lower  classes,  bury  their  dead  or 
throw  them  into  rivers.  The  burning  or  burial  is  generally 
performed  in  a few  hours  after  death.  The  eldest  son  or  near- 
est relation  performs  the  funeral  ceremony.  There  are  few  rites 
at  death  or  the  funeral,  but  for  some  days  all  who  are  nearly  re- 
lated to  the  deceased,  are  regarded  as  in  a state  of  ceremonial 
impurity.  AVhen  this  time  has  passed,  the  near  relatives  as- 
semble, generally  on  the  bank  of  some  river  or  tank,  and  numer- 
ous ceremonies  called  Shradh  are  performed  in  honor  and  for 
the  supposed  benefit  of  the  deceased.  In  some  parts  of  India 
the  number  of  people,  friends,  brahmins,  and  devotees,  who  as- 
semble at  a Shradh  is  very  great,  and  as  all  expect  presents  or 
charity,  the  expense  is  large. 

It  is  usual  to  perform  a monthly  Shradh  for  the  first  year 
after  the  death  of  a parent,  and  once  or  more  in  every  year  a 
Shradh  is  performed  for  aU  their  ancestors.  These  rites  are  be- 
lieved to  be  very  meritorious,  as  well  as  to  give  great  pleasure 
to  their  ancestors,  and  so  great  importance  is  attached  to  per- 
forming them. 

Many  of  the  Hindu  rites  about  touching  dead  bodies,  physi- 
cal impurity  in  men  and  women,  persons  diseased  with  the  lep- 
rosy, etc.,  resemble  the  laws  of  the  Jews  contained  in  the  Penta- 
teuch. The  laws  of  purification  are  also  similar,  as  continuing 
separate  for  a certain  time,  then  bathing,  etc. 

Numerous  atonements  and  penalties  are  prescribed  in  the 
shastras.  The  actions  for  which  many  of  these  are  required,  are 
of  a very  frivolous  character.  Some  of  these  atonements  and  pen- 
alties are  very  severe,  and  others  are  very  light,  when  compared 
with  the  nature  of  the  offences.  Some  of  these  penalties  con- 
sist in  presents  of  land,  money,  cows,  etc.,  to  brahmins,  and  in 

34* 


402 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


performing  menial  services  for  them  ; some  consist  in  mutilating 
and  branding  certain  parts  of  the  body,  in  self-torture,  in  fast- 
ings, sitting  or  standing  in  painful  positions,  etc.  These 
penalties  appear  from  their  inequality,  cruelty,  and  indecency, 
evidently  to  have  had  their  origin  in  a barbarous  age,  and 
among  a very  superstitious  people.  They  are  regarded  as  of  di- 
vine origin,  but  it  is  scarcely  credible  that  they  should  ever 
have  been  recognized  as  the  laws  of  any  country,  or  as  making 
a part  of  any  system  of  religion. 

SACRIFICES  AND  OFFERINGS. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  from  the  early  records  of  the 
Hindus,  that  human  sacrifices  were  sometimes  offered.  In  this 
practice  they  resembled  other  ancient  heathen  nations.  The  In- 
stitutes of  Menu  say,  “ The  sacrifice  of  a buU,  of  a man,  and 
of  a horse  in  the  Kalee  yug  (the  present  age),  must  be  avoided.” 
There  have  been  instances  in  modern  times  in  which  some  fa- 
natics and  devotees  have  secretly  devoted  human  beings  to  de- 
struction, to  appease  Kalee  or  some  of  then-  malevolent  deities. 
But  such  sacrifices  do  not  now  make  a part  of  the  Hindu  re- 
ligion, as  publicly  professed  and  practised. 

The  sacrifice  of  a horse  is  described  at  much  length,  in  the 
Purans.  This  sacrifice  could  only  be  offered  by  Icings  and 
princes,  and  it  is  not  known  that  any  one  has  attempted  to  offer 
it  for  some  centuries  past.  Sacrifices  are  now  seldom  offered 
according  to  the  Hindu  ritual,  which  is  very  prolix  and  expen- 
sive. Buffaloes,  sheep,  goats,  and  fowls  are  offered  at  some 
places  on  certain  festivals,  chiefly  by  the  middling  and  lower 
classes,  and  with  few  rites.  Sacrifices  of  this  kind  are  some- 
times offered  when  cholera  or  other  epidemics  prevail,  to  ap- 
pease the  malevolent  deity,  who  is  supposed  to  cause  the 
disease.  At  such  times  the  blood  of  the  animal  sacrificed  is 
sometimes  sprinkled  in  the  streets  and  places  where  the  disease 
most  prevails.  The  frenzy  that  pervades  people  at  such  times, 
the  rites  they  perform  and  the  means  they  use,  in  the  hope  of 
stopping  the  disease,  or  appeasing  the  malevolent  deities  which 
arc  believed  to  be  killing  their  friends,  are  very  shocking,  and  ap- 
pear truly  diabolical.  They  remind  one  of  what  the  Apostle 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


403 


says : “ The  things  which  the  GentUes  sacrifice,  they  sacrifice  to 
devils  and  not  to  God.”  * 

Burnt-ofierings  called  hom^  consisting  of  clarified  butter, 
boiled  rice,  honey,  and  other  substances,  are  often  made.  Drink 
offerings  called  turjnm,  are  made  at  the  time  of  bathing,  by  tak- 
ing up  water  in  the  hand,  or  a small  vessel,  and  pourmg  it  out^ 
repeating  at  the  same  time  the  name  of  the  god,  or  demon,  or  an- 
cestor, to  whom  it  is  oft’ered.  This  is  a very  common  rite. 

Meditation  (dhan)  is  an  important  part  of  worship.  The 
worshipper  must  assume  a particular  attitude,  carefully  adjust- 
ing his  feet,  hands,  eyes,  etc.  He  is  then  to  meditate  upon  the 
god  he  wishes  to  worship,  calling  to  mind  his  form,  acts,  etc. 
Or  believing  his  own  soul  to  be  only  a part  of  the  supreme 
Spirit,  or  that  his  own  thoughts,  etc.,  are  all  the  operations  of  the 
supreme  Spirit  pervading  his  body  and  aU  the  universe,  he  en- 
deavors by  introspection  to  contemplate  the  Deity  in  the  actings 
of  his  own  mind.  This  kind  of  worship  is  believed  to  be  very 
meritorious,  and  some  devotees  are  believed  in  this  way  to  ac- 
quire great  knowledge  of  divine  things.  The  gods  are  said 
often  to  have  revealed  themselves  to  people  when  thus  engaged 
in  meditation. 

Repeating  the  name  of  some  one  of  the  gods  is  a very  com- 
mon mode  of  worship.  To  assist  in  this  exercise  a string  of 
beads,  pearls,  or  berries  is  prepared,  containing  50  or  100,  or 
some  known  number.  The  worshipper  by  removing  one  of 
these  each  time  he  repeats  the  name,  is  enabled  easily  to  reckon 
his  prayers  and  know  when  he  has  completed  the  intended  num- 
ber of  repetitions.  Some  people  spend  hours  in  this  practice. 
In  view  of  this  practice  and  the  belief  in  which  it  originates,  we 
see  the  propriety  of  what  our  Saviour  said  to  his  disciples, 
“ MTien  ye  pray,  use  not  vain  repetitions  as  the  heathens  do ; 
for  they  think  they  shall  be  heard  for  their  much  speaking.”  f 

The  Hindus  seldom  have  any  prayers  in  which  a whole 
assembly,  or  any  considerable  number  of  worshippers  unite. 
Generally  each  one  prays  by  himself,  and  the  object  of  his 
prayer  is  known  only  to  himself.  Hymns  in  praise  of  the  differ- 
ent gods  are  not  uncommon ; they  are  sung,  or  played  on  rude 


* 1 Cor.  10:  20. 


t Matt.  6 : 7. 


404 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


instruments  by  devotees  and  travelling  minstrels,  but  they  are 
seldom  if  ever  used  by  congregations,  or  any  considerable  num- 
ber of  persons  assembled  for  worship. 

Vows  to  different  gods  are  very  frequently  made,  and  if  the 
contingency  upon  which  they  rest  becomes  fact,  they  are  gen- 
erally performed.  The  Hindus  are  superstitious  on  the  subject 
of  fulfilling  their  vows.  Vows  not  fulfilled,  are  believed  to  in- 
cur the  displeasure  of  the  gods,  and  to  involve  those  who  disre- 
gard them  in  ruin.  Temples  are  often  erected  and  repaired, 
pilgrimages  to  sacred  places,  costly  offerings  to  the  gods,  and 
gifts  tp  the  brahmins,  are  often  made  in  consequence  of  vows.* 

Fasting,  gifts  to  brahmins,  the  building  of  caravanserais, 
roads,  tanks,  etc.,  for  the  public  good,  are  declared  to  be  works 
of  merit,  and  much  money  is  often  expended  in  this  way. 
They  think  much  of  a man’s  name  being  incorporated  with 
such  works  in  public  opinion. 

The  hearing  of  the  Purans  read  and  explained,  is  declared  to 
be  very  meritorious.  Many  brahmins  obtain  their  livelihood  by 
reading  and  explaining  these  sacred  works.  For  this  purpose 
people  assemble  in  the  yard  of  a temple  or  some  private  house, 
when  some  man  will  read  and  explain  some  work  in  course,  oc- 
cupying about  an  hour  for  several  successive  days.  A certain 
compensation  is  generally  promised  at  the  beginning,  and  if  the 
reader  or  lecturer  finishes  the  course  and  gives  satisfaction,  he 
will  obtain  some  addition  to  it  at  the  close.  These  meetings 
diffuse  much  information  concerning  their  gods  and  heroes,  and 
their  actions.  I have  often  been  surprised  at  the  information  of 
people  on  these  subjects,  who  unable  themselves  to  read,  have 

* Parents  sometimes  devote  one  or  more  of  tlieir  children  to  some  deity  by 
vows.  For  instance,  the  children  in  some  family  are  perhaps  sick  of  cholera, 
and  appear  likely  to  die.  The  parents  in  their  anxiety  make  a vow  to  some 
god,  that  if  all  the  children  recover,  they  will  devote  one  child  to  him.  The 
child  thus  devoted  is  generally  a girl.  "When  the  time  arrives  for  fulfdling  the 
vow,  she  is  taken  by  her  parents  to  the  temple,  and  is  married  by  the  priest 
to  the  idol  of  the  god.  This  ceremony  is  an  introduction  to  a life  of  prostitu- 
tion under  the  name  of  being  devoted  to  the  god.  TIic  number  of  such  women 
in  some  districts  is  large.  Some  of  them  live  at  the  temple,  assist  in  the  cere- 
monies, etc.,  and  others  go  wherever  they  please,  but  all  are  devoted  to  a life  of 
prostitution. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


405 


acquired  all  their  knowledge  at  such  public  and  social  meet- 
ings. 

Some  of  the  Hindu  deities  are  malevolent,  or  if  this  is  not 
their  general  character  they  are  described  as  often  indulging  in 
envious,  angry,  morose,  and  malevolent  feelings,  and  some  of 
them  in  intemperance  and  licentiousness  resemble  Bacchus  and 
Venus  among  the  Greek  and  Roman  deities.  This  diversity  of 
conduct  and  character  in  the  Hindu  deities,  furnishes  excuses 
and  reasons  for  any  persons,  who  may  wish  to  indulge  in  intem- 
perance and  hcentiousness ; for  they  can  indulge  in  any  kind  of 
wickedness  and  yet  be  imitating  some  of  their  deities.  StUl,  as 
such  conduct  would  be  opposed  to  aU  general  opinions  of  pro- 
priety and  morality,  it  becomes  necessary,  if  personal  and  social 
respectability  are  to  be  preserved,  to  indulge  in  such  practices 
secretly.  And  there  are  meetings  and  associations  for  such  con- 
duct under  the  name  and  profession  of  religion.  These  assem- 
blies consist  of  men  and  w’omen  who  meet  in  the  night  and 
indulge  in  licentiousness,  intermixed  with  religious  rites  and  cer- 
emonies. At  these  meetings  aU  distinctions  of  caste,  and  aU 
sentiments  of  morality,  propriety,  and  decency,  are  laid  aside ; 
forbidden  things  are  freely  eaten  and  drunken,  passions  are 
indulged  and  actions  are  performed  without  any  sense  of  shame, 
scruples  of  conscience  or  fear  of  consequences,  which  show  the 
depravity  of  human  nature  in  union  wdth  the  degrading  influ- 
ences of  superstition  and  heathenism.  Instead  of  describing 
such  practices  and  rites  it  is  better  to  apply  to  them  the  lan- 
guage which  the  Apostle  used  when  speaking  of  the  heathen 
nations  in  ancient  times  — “ It  is  a shame  even  to  speak  of 
those  things  which  are  done  of  them  in  secret.”  * 

ASCETICISM,  ASCETICS,  AND  DEVOTEES. 

This  state  or  course  of  life  originated  in  the  doctrine  that  the 
soul  is  incorporated  with  matter,  and  that  the  great  work  of  life 
is  for  the  soul  to  obtain  emancipation  from  this  matter,  and  re- 
union with  the  supreme  Deity.  This  end,  it  is  supposed,  may 
be  attained  by  mortifying  and  subduing  elU  those  appetites  and 


* Eph.  5:  12. 


406 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


passions  which  are  believed  to  have  their  seat  in  matter,  or  in 
the  body.  The  Institutes  of  Menu,  a work  wTitten  10  or  12 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  contains  the  following  direc- 
tions to  brahmins  : — “ When  the  father  of  a family  perceives 
his  muscles  become  flaccid  and  his  hair  grey,  and  sees  the  child 
of  his  child,  let  him  then  seek  refuge  in  a forest.  Abandoning 
aU  food  eaten  in  towns,  and  all  his  household  utensils,  let  him 
repair  to  the  lonely  wood,  committing  the  care  of  his  wife  to  his 
sons,  or  accompanied  by  her  if  she  choose  to  attend  him.  Let  him 
take  up  his  consecrated  fire,  and  aU  his  domestic  implements  of 
making  oblations  to  it,  and  departing  from  the  town  to  the  for- 
est, let  him  dwell  in  it  with  complete  power  over  his  organs  of 
sense  and  action.  With  many  sorts  of  pure  food,  such  as  holy 
sages  used  to  eat,  with  green  herbs,  roots,  and  fruit,  let  him  per- 
form the  five  great  sacraments,  introducing  them  with  due  cere- 
monies. Let  him  wear  a black  antelope’s  hide,  or  a vesture  of 
bark ; let  him  bathe  morning  and  evening ; let  him  suffer  the 
hairs  of  his  head,  his  beard,  and  his  nails  to  grow  continually. 
From  such  food  as  he  may  eat,  let  him  to  the  utmost  of  his 
power  make  offerings  and  give  alms ; and  with  presents  of  wa- 
ter, roots,  and  firuit,  let  him  honor  those  who  may  visit  his  her- 
mitage. Let  him  be  constantly  engaged  in  reading  the  Vedas, 
patient  of  aU  extremities,  universally  benevolent,  with  a mind 
intent  on  the  Supreme  Being,  a perpetual  giver,  but  no  receiver 
of  gifts,  with  tender  affection  for  all  animated  bodies.  Let  him 
slide  backwards  and  forwards  on  the  ground,  or  let  him  stand  a 
whole  day  on  tiptoe,  or  let  him  continue  in  motion  rising  and 
sitting  alternately ; but  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset,  let  him  go 
to  the  water  and  bathe.  In  the  hot  season  let  him  sit  exposed 
to  five  fires,  four  blazing  around  him  with  the  sun  above ; in 
the  rainy  season  let  him  stand  uncovered  without  even  a mantle, 
and  where  the  clouds  pour  down  the  heaviest  showers ; in  the 
cold  season  let  him  wear  a humid  vesture,  and  let  him  increase 
by  degrees  the  austerity  of  his  devotion.  Then,  having  reposited 
his  holy  fires  as  the  law  directs  in  his  mind,  let  him  live  without 
external  fire,  without  a mansion,  wholly  silent,  feeding  on  roots 
and  fruits.  Or  he  may  bring  food  from  a town,  having  re- 
ceived it  in  a basket  of  leaves,  in  his  naked  hand,  or  in  a pot- 
sherd, and  then  let  him  swallow  eight  mouthfuls.  A brahmin 


TUE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


407 


becoming  void  of  sorrow  and  fear,  and  having  shuflled  off  his 
body  by  any  of  those  modes  which  great  sages  have  practised, 
rises  to  exaltation  in  the  divine  essence.” 

Such  is  the  mode  prescribed  by  the  highest  authority  for  ob- 
taining complete  and  final  beatitude.  These  directions  may 
have  been  followed  in  the  early  and  purer  ages  of  the  Hindu 
religion,  but  they  are  now  seldom  if  ever  regarded  by  the  class 
referred  to,  namely,  fathers  of  families,  whose  muscles  have 
become  flaccid,  their  hair  grey,  and  who  have  seen  their  children’s 
children.  The  ascetics  of  the  present  age  generally  become 
such  early  in  life,  choosing  this  course  as  an  easy  and  respecta- 
ble way  of  procuring  a livelihood.  They  are  originally  of  all 
castes,  and  are  divided  into  difierent  classes  or  orders,  as  the  gos- 
avees,  sunyasees,  vyragecs,  etc.  Few  of  them  are  learned  and 
some  cannot  even  read.  Some  classes  marry  and  have  families. 
Others  live  a single  life.  These  generally  roam  about  the  coun- 
try, stopping  only  a few  days  in  one  place.  They  generally  live 
in  the  temples,  which  are  always  open  to  them.  They  assemble 
in  large  numbers  in  places  of  pilgrimage.  Some  pass  their  lives 
in  visiting  the  holy  places,  begging  their  support  on  the  way. 
They  go  nearly  destitute  of  clothing,  their  hair,  beard,  and  nails 
are  long,  their  bodies  are  almost  naked  and  covered  vdth  ashes, 
and  their  whole  appearance  is  hideous  and  disgusting.  Then- 
professed  work  is  to  subdue  their  appetites  and  passions,  and  to 
spend  their  time  in  religious  rites  and  in  meditation  on  divine 
things.  But  instead  of  this  course,  their  time  is  spent  in  idle 
talk,  in  smoldng  and  chewing  mtoxicating  and  narcotic  sub- 
stances, and  in  sleep.  They  are  exceedingly  irritable  and  impu- 
dent, have  a ready  use  of  abusive  language,  and  have  generally 
the  character  of  being  licentious.  The  Hindus  generally  appear 
to  have  but  httle  respect  for  them,  and  often  show  contempt  for 
their  religious  profession  and  character.  But  they  have  super- 
stitious fears  of  incurring  their  displeasure  and  of  their  abusive 
language,  while  their  maledictions  and  execrations  are  much 
dreaded.  People  generally  have  some  superstitious  notion  and 
apprehension  that  the  curses  of  such  devotees  cause  or  forebode 
evil.  Some  devotees  inflict  upon  themselves  tortures  of  vanous 
kinds,  as  lying  on  spikes,  holding  their  limbs  in  one  position  till 
they  become  incapable  of  moving  them,  etc.  I have  often  seen 


408  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

and  conversed  with  such  persons.  I believe  these  tortures  are 
seldom  inflicted  on  account  of  any  consciousness  of  guilt,  or  to 
atone  for  any  offence,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  with  a view  of  acquir- 
ing merit.  I beheve  these  classes  of  men  become  ascetics  and 
devotees,  because  it  appears  to  be  an  easy  and  respectable  way 
of  obtaining  a livehhood,  and  that  they  inflict  these  pains  and 
tortures  upon  themselves  to  obtain  respect,  money,  etc.  The  num- 
ber of  brahmins  and  different  classes  of  devotees,  who  subsist  by 
begging  in  India,  is  very  large,  and  their  support  and  the  various 
evils  resulting  from  these  classes  are  among  the  burdens  which  the 
inhabitants  of  that  oppressed  and  unhappy  country  have  to  en- 
dure. Some  of  the  more  enlightened  Hindus  would  be  glad  to 
see  these  classes  of  people  compelled  to  labor  in  some  way  for 
their  support ; they  would  approve  of  the  government’s  using 
some  measures  of  this  kind.  But  such  is  not  yet  the  feeling  of 
the  great  body  of  the  people.  There  appears  to  be  no  remedy 
but  a more  generally  diffused  and  enlightened  public  sentiment 
for  the  numerous  evils  which  have  for  so  many  centuries  afflicted 
the  inhabitants  of  this  unhappy  country.  The  darkness  will 
continue  to  brood  over  it  till  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  shall  arise 
and  dispel  its  gloom  by  his  cheerful  beams. 

THE  FUTURE  STATE. 

The  Hindu  sacred  books  describe  several  different  degrees 
or  states  of  happiness  for  mankind  after  death.  Of  these 
the  highest  state  is  called  Mooktee,  and  consists  of  union 
with  the  Deity,  or  absorption  into  the  infinite  Spirit.  This  state 
is  the  result  or  reward  of  attaining  divine  knowledge.  As  soon 
as  any  man  acquires  a perfect  knowledge  of  Bramh,  it  over- 
comes or  extinguishes  all  sin  within  him,  and  its  influence  upon 
him  ; he  disregards  all  work,  however  meritorious  in  general  opin- 
ion, and  emancipated  from  all  worldly  desires  and  bodily  pas- 
sions his  spirit  becomes  united  with  Bramh,  or  is  absorbed  into 
him,  “ as  a drop  of  water  when  it  falls  into  the  ocean.”  He 
loses  all  personal  identity.  He  is  no  longer,  and  never  will  again 
be,  a conscious  and  separate  being,  and  so  is  not  subject  to  any 
further  transmigration  or  change.  And  yet  this  is  the  highest 
state  to  which  brahminism  aspires,  or  holds  out  to  its  votaries. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


409 


and  the  means  of  attaining  this  state  are  so  exceedingly  difficult 
that  only  a very  small  proportion  strive  for  it,  and  they  live  and 
die  in  the  utmost  uncertainty  of  it. 

The  next  state  is  for  those  who  earnestly  sought  this  divine 
wisdom,  this  perfect  knowledge  of  Bramh,  but  dietl  before  attain- 
ing it.  Such  persons  after  death  are  taken  to  the  peculiar  resi- 
dence of  Bramh  to  dwell  near  him.  They  are  there  endowed 
with  great  capacity  for  enjojuncnt,  can  exercise  some  superhu- 
man powers,  and  “ can  assume  many  bodies  or  only  one,  as  a 
lamj)  can  nourish  more  than  one  wick.”  But  as  they  are  not 
yet  prepared  to  become  united  with  Bramh,  another  birth  at 
some  future  time  will  be  necessary.  The  general  belief  is  that 
after  a period  proportioned  to  the  moral  character  they  have 
acquired,  they  will  descend  to  the  earth  and  have  another  birth 
in  the  brahminical  caste,  or  in  very  favorable  circumstances  for 
perfecting  their  knowledge  of  Bramh,  the  work  which  was  inter- 
rupted by  death. 

The  3rd  and  4th  states  of  happiness  are  in  the  heaven  or 
abode  of  the  gods  called  Swurg.  Some  few  persons  who  in  this 
life  have  performed  works  of  extraordinary  merit,  after  death 
proceed  to  Sivurg  and  reside  there  till  the  close  of  the  present 
kalpa,  when  Swurg  and  all  its  residents,  whether  gods  or  saints, 
will  be  annihilated.  Those  whose  works  in  this  life  have  a less 
degree  of  merit,  will  only  reside  in  Sivurg  till  such  merit  has  been 
exhausted,  and  must  then  return  to  the  earth  to  assume  another 
birth.  The  Shastras  say  that  Yama,  one  of  the  gods,  is  the 
judge  of  mankind  after  death.  His  court  is  on  the  south-east 
side  of  the  earth.  He  has  an  assistant  whose  name  is  Chitragupt, 
and  he  has  also  many  messengers  who  conduct  souls  when  they 
leave  the  body  to  liis  court  for  judgment.  Those  who  have  per- 
formed works  of  merit  in  life,  are  conducted  along  excellent 
roads  to  Yama’s  court.  Heavenly  courtesans  are  now  and  then 
seen  singing  and  dancing,  and  are  heard  chanting  the  praises 
of  other  gods.  Showers  of  flowers  fall  from  heaven.  Near  the 
road  are  houses  containing  cool  water  and  excellent  food.  There 
are  pools  of  water  covered  with  lilies,  and  trees  diffusing  fra- 
grance and  giving  shade.  The  gods  are  seen  moving  about  on 
horses  and  elephants  with  splendid  canopies  over  them.  Or 
they  are  in  palanquins  and  chariots  with  attendants  waiting 

35 


410 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


upon  them  and  singing  their  praises.  Some  of  them  appear  so 
beautiful  and  dazzhng  by  the  glory  issuing  from  them,  that  they 
can  scarcely  be  contemplated.  Yama  receives  the  virtuous  with 
much  kindness  and  respect.  He  gives  them  excellent  food  and 
says,  “ Your  works  have  been  very  meritorious ; you  have  been 
wise,  and  for  the  merit  of  your  deeds  you  shall  ascend  to  great 
happiness.  He  who  performs  such  meritorious  works  is  my 
father,  my  brother,  my  friend.” 

The  place  where  such  are  to  enjoy  the  rewards  of  their  meri- 
torious conduct,  is  the  paradise  or  heaven  of  the  gods  on  mount 
Meru  or  Sumeru.  On  tliis  mount  winch,  in  shape  like  an  in- 
verted cone,  is  believed  to  be  600,000  miles  high,  128,000  mUes 
in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  256,000  miles  at  the  top,  the 
most  prominent  of  the  gods  have  each  their  separate  place  of 
residence  or  heaven.  These  places  are  described  in  the  Purans 
in  truly  oriental  style,  and  correspond  to  other  parts  of  the 
Hindu  religion.  They  are  inhabited  by  the  gods  and  goddesses 
and  by  many  other  beings,  as  musicians,  courtesans,  etc.  These 
places  are  described  as  abounding  wdth  means  and  facihties  for 
aU  kinds  of  amusements  and  sensual  pleasures.  Quarrels,  in- 
trigues, gambling,  drinking,  revelry,  lewdness,  etc.,  are  among 
their  occupations,  pursuits,  and  pleasures.  Persons  who  have 
acquired  merit,  or  the  merit  of  whose  works  exceeded  their  de- 
merit in  life,  are  admitted  according  to  its  degree  to  these  differ- 
ent places  and  pleasures,  and  when  the  merit  of  their  actions  is 
exhausted,  they  must  return  to  the  earth  again  there  to  assume 
another  birth. 

A far  different  state  awaits  the  wicked  after  death.  They 
have  to  travel  688,000  miles  to  the  court  of  Yama.  In  some 
places  the  road  consists  of  stones,  mud,  and  sand,  burning  hot. 
Showers  of  sharp  instruments,  burning  cinders,  and  scalding 
water  fall  upon  them.  They  fall  into  concealed  wells,  grope 
their  way  through  darkness,  and  meet  tigers  and  other  dreaded 
animals.  They  proceed  naked,  their  hair  disordered,  their  lips 
and  throats  parched  with  thirst.  They  are  covered  with  blood, 
they  weep,  wail,  and  shriek  with  pain  and  horror.  They  are  hur- 
ried along,  sometimes  dragged,  manacled,  and  unmercifully 
beaten  by  the  messengers  of  Yama.  At  length  they  arrive  at 
the  court  of  Yama,  whose  appearance  is  terrible,  las  height  is 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


411 


240  miles,  the  hairs  of  his  body  are  as  long  as  a palm-tree,  his 
voice  is  as  loud  as  thunder,  lus  eyes  send  out  flames  of  fire, 
the  noise  of  his  breathing  is  like  a roaring  tempest,  etc.  His 
conduct  towards  them  corresponds  to  his  terrible  appearance. 
Liquiry  is  made  respecting  their  actions,  etc.,  in  life,  and  they 
are  then  driven  from  his  court  to  suffer  each  his  merited  punish- 
ment in  the  different  hells. — No  wonder  that  the  Hindus  have  a 
great  dread  of  death. 

Much  is  said  in  the  Shastras  of  the  future  punishment  of  the 
wicked.  One  Puran  says  there  are  100,000  different  places  or 
hells,  in  which  punishments  of  different  kinds  and  in  different 
desrees  are  inflicted.  Some  of  these  hells  are  described : — One 
is  a hell  of  utter  darkness ; another  of  utter  darkness  and  horrid 
animals ; ^mother  of  burning  oil ; another  of  burning  metal ; in 
another  the  wicked  are  continually  eaten  by  worms  and  other 
reptiles  ; in  another  they  are  tormented  by  redhot  instruments  and 
weapons  applied  to  different  parts  of  the  body,  etc.  The  pun- 
ishments which  are  inflicted  for  particular  crimes,  as  murder, 
adultery,  stealing,  perjury,  etc.,  are  described,  and  more  horrible 
punishments  cannot  be  conceived.  For  instance,  “ He  who  dis- 
regards the  Vedas  and  brahmins  is  to  be  punished  in  a hell  of 
burning  metal  for  3,500,000  years.”  “ The  brahmin,  brahminee, 
brahmacharee,  vaishna,  or  king,  who  drinks  spirits,  shall  be 
thrown  into  pans  of  liquid  fire.” 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  Hindu  lecturers  with  long  pieces 
of  cloth  upon  which  are  delineated  in  glowing  colors,  the 
pleasures  to  be  enjoyed  in  the  different  heavens  as  the  reward 
of  virtuous  actions,  and  the  punishments  to  be  inflicted  in  the 
different  hells  for  particular  crimes.  The  preacher  delivers  a lec- 
ture on  the  future  state  of  the  good  and  of  the  bad,  unrolling 
these  cloths  and  illustrating  his  statements  and  enforcing  his 
exhortations  by  exhibiting  and  explaining  these  delineations. 
Such  lectures  are  interesting  to  the  people  and  produce  a strong 
effect  on  their  feelings. 


THE  TEANSMIGRATION  OF  SOULS. 


iMetempsychosis,  or  the  transmigration  of  souls,  is  a promi- 
nent doctrine  of  the  Hindu  religion.  The  Shastras  teach  that 


412 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

the  spirits  of  all  mankind  were  among  the  things  which  were 
created  several  millions  of  years  ago,  and  that  they  have  ever 
since  existed  in  some  state  or  place  in  the  universe.  So  the 
spirit  of  every  liuman  being  has  been  in  existence  for  several 
millions  of  years.  But  in  what  state,  or  where  he  has  existed, 
what  good  or  evil  he  has  done,  what  happiness  he  has  enjoyed, 
or  what  misery  he  has  endured,  no  one  knows,  for  no  remem- 
brance of  any  previous  existence  ever  remains  from  one  birth 
to  another.  After  death  and  the  judgment,  the  reward  of  the 
good  actions  having  been  enjoyed,  and  the  punishment  of  the 
bad  aetions  having  been  endured,  — or,  as  some  say,  the  excess 
of  the  good  above  the  bad  having  been  enjoyed,  or  the  excess 
of  the  evil  above  the  good  having  been  suflered,  as  the  charac- 
ter of  each  person  may  be,  — the  spirit  retmns  again  to,  the  earth 
for  a new  birth.*  Some  of  the  Purans  say,  and  such  appears  to 
be  the  general  opinion,  that  each  spirit  must  go  through  a great 
number  of  births,  (some  say  8,400,000,)  before  it  again  assumes 
a human  form.  During  this  long  period  it  may  exist  in  min- 
erals and  vegetables,  (for  the  Hindus  believe  these  substances 
are  sentient  beings,)  or  in  insects,  or  reptiles,  or  fishes,  or  fowls, 
or  animals,  till  the  cycle  shall  be  completed  for  it  again  to 
assume  or  enter  a human  form. 

The  sacred  books  inform  us  what  some  of  these  births  -wdll  be. 
“ Sinners  of  the  first  degree,  having  passed  through  terrible  rig- 
ors of  torture  in  hell  for  a very  long  period,  are  then  con- 
demned to  the  following  births:  — The  slayer  of  a brahmin 
must  enter,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  his  crime,  the 
body  of  a dog,  a boar,  an  ass,  a camel,  a bull,  a goat,  a sheep, 
a stag,  or  a bird.  A brahmin  who  has  drunlc  s})uituous  liquor, 
shall  exist  in  the  form  of  a worm,  or  an  insect,  or  a moth,  or  a 
fly  feeding  on  ordure,  or  a ravenous  animal.  If  a man  steal  corn, 
he  shall  be  born  a rat.  If  he  steal  milk,  he  shall  exist  in  the  form 
of  a crow.  If  a man  censures  his  spiritual  guide,  he  shall  be  born 

* Some  Purans  say  that  each  spirit  after  licaring  its  sentence  from  Yama, 
wandei's  about  the  earth  an  mrial  being  or  ghost  for  one  year,  and  tlien  bikes  a 
body  suited  to  his  future  condition,  whether  he  is  to  ascend  into  the  heavens  to 
the  gods,  or  to  suffer  in  liell,  or  to  enter  at  once  into  another  body.  Put  we  are 
not  to  look  for  ('onsistcncy  in  works  wliieh  contain  so  niueli  that  is  unreasonable, 
absiu-d,  and  utterly  incredible. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


413 


an  ass ; if  he  defame  him,  he  shall  be  born  a dog ; if  he  use  his 
things  without  leave,  he  shall  be  born  a worm.  If  a man  violates 
the  bed  of  his  natural  or  spiritual  father,  he  shall  migrate  a hun- 
dred times  into  forms  of  grass,  or  of  shrubs,  or  creeping  and 
twining  plants,  of  vultures,  and  of  tigers,  and  other  carnivorous 
animals.  If  a man  steal  the  gold  of  a priest,  he  shall  pass  a thou- 
sand times  into  the  bodies  of  spiders,  of  reptiles,  and  snakes,  of 
crocodiles,  and  other  monsters  living  in  the  water,  or  of  demons 
living  on  blood.”  “ As  far  as  vital  souls,  addicted  to  sensuality, 
indulge  themselves  in  forbidden  pleasures,  even  to  the  same  de- 
gree shall  the  acuteness  of  their  senses  be  raised  in  their  future 
botlies,  that  they  may  endure  analogous  pains.  They  shall  first 
have  sensations  of  agony  as  in  taniisra,  or  utter  darkness,  and  in 
other  places  of  horror.  Multifarious  tortures  await  them  ; they 
shall  be  mangled  by  ravens  and  owls ; they  shall  swallow  cakes 
boiling  hot ; they  shall  walk  over  burning  sands,  and  shall  feel 
the  pangs  of  being  baked  like  the  vessel  of  a potter.  They 
shall  assume  the  form  of  beasts  and  reptiles,  continually  misera- 
ble, and  suffer  alternate  afflictions  from  extremities  of  cold  and 
of  heat,  surrounded  with  terrors  of  various  kinds.  INIore  than 
once  shall  they  lie  in  different  wombs,  and  after  agonizing  births 
be  condemned  to  severe  captivity,  and  to  servile  attendance  on 
creatures  like  themselves.  Then  shall  follow  separations  from 
kindred  and  friends ; forced  residence  with  the  wicked ; painful 
gains  and  ruinous  losses  of  wealth  ; friendships  hardly  acquired, 
and  at  length  changed  into  enmities.  Old  age  without  resource, 
diseases  attended  with  anguish,  pangs  of  innumerable  sorts,  and 
lastly  unconquerable  death.”  One  chapter  in  Menu,  contains 
266  specifications  of  crimes,  penances,  and  expiations,  but  more 
instances  of  what  the  Hindus  expect  and  dread  in  the  future 
state  need  not  be  given. 

Tliis  doctrine  of  previous  and  future  births,  appears  to  have 
been  devised  or  assumed  to  accoimt  for  the  different  state  and 
circumstances  in  which  people  are  born,  for  the  perverse  disposi- 
tion some  persons  appear  naturally  to  possess,  for  the  prosperity, 
success,  and  happiness  some  bad  men  enjoy,  and  for  the  misfor- 
tunes, losses,  and  afflictions  of  some  good  men.*  The  only 

* ^lenu  says,  “ Men  are  bom  stupid,  dumb,  blind,  deaf,  and  deformed,  to  be 
despised  by  the  good,  according  to  the  various  actions  they  have  performed, 

35* 


414 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


way  they  saw  of  reconciling  these  things  with  the  justice  of 
God  and  his  providence  over  the  human  family,  was  in  the  sup- 
position or  belief  that  the  causes  of  these  things  were  laid  in 
some  former  state  of  existence,  and  that  the  consequences  of 
others  would  be  realized  in  some  state  after  death.  This  opin- 
ion has  in  various  ways  an  unhappy  influence  upon  the  conduct 
and  character  of  the  Hindus.  The  actions  of  the  former  states 
or  births,  are  believed  to  determine  the  events  of  the  present  state 
of  existence,  and  so  this  life  is  the  destiny  of  the  past,  — is  fixed 
beyond  human  conti'ol,  or  divine  interference.  This  opinion  is  a 
kind  of  fatahsm,  and  in  some  respects,  of  the  worst  kind,  because 
while  it  regards  things  as  existing  and  events  as  occurring  neces- 
sarily, it  makes  them  the  consequence  of  actions  in  a previous 
state.  If  any  are  born  bhnd  or  deformed,  or  become  blind,  or  dis- 
eased, or  are  afflicted  in  any  way,  or  suffer  losses  and  calamities, 
these  tilings  are  ascribed  to  sins  committed  in  some  former  state, 
and  this  opmion  that  such  persons  are  only  suffering  the  merited 
consequences  of  their  own  bad  conduct  diminishes,  if  it 
does  not  destroy  sympathy  with  and  pity  towards  them  in  their 
afflictions.  I have  heard  Hindus  of  reputed  sanctity  speak  thus 
to  persons  suffering  from  blindness,  leprosy,  etc.  And  such 
opinions  and  sayings  are  not  limited  to  afflictions,  misfortunes, 
and  losses,  which  come  in  the  course  of  divine  providence. 
These  opinions  are  often  expressed  concerning  wicked  conduct 
and  its  punishment,  that  such  sinful  actions  and  the  punish- 
ments to  be  suffered  for  them,  are  only  the  necessary  conse- 

Penance  must  therefore  invariably  be  performed  to  make  expiation,  since  they 
who  have  not  expiated  their  sins,  will  again  spring  to  birth  with  disgraceful 
marks.” 

This  opinion  existed  in  India  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Solomon  in  Jcru.salem, 
and  it  was  taught  by  Pythagoras,  in  Greece,  some  centuries  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  So  it  must  have  become  well  known  to  the  Jews,  and  probably  sug- 
gested to  the  disciples  the  inquiry  they  made  of  our  Saviour  on  seeing  a man 
who  was  blind  from  his  birth,  namely,  “ Master,  who  did  sin,  tliis  man,  or  his 
parents,  that  he  was  born  blind  ? Jesus  answered,  Neither  hath  this  man  sin- 
ned, nor  his  parents,  but  that  the  works  of  God  might  be  made  manifest 
in  him.”  John  9 : 1-3.  That  is,  this  man’s  natural  blindncs.s,  or  his  being 
born  blind  was  not  owng  to  any  sin  which  he  or  his  parents  had  committed. 
Tlie  disciples  must  have  referred  to  the  man’s  having  committed  sin  in  some 
previous  statu,  and  so  as  a punishment  for  it  he  was  lorn  blind. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


415 


quence  of  former  sinful  actions.  Such  opinions  arc  regarded 
as  an  excuse  for  sins  in  the  feelings  of  those  who  commit  them, 
and  in  the  view  of  others  coneerning  tliem.  So  also  in  respect 
to  prosperity.  If  any  one  is  seen  to  have  remarkable  success 
in  any  kind  of  business,  it  is  ascribed  to  the  merit  of  actions 
performed  in  a previous  birth.  Such  is  the  common  sentiment. 

Such  opinions  have  a natural  tendency  to  prevent  all  grati- 
tude and  thankfulness  to  any  divine  being  for  any  favors  or 
blessings.  They  also  prevent  any  sense  of  guilt  and  penitence 
for  sui,  as  well  as  feelings  of  shame  when  suffering  punish- 
ment for  smful  actions.  They  invest  the  affairs  of  this  life  with 
a kind  of  fatality,  and  produce  feehngs  of  indifference  and  de- 
spondency. And  what  can  be  a more  gloomy  and  degrading 
view  of  the  future  world  than  the  prospect  of  passing  through 
millions  of  births  of  different  lands  of  animals,  or  of  any  kmd 
of  animals,  and  after  attaining  one  human  birth  to  pursue  the 
same  cycle  again  ? And  this  is  the  prospect  and  the  hope  that 
brahminism  presents  to  its  votaries.* 

* The  Ilimlus  show  their  faith  in  this  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls 
by  their  works.  The  early  European  travellers  in  India  mention  seeing  in  Surat 
and  Broach,  institutions  for  the  relief  and  support  of  old  animals,  as  horses, 
cows,  etc.  These  institutions,  with  the  decline  of  the  commerce  and  manufac- 
tures of  those  cities  also  declined,  and  not  unlikely  they  have  become  extinct. 
But  Bombay,  which  has  succeeded  those  cities  in  the  commerce  of  western  India, 
contains  a similar  monument  of  the  faith  and  piety  of  the  same  class  of  the  people. 
Motechund  Amichund,  a wealthy  merchant,  commenced  an  institution  similar  to 
those  above  mentioned,  by  giving  a large  and  valuable  piece  of  land  with  build- 
ings upon  it  for  this  purpose.  Ills  family  and  a large  circle  of  friends  engaged 
heartily  in  the  cause.  Large  accommodations  and  conveniences  were  provided. 
The  superintendence  of  the  institution  was  assumed  by  a committee  of  manage- 
ment, and  it  has  been  in  vigorous  operation  for  many  years.  Horses  and  cattle 
of  all  kinds  which  have  become  old  or  maimed  and  are  of  no  further  use,  sheep, 
goats,  dogs,  etc.,  are  admitted,  and  well  supported.  Some  of  these  are  re- 
moved from  time  to  time  to  a branch  institution  in  the  country,  where  the  expense 
of  supporting  them  is  less  than  it  is  in  the  city.  I often  visited  this  institution, 
generally  in  company  with  friends  who  were  strangers  in  the  city  and  wished  to 
see  it,  and  ha\ing  become  acquainted  with  some  persons  connected  with  it,  I 
several  times  made  inquiries  concerning  the  expenses  and  was  told  that  they 
varied  from  50  to  100  dollars  per  day,  a sum  which  did  not  appear  large  in  view 
of  the  e.xtent  of  the  institution  and  the  number  of  creatures  supported  in  it. 


416 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


SUTTEE. 

Suttee  is  the  name  given  to  the  act  of  a woman  immolating 
herself  upon  the  funeral  pile  with  the  body  of  her  deceased  hus- 
band. This  practice  was  of  very  early  origin.  It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Vedas  and  other  sacred  books.*  If  not  positively 
commanded,  it  is  yet  strongly  recommended.  The  highest  re- 
wards are  promised  to  those  who  thus  sacrifice  themselves,  and 
their  sacred  history  contains  examples  which  exhibit  it  as  the 
highest  virtue.  Krishna  is  believed  to  be  the  most  complete  in- 
carnation of  Vishnu,  and  they  worslup  him  more  than  aU  the 
other  incarnations.  And  of  Krishna’s  numerous  wives,  eight 
burnt  themselves  upon  the  funeral  pile. 

Thus  recommended  it  is  not  strange  that  Suttees  should  be 
frequent  among  a people  who  practise  polygamy,  and  where 
widowhood  is  a state  of  disgrace ; and  it  is  not  strange  that  no 

*The  Rig  Veda  says:  — “ 0 fire,  let  tlie  ■women  ■with  bodies  anointed  with 
butter,  eyes  covered  with  collyrium,  and  void  of  tears,  enter  thee,  tliat  they  may 
liot  be  separated  from  their  husbands,  but  may  be  in  union  with  excellent  hus- 
bands, and  be  sinless,  and  jewels  among  women.”  The  following  arc  extracts 
from  other  sacred  books,  and  writers  of  high  authority:  — “ The  woman  who  as- 
cends the  funeral  pile  with  her  liusband  will  remain  as  many  years  with  him  in 
heaven  as  there  arc  hairs  on  the  human  body.  — The  ■\voman  who  expires  on 
the  funeral  pile  with  her  husband,  purifies  the  family  of  her  father,  her  mother, 
and  her  husband.  — Should  the  husband  have  been  guilty  of  killing  a brahmin,  or 
of  murdering  his  friend,  his  widow  by  burning  herself  with  him,  purifies  him 
from  sin.  — There  is  no  virtue  greater  than  a virtuous  woman’s  burning  her- 
self with  her  husband.  — No  greater  duty  is  known  for  a virtuous  woman  than 
to  burn  herself  with  the  body  of  her  deceased  husband.  — As  long  as  a woman 
in  her  successive  transmigrations  shall  decline  burning  herself  like  a faithful 
wife  in  the  same  fire  with  her  deceased  lord,  so  long  shall  she  not  be  exempted 
from  springing  again  into  life  in  the  body  of  some  female  animal.  — It  is  proper 
for  a woman,  after  her  husband’s  death,  to  burn  herself  in  the  fire  with  his 
corpse ; and  every  woman  who  thus  burns  herself  shall  remain  in  paradise  with 
her  husband  three  croses  and  fifty  lacs  (35,000,000)  of  years.  — If  the  wife  be 
within  one  day’s  journey  of  the  place  where  the  husband  died,  and  intimate 
her  wLsh  to  burn  with  him,  the  burning  of  his  corpse  shall  be  delayed  till  her  ar- 
rival.— If  the  husband  be  out  of  the  countr)'  when  he  dies,  let  the  virtuous 
wife  take  his  slippers,  or  any  thing  else  which  belongs  to  his  dress,  and  binding 
them  upon  her  breast,  enter  a separate  fire.”  Numerous  passages  like  these 
might  be  given. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


417 


Hindu  government  ever  interfered,  so  far  as  is  known,  to  pre- 
vent it.  Indeed,  so  far  from  this,  the  practice  was  chiefly  among 
kings,  princes,  brahmins,  and  the  wealthy.  The  emperor  Acber 
made  a law  forbidding  this  practice  in  the  loth  century.  I am 
not  certain  whether  any  other  Mohammedan  emperors  or  princes 
ever  interfered  with  it  The  rite  appears  to  have  been  practised 
more  or  less  in  all  parts  of  India,  when  they  became  known  to 
Europeans.  The  practice  was  more  frequent  in  Bengal  and  the 
districts  on  the  Ganges,  than  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  No 
records  of  such  acts  were  ever  preserved  by  any  Hindu  or  Mo- 
hammedan government,  nor  do  any  native  authors  contam  any 
estimate  of  the  number  who  thus  immolated  themselves.  Dr. 
Carey  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  made  efforts  to  ascer- 
tain the  extent  of  this  practice  in  Bengal,  and  he  found  that  the 
number  of  widows  w^ho  perished  in  this  way,  within  30  miles 
of  Calcutta,  in  1803,  was  438.  In  1817  the  number  of  cases 
otficiaUy  reported  to  the  magistrate  in  Bengal,  w'as  706.  In 
1818  the  number  was  839,  thus  making  1,545  in  2 years.  The 
number  w'hich  took  place  in  Bengal  from  1815-1826,  or  for  12 
years,  as  officially  reported  to  the  English  magistrates,  was 
7,154.  This  number  includes  only  those  W’^hich  took  place  in 
Bengal.  There  was  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  whole  num- 
ber of  cases  in  the  country.  Mr.  W.  Ward  estimated  them  at 
3,000  annually. 

The  first  interference  of  the  English  government  with  this 
practice  was  in  1813,  when  a law  was  enacted,  forbidding  its 
taking  place  without  the  consent  of  the  local  magistrate,  w^ho 
was  required  to  ascertain  wiiether  it  w^as  entirely  voluntary  on 
the  part  of  the  woman,  and  that  no  improper  means  had  been 
used  to  induce  her  to  decide  on  such  an  act.  If  the  magistrate 
on  inquiry  became  satisfied  that  the  purpose  w^as  voluntarily 
formed,  and  that  no  improper  means  had  been  used  to  persuade 
or  induce  her  to  make  such  a choice,  he  w’^as  then  to  give  his 
consent.  If  any  Suttee  took  place  without  the  consent  of  the 
magistrate,  those  who  assisted  in  it  w^ere  punishable,  and  no 
woman  could  burn  herself  wdth  the  prescribed  formalities  and 
ceremonies  without  the  aid  of  brahmins  to  assist  her  and  per- 
form some  of  the  ceremonies  for  her.  Such  continued  to  be  the 
law  and  practice  for  16  years.  Probably  this  law  did  not  much, 


418 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


if  any,  diminish  the  number  of  Suttees,  while  it  gave  the  con- 
sent and  apparent  approbation  of  the  government  to  every  one 
that  did  take  place  in  territories  where  this  law  was  in  force. 

In  1829,  Lord  William  Bentinck,  then  governor-general  of 
India,  enacted  a law  declaring  aU  assistance,  aid,  or  participation 
in  any  act  of  Suttee,  to  be  murder,  and  punishable  as  such. 
This  law  was  at  first  applicable  only  to  Bengal,  but  it  was  soon 
extended  over  aU  the  territories  subject  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. And  from  that  time  as  often  as  new'  treaties  were  made 
or  old  treaties  renew'ed  with  any  of  the  native  princes,  the  Eng- 
lish governors  and  agents  have  endeavored  to  make  the  abohtion 
of  Suttees  one  of  the  articles  and  conditions  of  such  treaties.  It 
has  been  found  much  easier  to  carry  this  principle  into  effect  in 
their  regulations,  arrangements  and  agreements,  wdth  the  na- 
tive princes  than  was  expected.  Thus  this  horrid  practice,  after 
continuing  for  more  than  3,000  years,  has  ceased  in  nearly  if  not 
quite  aU  India.  Stiff  watchfulness  is  required  in  many  places 
to  prevent  it.  Only  a fear  of  punishment  deters  many  from  en- 
couraging it,  and  the  practice  would  soon  be  revived  again  in 
many  places,  if  the  native  princes,  the  brahmins,  and  others  of 
high  caste,  were  not  fearful  of  the  consequences  of  violating  the 
treaties  and  laws  which  forbid  it. 

The  first  interference  of  the  English  government  with  Suttee 
by  the  law  of  1813,  did  not  excite  much  attention  among  the 
native  population.  But  it  was  far  otherwise  with  the  law  of 
1829.  This  law  ^oon  excited  feelings  of  strong  opposition. 
Happily  the  native  community  in  Calcutta  were  divided  upon 
the  subject.  The  celebrated  Ram  Mohun  Roy  and  some  others 
were  in  favor  of  abolishing  Suttees,  and  used  their  influence  to 
support  the  measures  of  the  government.  But  the  great  body 
of  the  brahmins  and  other  castes  clamored  against  it,  as  an  in- 
terference with  their  religion.  They  called  public  meetings, 
appealed  to  their  countrymen  in  their  journals,  and  subscribing 
a large  sum  of  money  they  sent  an  agent  to  England  to  procure 
the  repeal  of  the  law.  But  their  efforts  were  unavailing,  and 
the  excitement  soon  passed  aw^ay. 

The  rite  or  practice  of  Suttee  is  one  of  the  darkest  features 
of  the  Hindu  religion.  It  probably  commenced  as  early  as  the 
origin  of  the  Vedas,  that  is  14  or  15  centuries  before  the  Cliris- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


419 


tian  era,  and  continued  till  stopped  in  the  manner  already  men- 
tioned a few  years  ago,  thus  continuing  througli  a period  of  more 
than  3,000  years.  Such  a practice  must  be  shocking  in  any 
country,  but  some  customs  in  India  made  it  peculiarly  so  there. 
One  of  these  customs  is  the  early  age  at  which  females  are  gen- 
erally married,  often  when  they  are  not  more  than  7 or  8 years 
old,  and  among  the  brahmins  it  must  be  before  they  are  11  years 
old,  though  they  do  not  live  with  their  husbands  tUl  they  arrive 
at  a state  of  puberty.  Many  of  these  married  girls  become 
widows  before  they  arrive  at  adult  age,  and  among  the  Suttees 
were  many  such  girls  and  young  w’omen.  The  custom  of  polyg- 
amy also  often  made  this  custom  of  Suttee  peculiarly  shocking. 
At  the  death  of  a prince,  or  a kuleen  brahmin,  or  a wealthy  man 
who  had  many  waves,  several  of  them  w^ere  often  burned  with 
his  dead  body.  Instances  are  recorded  of  5,  10,  15,  25,  and 
even  more,  who  thus  sacrificed  themselves.  It  is  said  of  Krishna, 
the  most  celebrated  and  the  most  worshipped  of  all  the  incarna- 
tions of  Vishnu,  that  8 of  his  wives  immolated  themselves  upon 
his  funeral  pile.  What  an  example  did  this  supposed  deity  and 
his  family  present ! The  scenes  which  such  funerals  as  have 
often  occurred  since  the  present  century  commenced,  and  as 
some  people  yet  living  have  seen,  must  have  been  shocking  be- 
yond description.  And  such  sacrifices  are  highly  commended, 
if  not  positively  commanded  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus, 
and  they  are  declared  to  be  the  holiest  and  most  meritorious 
deeds  that  can  be  performed. 

SUICIDE,  MURDER,  AND  HUMAN  SACRIFICES. 

Brahminism,  in  its  polytheism  and  mythology,  its  gods,  god- 
desses, and  demons,  furnishes  a w^arrant  and  example  for  every 
kind  of  enormity,  iniquity,  and  fanaticism.  Some  of  the  cruel 
and  unnatural  usages  of  the  Hindus  originated  in  their  religion, 
and  some  which  originated  in  depravity,  through  the  influence 
of  superstition,  soon  assumed  a rehgious  character.  Other  usages 
originated  in  pride,  lust,  and  avarice  ; yet  men  wall  alw^ays  as 
far  as  possible  conceal  the  true  nature  of  their  vices,  and  cause 
their  iniquity  to  assume  the  appearance  of  piety.  And  unhap- 
pily some  of  the  Hindu  deities  are  of  such  a character  that  men 


420 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

may  commit  almost  every  land  of  wickedness,  and  in  this  very 
conduct  refer  to  the  example  and  claim  the  protection  of  some 
of  these  deities. 

Among  the  sacred  places  in  the  eastern  part  of  India  is  Sau- 
gor,  which  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges.  The  people  of 
that  district  were  in  the  habit  of  maldng  vows  in  times  of  sick- 
ness and  distress  to  devote  a child  or  children  to  some  deity, 
and  these  vows  were  fulfdled  by  placing  the  children  on  the 
shore,  or  throwdng  them  into  the  water,  where  they  were  soon 
devoured  by  crocodiles  and  sharks.  At  times  of  pilgrimage  to 
Saugor  these  murders  were  frequent,  and  23  such  cases  were 
perpetrated  there  in  one  month  in  1801.  The  cases  amounted 
to  39  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The  next  year  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley,  then  governor-general,  passed  a law  “ declaring  this 
practice  to  be  murder  punishable  with  death.’^  The  law  was 
promulgated,  and  a police  force  was  stationed  on  the  place. 
This  measure  entirely  prevented  the  practice,  and  in  a few  years 
the  people  showed  no  desire  to  continue  it  Dr.  Buchanan,  who 
was  then  living  in  Bengal,  says : — “It  is  impossible  to  calculate 
the  number  of  human  lives  which  have  been  saved  by  tliis  hu- 
mane law  of  Marquis  Wellesley.” 

The  Hindus  were  accustomed  to  commit  suicide  in  their 
sacred  places  in  the  belief  that  having  removed  their  sins  by  per- 
forming rites  and  ceremonies,  if  they  should  die  there  and  at  that 
time,  they  would  attain  to  higher  happiness  than  if  they  should 
live  longer  and  then  die  in  some  other  place.  Allahabad  was 
one  of  these  sacred  places.  An  English  officer  saw  16  women 
drown  themselves  there  at  once,  and  Dr.  B.  saw  12  men  drown 
themselves  in  a similar  manner  in  one  day.*  To  effect  this  self- 
destruction  in  the  prescribed  way  it  was  necessary  to  have  brah- 
mins to  perform  the  required  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  also  to 
have  the  aid  of  men  with  boats  in  order  to  reach  the  particular 
place  in  the  river,  where  the  act  of  drowning  was  so  meritorious. 
These  shocking  practices  were  su])pressed  by  making  it  a crime 

* “ Eacli  woman  liad  her  brahmin  who  accompanied  her  in  a boat  to  the  holy 
plaee  in  the  7-iver.  A large  eai’then  vessel  was  then  slung  over  e.ach  shoulder; 
she  descended  over  the  side  of  the  boat  into  the  water,  and  was  held  up  by  the 
brahmin  till  she  had  filled  the  vessels  from  the  river,  when  he  let  go  his  hold 
and  she  sunk  to  the  bottom.” 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


421 


accessory  to  murder,  to  assist  any  one  to  perform  tlie  prepara* 
tory  rites,  or  to  reach  the  place  in  the  river  for  drowning  them- 
selves. This  law  made  self-destruction,  in  the  manner  required 
by  the  shastras,  impossible. 

The  Hindu  sacred  books  in  many  places  encourage  self-im- 
molation, and  describe  such  acts  as  devotion  of  the  highest  kind, 
and  most  acceptable  to  the  deities.  Formerly  such  acts  were  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  different  sacred  places.  The  manner  of 
self-destruction  varied  according  to  the  usage  of  the  place  and 
the  character  of  the  deity  to  be  propitiated.  Sometimes  it  was 
by  drowning,  sometimes  by  leaping  from  the  top  of  the  temple, 
or  some  tree  or  precipice,  sometimes  the  devotee  would  prostrate 
himself  before  the  idol  and  calling  upon  the  god  kill  himself 
with  some  weapon,  and  sometimes  he  would  throw  himself 
under  the  wheels  of  the  car  of  the  god,  and  be  crushed  to 
death. 

The  English  government  has  endeavored  in  many  ways  to  pre- 
vent such  acts.  But  no  government  can  entirely  prevent  them, 
any  more  than  governments  in  America  can  prevent  suicide.  If 
men  or  women  have  deliberately  determined  to  devote  them- 
selves to  some  deity  by  self-immolation,  they  will  find  some  way 
of  accomplishing  their  purpose.  When  the  ponderous  car  of 
Juggunath  or  of  any  other  god  is  moving  along,  drawn  by  hun- 
dreds of  deluded  worshijipers  and  surrounded  by  thousands  of 
gazuig  and  shouting  spectators,  if  any  man  should  suddenly 
throw  himself  under  the  wheels  (as  men  sometimes  do),  no 
power  or  means  can  save  him  from  death,  any  more  than  if  the 
car  was  a locomotive  engine  going  at  its  ordinary  speed  on  a 
railway. 

Infanticide  has  been  one  of  the  barbarous  and  unnatural  cus- 
toms of  India  firom  an  early  period  of  its  history.  This  crime  has 
been  common  among  the  rude  tribes  of  the  Goands  and  Khonds 
in  Berar  and  Orissa,  among  the  middling  and  educated  classes  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and  among  the  Jahrejas  and  Rajpoots, 
the  ancient  nobility  of  the  country,  in  the  north-west  provinces. 
The  rude  and  uncivilized  tribes  have  murdered  their  female 
children  at  birth  to  get  rid  of  the  care  and  trouble  of  bringing 
them  up,  and  the  middling  and  higher  classes  have  done  the 
same  from  inability  to  form  suitable  marriage  connections  for 

36 


422 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


them  when  grown  up.  The  English  governors  and  agents  in 
India  have  done  all  they  could  to  suppress  this  shocking  cus- 
tom. They  have  made  it  a crime,  and  inflicted  merited  punish- 
ment for  it  in  aU  the  territories  subject  to  them.  To  the  rude 
tribes  which  are  but  partially  subject  to  their  government,  they 
have  promised  rewards  and  used  such  other  means  as  appeared 
most  likely  to  be  effectual.  With  the  Jahrejas  and  Rajpoots 
they  have  tried  to  put  a stop  to  infanticide,  as  they  did  to  Sut- 
tees, by  treaties,  agreements,  personal  inffuence,  etc.  These 
means  have  had  considerable  influence  in  diininishing  the  prac- 
tice, and  all  classes  now  know  how  the  English  governors  and 
agents  regard  this  custom,  and  not  knowing  what  the  conse- 
quence may  be,  they  are  more  secret  in  what  they  do.  No 
doubt  the  lives  of  thousands  of  infants  liave  been  preserved  by 
these  means.  But  it  appears  from  some  late  accounts  that  the 
practice  is  stiff  continued  in  some  districts  and  among  some 
tribes  to  a shocking  extent.  The  English  will  no  doubt  con- 
tinue to  use  their  power  and  influence  in  this  work  of  humanity 
and  with  some  success.  But  I believe  the  only  effectual  and 
final  remedy  for  this  unnatural  practice  is  to  be  found  in  the  hu- 
manizing and  enlightening  influence  of  Christianity,  in  refining 
the  domestic  relations,  in  cultivating  the  natural  instincts  and 
the  duties  of  parents  and  children,  in  understanding  the  moral 
relations  of  all  the  human  family  to  each  other,  in  fully  believ- 
ing the  imrnortality  of  every  human  soul  and  the  responsibility 
of  all  mankind  to  God  as  their  Creator,  Preserver,  and  final 
Judge. 

Self-torture  of  various  kinds  enters  largely  into  the  Hindu 
notions  of  religion.  Some  profess  to  renounce  the  world,  its 
comforts  and  its  cares,  and  live  a life  of  voluntary,  self-inflicted 
suffering  in  the  hope  of  attaining  absorption  into  the  infinite 
Spirit,  at  death,  and  so  escaping  any  future  birth.  Others  in  the 
hope  of  deliverance  in  some  time  of  distress,  or  of  obtaining 
some  worldly  good  they  are  seeking,  make  vows  to  some  god  or 
goddess  to  inflict  torture  upon  themselves.  These  tortures  are 
of  various  kinds,  but  among  them  there  is  none  more  frequent 
or  more  unreasonable  than  what  is  called  in  English  hook-siving- 
ing.  This  kind  of  torture  is  juactised  in  different  parts  of  India, 
and  in  the  fulfilment  of  vows  made  to  different  gods  and  god- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


423 


desses.*  I am  not  aware  that  the  government  has  interfered 
with  these  kinds  of  torture  further  than  to  forbid  their  being 
practised  in  certain  public  places.  And  the  government  has 
done  the  same  in  respect  to  some  other  shocking  and  disgusting 
kinds  of  torture,  which  some  persons  at  certain  times  inflict 
upon  themselves.  People  are  often  injured  and  sometimes  die 
under  these  tortures,  and  probably  the  government  will  soon  de- 
clare it  to  be  a crime  and  punishable  for  any  person  to  assist 
another  in  any  such  practices.  They  must  then  cease. 

The  history  of  Thvggism  shows  the  dark  features  of  the 
Hindu  character,  and  how  their  religious  system  can  cover  and 
sanction  the  most  extreme  depravity  and  wickedness.  The 
Thugs  are  men  who  associate  together  to’murder  persons,  gen- 
erally travellers,  for  their  property.  Their  invariable  practice 
was  first  to  murder,  then  to  conceal  the  body,  and  then  to  take 
possession  of  the  property.  The  murder  is  always  committed 
by  strangling.  For  this  work  of  death  they  are  prepared  by  long 
and  careful  training,  and  are  then  initiated  into  it  with  many 
religious  rites  and  ceremonies.  They  worship  the  goddess  Kar- 
lee,  and  believe  they  are  under  her  special  protection.  They 
invoke  her  aid  to  assist  them  to  commit  murder;  they  use 
only  instruments  and  weapons  which  have  been  consecrated  to 
her,  and  they  devote  to  her  a part  of  the  property  they  obtain. 
They  believe  the  rules  and  principles  of  their  business  to  be  of 
divine  origin,  that  this  work  of  murder  and  plunder  is  their 
proper  business,  that  the  signs  and  omens  they  observe  are  indi- 
cations of  the  will  of  their  goddess,  and  that  so  long  as  they  ob- 
serve these  signs  and  omens,  and  so  obey  her,  they  are  sure  of 

* There  are  two  ways  of  practising  or  suffering  this  torture.  One  is  when  a 
pole  20  or  2.5  feet  long  is  set  upright,  one  end  in  the  ground  and  upon  the  other 
end  another  and  generally  much  longer  pole  is  placed  transversely,  and  so  ad- 
justed that  it  can  be  turned  round.  One  end  of  the  transverse  pole  is  then 
brought  down  and  two  or  three  hooks  are  then  inserted  through  the  back  of  the 
victim  and  fastened  to  the  pole.  The  end  of  the  pole  is  then  raised  as  high  as 
it  can  be,  and  is  swung  round,  often  for  some  time,  with  the  person  or  victim 
suspended  by  the  hooks  fastened  to  the  elevated  end  of  it.  The  other  way  is 
when  the  upright  pole  or  post  has  its  lower  end  placed  upon  the  axle  of  a cart, 
which  is  then  drawn  round  the  temple,  the  victim  suspended  aloft  as  before 
described.  I saw  several  persons  (one  of  them  was  a woman)  undergo  this  tor- 
ture of  swinging  on  hooks,  and  I might  often  have  seen  it,  had  I wished. 


424 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


having  her  favor  and  protection,  and  have  nothing  to  fear. 
They  live  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  but  easily  become 
known  to  each  other  by  secret  signs.  They  associate  in  com- 
panies varying  from  a few  individuals  to  a hundred  or  more. 
They  are  sometimes  engaged,  for  months  in  one  enterprise,  and 
in  pursuing  it  will  travel  several  hundred  miles  from  their  resi- 
dence. When  their  company  is  large,  they  often  separate  into 
small  parties,  and  the  better  to  carry  on  their  nefarious  work, 
some  of  them  assume  the  character  and  appearance  of  mer- 
chants, some  profess  to  be  pilgrims,  some  to  be  common  travel- 
lers, some  to  be  masters,  and  others  to  be  their  servants,  etc. 

The  English  did  not  become  aware  of  the  existence  of  the 
Thugs  tin  about  the  beginning  of  this  century,  and  several  years 
passed  away  before  they  knew  enough  about  them,  and  had 
sufficient  possession  of  the  country  to  enable  them  to  engage  in 
any  measures  to  detect  and  punish  them.  A commission  of 
well-qualified  agents  was  at  length  appointed,  and  a course  of 
investigation  was  prescribed  for  them.  This  course  of  inquiry 
was  pursued  for  several  years,  and  was  carried  into  all  parts  of 
the  country.  They  were  found  to  be  far  more  numerous  than 
was  expected,  and  the  result  disclosed  an  amount  of  wickedness 
mingled  with  superstition  and  cruelty,  probably  never  before 
known  in  the  history  of  the  world.  In  ten  years,  1,562  Thugs 
were  arrested,  imprisoned,  and  tried;  328  were  sentenced  to 
death,  1,000  to  transportation,  97  to  limited  periods  of  impris- 
onment, and  from  25  security  was  required;  maldng  1,450  con- 
victed of  participation  in  murder.  Of  the  others  who  were  ar- 
rested, 21  were  acquitted,  11  escaped,  31  died  before  trial,  and 
49  were  admitted  evidence  for  the  prosecution.  As  most  of 
these  persons  had  been  engaged  for  years,  some  of  them  for  40 
or  50  years,  in  committing  murder  and  robbery,  no  calculation 
could  be  made  of  the  number  of  victims  who  had  suffered 
death  at  their  hands.  By  these  means  the  Thugs,  as  a class, 
have  been  broken  up  and  dispersed.  But  they  are  far  from  being 
annihilated,  and  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  government  to  exer- 
cise great  vigilance  for  many  years  to  prevent  their  resuming 
their  former  atrocious  business  under  ihe  protection  of  their  yet 
more  atrocious  deity  — the  goddess  Karlee. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


425 


It  has  been  stated  that  the  system  called  Brahminism  was  not 
the  first  religion  of  India,  and  that  in  some  parts  of  the  country 
it  has  exerted  but  little  influence.  There  are  tribes  whose  re- 
ligion has  but  little  affinity  with  Brahminism,  as  found  in  its 
sacred  books,  its  rites,  and  usages.  Among  these  tribes  the  brah- 
mins have  never  become  the  officiating  priests  nor  the  religious 
teachers,  and  so  there  is  reason  to  suppose  their  religion  has  con- 
tinued essentially  unchanged  for  more  than  2,000  years.  For  a 
long  time  these  tribes,  often  living  in  the  territories  of  the  native 
princes,  or  occupying  the  thinly  settled  and  less  frequented  parts 
of  the  country,  avoiding  intercourse  with  strangers,  and  reserved 
in  communicating  any  information  concerning  their  peculiar 
customs  and  manners,  were  little  known  to  Europeans.  Some 
tribes  of  this  character  occupy  a district  called  Goomsur,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Madras  territoiyq  contiguous  to  Orissa,  and 
have  been  commonly  called  Khonds.  In  1836  one  of  the  agents 
of  the  English  government  ascertained  that  human  sacrifices 
were  sometimes  offered  among  these  tribes,  and  in  1837  a mis- 
sionary from  Orissa  having  become  acquainted  with  their  religion, 
published  some  account  of  these  sacrifices,  in  the  Calcutta 
Christian  Observer,  which  excited  so  much  attention  that  the 
government  appointed  commissioners  to  visit  the  district  and  in- 
quire into  the  state  and  usages  of  the  inhabitants.  The  result 
of  these  inquiries  and  researches  was  published,  and  showed  that 
what  was  said  long  ago,  is  still  true  — “ that  the  dark  parts  of 
the  earth  are  full  of  the  habitations  of  cruelty.”  * 

It  was  found  that  these  tribes  had  a very  gross  system  of 
polytheism.  Their  principal  deity  was  called  the  “earth-god- 
dess.” They  had  also  a sun-god,  a moon-god,  a war-god,  a god 
of  hunting,  a god  of  births',  a god  of  the  smallpox,  a god  of 
rain,  and  many  other  gods.  But  the  centre  of  this  system  and 
the  principal  object  of  worship  was  the  earth-goddess,  and  the 
chief  part  of  this  worship  consisted  in  human  sacrifices.  This 
goddess  was  believed  to  order  the  seasons,  to  send  the  rains,  to 
cause  the  seed  of  all  kinds  when  put  into  the  earth,  to  germinate 
and  grow,  to  preserve  people  in  health,  or  to  afflict  them  with  dis- 
ease, and  to  make  their  gardens  and  fields  fruitful.  She  has 

* Psalm  74:  20. 

36* 


426 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


no  fixed  bodily  form,  but  can  assume  any  form  at  her  pleasure. 
They  make  no  image  and  erect  no  temple  for  her.  Sacrifices  of 
men  and  animals  are  offered  to  her.  Human  sacrifices  are  pri- 
vate and  public.  The  former  are  to  be  offered  when  any  par- 
ticular signs  of  her  displeasure  are  discovered.  The  latter  are 
performed  for  the  common  good,  but  every  man’s  land  must  re- 
ceive some  portion  of  the  flesh  and  blood  of  a victim  at  seed- 
time, and  when  the  crops  are  gathered.  Should  there  be  any 
uncommon  sickness  among  man  or  animals,  a human  sacrifice 
must  be  offered.  And  the  same  thing  must  be  done  if  the  Ab- 
baya  (priest)  or  his  family  are  sick,  or  his  crops  fail,  as  such 
affliction  and  loss  are  regarded  as  an  indication  of  the  displeas- 
ure of  the  goddess  against  all  the  people  connected  with  him. 

These  tribes  were  very  averse  to  disclosing  their  religious 
practices  and  rites,  and  it  was  impossible  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  human  sacrifices  had  been  offered  among  them.  It  was 
found  however  that  “ in  a small  section  of  the  country  300  or 
400  human  beings  were  annually  sacrificed.”  The  English  gov- 
ernment soon  succeeded  in  rescuing  several  hundred  persons 
from  this  horrid  death.  On  one  occasion  124  victims,  all  des- 
tined to  be  sacrificed,  were  delivered  up  to  the  government 
agents. 

The  printed  reports  of  these  agents  contain  particular  accounts 
of  the  manner  in  which  these  horrid  sacrifices  were  performed, 
not  secretly  but  publicly,  the  whole  tribe  assembling  together  to 
witness  the  proceedings,  and  as  far  as  possible  take  part  in  them. 
The  agents  have  been  pursuing  their  humane  work  for  several 
years  with  encouraging  success.  Great  numbers  of  destined 
victims  have  been  rescued  from  a homd  death,  and  at  the  latest 
accounts  there  appeared  reason  for  hopuig  that  few  if  any  more 
victims  would  be  sacrificed. 

The  Hindu  religion  is  thus  graphically  described  by  Mr.  T.  B. 
Macauley,  the  historian,  who  hved  several  years  in  India : — 
“ Through  the  whole  Hindu  Pantheon,  you  will  look  in  vain  for 
any  thing  resembling  those  beautiful  and  majestic  forms  which 
stood  in  the  shrines  of  ancient  Greece.  All  is  hideous,  grotesque, 
and  ignoble.  As  this  superstition  is  of  all  superstitions  the 
most  irrational,  and  of  all  superstitions  the  most  inelegant,  so  is 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


427 


it  of  all  superstitions  the  most  immoral.  Emblems  of  vice  are 
objects  of  public  worship.  Acts  of  vice  arc  acts  of  public  wor- 
ship. The  courtesans  arc  as  much  a part  of  the  establishment 
of  the  temple,  as  much  ministers  of  the  god  as  the  priests. 
Crimes  against  life  and  crimes  against  property  arc  not  only  per- 
mitted, but  enjoined  by  this  odious  theology.  But  for  our  inter- 
ference, human  victims  would  still  be  offered  to  the  Ganges,  and 
the  widow  would  still  be  laid  on  the  pile  by  the  corpse  of  her 
husband  and  be  burned  alive  by  her  own  children.  It  is  by  the 
command  and  under  the  special  protection  of  one  of  the  most 
powerful  goddesses  that  the  Thugs  join  themselves  to  the  unsus- 
pecting traveller,  make  friends  with  him,  slip  the  noose  round 
his  neck,  plunge  their  knives  into  his  eyes,  hide  him  in  the  earth, 
and  divide  his  money  and  baggage.  I have  read  many  exami- 
nations of  the  Thugs,  and  I particularly  remember  an  altercation 
which  took  place  between  two  of  those  VTctches  in  the  presence 
of  an  English  officer.  One  Thug  reproached  the  other  for  hav- 
ing been  so  irreligious  as  to  spare  the  life  of  a traveller  when  the 
omens  indicated  that  their  patroness  required  a victim.  ‘ How 
could  you  let  him  go  ? How  can  you  expect  the  goddess  to  pro- 
tect us  if  we  disobey  her  commands  ? That  is  one  of  your 
north-country  heresies.’  ” 

The  Hon.  M.  Elphinstone,  who  lived  many  years  in  India, 
thus  closes  his  description  of  the  Hindu  deities  and  their  rites 
and  ceremonies  : — “ Such  is  the  outline  of  the  Hindu  religion. 
To  give  a conception  of  its  details,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
relate  some  of  the  innumerable  legends  of  which  their  mythol- 
ogy is  composed ; the  churning  of  the  ocean  by  the  gods  and 
the  asuras  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the  nectar  of  immortal- 
ity, and  the  subsequent  stratagem  by  which  the  gods  defrauded 
their  coadjutors  of  the  prize  obtained ; the  descent  of  the  Gan- 
ges from  heaven  on  the  invocation  of  a saint ; its  falling  wdth 
violence  on  the  head  of  Sheva,  wandering  for  years  amidst  his 
matted  locks,  and  tumbling  at  last  in  a mighty  stream  upon  the 
earth  with  aU  its  train  of  fishes,  snakes,  turtles,  and  crocodiles ; 
the  production  of  Gnnesh  without  any  father  by  the  intense 
desires  of  his  mother  Devi ; his  temporary  slaughter  by  Sheva 
who  cut  off  his  head  and  afterwards  replaced  it  with  that  of  an 
elephant,  the  first  that  came  to  hand  in  the  emergency ; — such 


428 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


narratives  the  quarrels  of  the  gods,  their  occasional  loves 
and  jealousies ; their  wars  mth  men  and  demons  ; their  defeats, 
flights,  and  captivity ; their  penances  and  austerities  for  the 
accomplishment  of  their  wishes ; their  speaking  weapons ; the 
numerous  forms  they  have  assumed,  and  the  delusions  with 
which  they  have  deceived  the  senses  of  those  whom  they  washed 
to  injure  ; — all  this  would  be  necessary  to  show  fuUy  the  relig- 
ious opinions  of  India,  but  would  occupy  a space  for  which  the 
value  of  the  matter  would  be  a very  inadequate  compensation. 

“ It  may  be  sufficient  to  observe  that  the  general  character  of 
these  legends  is  extravagance  and  incongruity.  The  Greek  gods 
were  formed  lilce  men  wdth  greatly  increased  powers  and  facul- 
ties, and  acted  as  men  would  do,  if  so  circumstanced,  but  with 
a dignity  and  energy  suited  to  their  nearer  approach  to  perfec- 
tion. The  Hindu  gods,  on  the  other  hand,  though  endued  with 
human  passions,  have  always  something  monstrous  in  their 
appearance,  and  wild  and  capricious  in  their  conduct.  They  are 
of  various  colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue  ; some  have  many  heads 
and  some  have  many  hands.  They  are  often  angry  without  a 
cause,  and  reconciled  without  a motive.  The  same  deity  is 
sometimes  powerful  enough  to  destroy  his  enemies  with  a glance 
or  to  subdue  them  with  a wish ; and  at  other  times  is  obliged  to 
assemble  numerous  armies  to  accomplish  his  purpose,  and  is 
very  near  failing  after  aU. 

“ The  powers  of  the  three  great  gods  are  coequal,  yet  are  ex- 
ercised with  so  little  harmony,  that  in  one  of  their  disputes, 
Sheva  cut  off"  one  of  Brahma’s  heads.  Neither  is  there  any 
regular  subordination  of  the  other  gods  to  the  three  or  to  each 
other.  Indra,  who  is  called  the  long  of  heaven  and  has  been 
compared  to  Jupiter,  has  no  authority  over  any  of  the  rest. 
These  and  more  incongruities  arise  in  part  from  the  desire  of 
different  sects  to  extol  their  favorite  deity.  But  as  the  Purans 
are  aU  of  authority,  it  is  impossible  to  separate  legends  founded 
on  those  writings  from  the  general  belief  of  all  classes.  With 
all  this  there  is  something  in  the  gigantic  scale  of  the  Hindu 
gods,  the  original  character  of  their  sentiments  and  actions, 
and  the  peculiar  forms  in  which  they  arc  clothed,  and  the 
splendor  with  which  they  are  surrounded,  that  does  not  fail 
to  make  an  impression  upon  the  imagination. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


429 


“ The  most  singular  anomaly  in  the  Hindu  religion  is  the 
power  of  sacrifices  and  religious  austerities.  Through  them  a 
religious  ascetic  can  inflict  the  severest  calamities  even  upon 
a deity  by  his  curse ; and  the  most  wicked  and  most  impious 
of  mankind  may  acquire  such  an  ascendency  over  the  gods 
as  to  render  them  the  passive  instruments  of  his  ambition, 
and  even  force  them  to  submit  their  heaven  and  themselves 
to  his  sovereignty.  ludra,  on  being  cursed  by  a brahmin,  was 
hurled  from  his  own  heaven  and  compelled  to  animate  the  body 
of  a cat  Even  Yama,  the  terrible  judge  of  the  dead,  is  said  in 
a legend,  to  have  been  cursed  for  an  act  done  in  that  capacity, 
and  obliged  to  undergo  a transmigration  into  the  person  of  a 
slave. 

“ The  danger  of  all  the  gods  from  the  sacrifices  of  one  king, 
appeared  in  the  fifth  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  Another  king  act- 
ually conquered  the  three  worlds  and  forced  the  gods,  except 
the  three  chief  ones,  to  fly  and  conceal  themselves  under  the 
shapes  of  different  animals,  while  a third  went  still  further,  and 
compelled  the  god  to  worship  him. 

“ These  are  a few  out  of  numerous  instanc«s  of  a similar 
nature,  all  doubtless  invented  to  show  the  virtue  of  ritual  ob- 
servances, and  thus  increase  the  consequence  and  the  profits  of 
the  brahmins.  But  these  are  rather  the  traditions  of  former  days, 
than  the  opinions  by  which  men  are  now  actuated  in  relation  to 
the  Divinity.  The  same  objects  which  were  formerly  to  be  ex- 
torted by  sacrifices  and  austerities,  are  now  to  be  won  by  faith. 
The  followers  of  this  new  principle  look  wdth  scarcely  less  dis- 
guised contempt  on  the  Vedas  and  aU  the  devotional  exercises 
there  enjoyed.  As  no  religion  ever  entirely  discards  morality'’, 
they  stiU  inculcate  purity  of  life  and  innocence,  if  not  virtue, 
but  the  sole  essential  is  dependence  upon  the  particular  god  of 
the  sect  of  the  individual  teacher.  Implicit  faith  and  reliance 
on  him  make  up  for  all  deficiencies  in  other  respects,  while  no 
attention  to  the  forms  of  religion  or  to  the  rules  of  morality  is 
of  the  slightest  avail  without  this  all-important  sentiment. 

“ It  is  an  uncommon  thousrh  not  an  exclusive  feature  in  the 

O 

Hindu  religion,  that  the  gods  enjoy  only  a limited  existence. 
At  the  end  of  a cycle  of  prodigious  duration,  the  universe  ceases 
to  exist ; the  triad  and  aU  the  others,  lose  their  being,  and  the 


430 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


great  first  Cause  remains  alone  in  infinite  space.  After  the 
lapse  of  ages  his  power  is  again  exerted,  and  the  whole  creation, 
with  all  its  divine  and  human  inhabitants,  rises  once  more  into 
existence. 

“ It  only  remains  to  say  a few  words  on  the  belief  of  the 
Hindus  relating  to  a future  state.  Their  peculiar  doctrine,  as  is 
weU  known,  is  transmigration ; but  they  believe  that  between 
their  different  stages  of  existence,  they  will,  according  to  their 
merits,  enjoy  thousands  of  years  of  happiness  in  some  of  their 
heavens,  or  suffer  torments  of  similar  duration  in  some  of  their 
stm  more  numerous  heUs.  Hope,  however,  seems  to  be  denied 
to  none.  The  most  wicked  man,  after  being  purged  of  his 
crimes  by  ages  of  suffering,  and  by  repeated  transmigrations, 
may  ascend  in  the  scale  of  being  until  he  may  enter  into  heaven, 
and  even  attain  the  highest  reward  of  aU  good,  which  is,  incor- 
poration in  the  essence  of  God.” 

Bishop  Heber,  who  was  some  years  in  India  and  died  there, 
says,  “ It  is  necessary  to  see  idolatry,  to  be  fully  sensible  of  its 
mischievous  effects  upon  the  human  mind.  But  of  aU  idolatries 
which  I have  ever  read  or  heard  of,  the  religion  of  the  Hindus 
reaUy  appears  to  me  to  be  the  worst,  both  in  the  degrading  no- 
tions which  it  gives  of  the  Deity ; in  the  endless  round  of  its 
burdensome  ceremonies,  which  occupy  the  time  and  distract  the 
thoughts  without  either  instructing,  or  interesting  its  votaries ; in 
the  filthy  acts  of  uncleanness  and  cruelty,  not  only  permitted  but 
enjoined  and  inseparably  interwoven  with  these  ceremonies  ; in 
the  systems  of  castes,  a system  which  tends  more  than  any  thing 
else  the  devil  has  yet  invented  to  destroy  the  feelings  of  general 
benevolence,  and  to  make  nine  tenths  of  mankind  the  hopeless 
slaves  of  the  remainder ; and  in  the  total  absence  of  any  popu- 
lar system  of  morals,  or  any  single  lesson  which  the  people  at 
large  ever  hear,  to  live  virtuously  and  do  good  to  each  other.  I 
do  not  say,  indeed,  that  there  are  not  some  scattered  lessons  of 
this  kind  to  be  found  in  their  ancient  books,  but  those  books  are 
not  accessible  to  the  people  at  large,  nor  are  these  last  permitted 
to  read  them ; and  in  general,  all  the  sins  that  a shudra  is  taught 
to  fear,  are  lolling  a cow,  offending  a brahmin,  or  neglecting  one 
of  the  many  frivolous  rites  by  which  their  deities  are  supposed 
to  be  conciliated.” 


TnE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


431 


LANGUAGES,  LITERATLTIE,  AND  EDUCATION. 

The  sacred  books  of  the  PEndus  and  all  their  ancient  litera- 
ture are  in  Sanscrit.  This  language  has  not  been  vernacular  in 
India  for  several  centuries  past.  But  at  some  early  period  it 
must  have  been  vernacular  in  the  territory  along  the  Ganges, 
and  was  probably  understood  in  the  north-west  provinces.  The 
Vedas  are  written  in  Sanscrit,  and  the  Lrstitutes  of  Menu  (wTitten 
in  the  same  language)  inculcate  the  daily  reading  of  these  works 
as  one  of  the  duties  of  the  brahmins,  the  kshatryas,  and  the 
vaishyas,  three  of  the  four  original  Hindu  castes.  We  cannot 
reasonably  suppose  that  this  duty  would  have  been  inculcated, 
unless  these  classes  of  people  understood  the  language  of  the 
Vedas,  and  they  could  not  all  understand  it  unless  it  was  their 
vernacular  language. 

Sanscrit  became  the  depository  of  the  brahminical  system  of 
religion,  and  of  all  the  ancient  Hindu  literature,  and  it  continued 
to  be  imderstood  and  wnitten  by  the  learned,  as  the  Latin  was  in 
Europe,  long  after  it  had  ceased  to  be  vernacular  with  any 
class  of  people.  The  Sanscrit  is  a higlily  polished  language. 
Sir  William  Jones  says : “ It  is  a language  of  wonderful  struc- 

ture, more  perfect  than  the  Greek,  more  copious  than  the  Latin, 
and  more  exquisitely  refined  than  either.”  Halhed  says  : — “As 
a language  it  is  very  copious  and  nervous,  and  far  exceeds  the 
Greek  and  Arabic  in  the  regularity  of  its  etymology.”  Chezey 
calls  it  “ the  celebrated  dialect,  perhaps  spoken  by  the  gods  of 
Homer ; if  not,  worthy  to  be  so.”  Professor  H.  H.  Wilson,  pro- 
fessor of  Sanscrit  in  Oxford  University,  says : “ The  music  of 
Sanscrit  composition  must  ever  be  inadequately  expressed  by 
any  other  tongue.”  Similar  opinions  have  also  been  expressed 
by  Adelung,  Talboys,  Bournouff,  Bopp,  and  other  distinguished 
orientalists. 

The  Sanscrit  language  has  not  been  vernacular  in  any  part  of 
India  for  some  centuries  past,  and  there  are  no  means  of  ascer- 
taining at  what  period  it  ceased  to  be  used.  It  has  continued  to 
be  studied,  and  some  knowledge  of  it  has  always  been  regarded 
as  necessary  for  the  character  of  a well-educated  brahmin.  Not 
oidy  are  all  their  sacred  books  written  in  Sanscrit,  but  estab- 


432 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


lished  usage,  if  no  higher  authority,  has  made  it  necessary  that 
all  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Hindu  religion  should  be  per- 
formed in  this  language,  just  as  the  ritual  and  services  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  are  to  be  performed  in  Latin.  So  no 
brahmin  can  be  qualified  or  competent,  without  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  Sanscrit  language,  to  perform  the  duties  of  a priest 
for  his  own  nation. 

The  Sanscrit  language  has  been  the  repository  from  which 
nearly  all  the  theological,  scientific,  and  technical  words  and 
terms  in  the  vernacular  languages  have  been  taken.  And  as 
these  languages  become  cultivated,  and  new  works  of  science 
and  literature  are  produced  in  them,  the  new  terms  required  in 
such  works  will  be  obtained  as  far  as  possible,  from  the  Sanscrit. 
So  this  language,  containing  as  it  already  does,  and  furnishing 
as  it  will  in  future,  the  most  important  words  and  terms  in  the 
vernacular  languages,  will  long  if  not  always,  make  an  impor- 
tant and  interesting  part  of  a hberal  education  over  all  India. 

The  Sanscrit  language  contains  a large  amount  of  hterature, 
and  great  expectations  were  once  entertained  in  Europe  con- 
cerning its  supposed  value.  This  hterature  has  been  examined 
so  far  as  is  necessary  to  ascertain  its  character  and  value,  and 
the  expectations  once  cherished  have-not  been  reahzed.  The 
hterature  includes  grammars,  dictionaries,  and  works  on  many 
different  subjects,  but  ah  are  of  but  httle  practical  value.  In- 
deed, it  is  an  interesting  fact  in  the  history  of  India  that  it  should 
have  an  ancient  language  so  highly  pohshed  and  containing  so 
much  hterature,  and  yet  of  so  httle  practical  use.  Many  Sans- 
crit works  have  been  printed  in  India  and  in  Europe,  and 
translations  of  them  have  been  made  and  pubhshed  in  the  Eng- 
hsh,  the  French,  and  the  German  languages.  It  was  lately  said 
in  an  article  on  Sanscrit  hterature,  and  the  attention  bestowed 
upon  it  in  Germany,  that  there  are  at  least  two  thousand  men 
in  that  country  who  understand  the  Sanscrit  language. 

There  is  no  prospect  of  this  language  ever  again  coming  into 
vernacular  use,  any  more  than  there  is  that  the  Latin  will  again 
become  a vernacular  language  in  Europe.  But  the  connection 
of  Sanscrit  with  the  vernacular  languages  of  India,  and  the  es- 
timation in  which  a knowledge  of  it  is  held,  will  probably  al- 
ways make  it  a branch  of  education  in  the  universities  and  col- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


433 


legos  of  the  country,  and  some  knowledge  of  it  will  be  deemed 
essential  to  a well-educated  Hindu.* 

The  general  opinion  has  been  that  the  vernacular  languages 
of  India  are  to  considerable  extent  derived  from  the  Sanscrit 
and  founded  upon  it,  that  the  latter  sustains  to  them  a relation 
somewhat  similar  to  what  the  Latin  sustains  to  the  modern  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  Some  orientalists  have  been  of  the  opinion 
that  some  of  the  southern  languages  of  the  peninsula  were  orig- 
inal and  independent  languages,  but  that  the  languages  of  the 
northern  and  central  parts  were  derived  from  the  Sanscrit.  But 
the  more  reasonable  opinion  appears  to  be  that  the  present  ver- 
nacular languages  of  India  were  the  languages  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  brahminical  sys- 
tem of  religion.  Tlie  sacred  books  of  this  system  were  in  the 
Sanscrit,  and  many  of  its  rites  and  ceremonies  must  be  per- 
formed in  this  language.  And  as  this  system  of  religion,  with 
its  distinctions  of  caste,  etc.,  spread  over  the  country,  carrying 
with  it  and  diffusing  around  it  a higher  kind  of  civUization, 
many  religious  terms  and  other  words  of  Sanscrit  became  incor- 
porated in  the  vernacular  languages.  Thus  it  appears  to  be 
more  reasonable  to  believe  that  the  vernacular  languages  of  In- 
dia, instead  of  being  derived  from  the  Sanscrit  and  founded 
upon  it,  existed  there  before  the  Sanscrit  was  introduced,  and 
that  this  language  was  superinduced  upon  them.  Thus  in  the 
spread  of  the  brahminical  religion  and  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion, many  of  its  words,  technical  terms,  and  peculiar  phrases,  be- 
came incorporated  with  the  languages  previously  in  use. 

The  general  opinion  concerning  the  social  state  and  religious 
character  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  India,  and  also  how 
the  brahminical  system  of  religion  was  introduced,  have  been 
mentioned.  The  primitive  inhabitants  must  have  had  a vernac- 
ular language  or  languages,  and  it  is  in  accordance  with  what  is 
known  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  America  and  Africa,  to  suppose 
that  these  languages  in  India  wnre  numerous  and  distinct.  How 
far  they  were  cultivated,  and  whether  all  of  them  were  writ- 
ten, and  what  literature  they  had,  is  now  unknown.  The  brah- 
minical system  was  the  religion  of  a nation  who  came  ffom  the 


* Appendix  B. 

37 


434 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


west,  or  north-west,  and  for  considerable  time  occupied  the 
north-west  provinces,  and  the  country  along  the  Ganges.  San- 
scrit was  the  vernacular  language  of  this  nation,  or  these 
tribes,*  then  consisting  of  the  brahmins,  or  hereditary  priest- 
hood, the  kshatryas,  or  military  class,  and  the  vaishyas,  or  mer- 
cantile class.  The  shudras,  if  there  was  then  any  such  class, 
were  in  a state  of  servitude.  This  invading  nation,  as  they 
extended  their  conquests  and  their  religion,  appear  to  have 
included  the  people  of  the  country  in  the  fourth  class,  if  there 
was  previously  any  such  class  among  them,  and  perhaps  the 
fourth  class  was  originated  to  include  only  the  conquered 
aborigines.  In  the  great  valley  of  the  Ganges,  the  brahmini- 
cal  system  became  matured,  and  the  early  and  most  celebrated 
works  of  Sanscrit  literature  were  there  produced.  Probably  its 
vernacular  use  was  limited  to  these  districts,  and  even  there  it 
may  have  been  confined  to  the  higher  classes.-)-  Li  the  course  of 
time  the  brahmins  succeeded  in  becoming  the  depositories  of  the 
Vedas,  and  the  kshatryas,  and  vaishyas  lost  their  relative  posi- 
tion in  the  scale  of  caste.  J Such  a change  would  increase  the 
power  of  the  brahmins,  and  yet  more  restrict  the  use  of  the  San- 
scrit language,  while  it  would  also  increase  the  use,  and  elevate 
the  character  of  the  vernacular  languages.  The  brahmins,  with 
their  peculiar  and  generally  acloiowledged  claims  of  caste, 
forming  a numerous,  learned,  and  united  priesthood,  the  sole 
depositories  and  expounders  of  their  sacred  books,  and  alone 
qualified  to  perform  any  part  of  their  mystical  and  complicated 
ritual,  possessed  such  means  and  motives  to  propagate  their 

* This  appears  from  the  Institutes  of  Menu,  making  it  the  duty  of  these 
three  classes  daily  to  study  the  Vedas,  which  were  in  the  Sanscrit  language. 

f Some  of  the  Hindu  dramas  furnish  e\-idence  that  the  knowledge  and  use 
of  the  Sanscrit  language  was  thus  limited.  These  dramas  were  written  to  be 
performed  before  the  courts  of  the  kings  and  princes  ; all  the  parts  spoken  by 
the  learned  are  in  Sanscrit,  but  when  servants  and  persons  of  low  caste  are  in- 
troduced, they  perform  their  parts  in  the  vernacular  language,  each  class  thus 
using  the  language  which  was  appropriate  to  the  character  they  represented. 

f Some  of  the  Purans  say  these  castes  were  annihilated  in  a war  in  which 
Pursuram,  a brahmin,  was  tlic  hero.  It  appears  more  probable  that  they  were 
degraded  from  their  social  or  caste  position  in  some  revolution  in  which  he 
acted  a conspicuous  part.  Pursuram  is  considered  one  of  the  incarnations  of 
Vishnu. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


435 


system  as  no  other  body  of  men  ever  had.  And  as  their  system 
of  religion  and  castes  became  extended,  carrying  its  new  doc- 
trines, rites,  and  usages  with  it,  new  words  and  terms  would  be- 
come necessary  in  the  vernacular  languages,  and  these  would 
naturally  be  taken  or  transferred  from  the  books  containing  the 
religion  which  the  people  had  embraced.  The  progressive  civili- 
zation of  the  people  would  make  it  necessary  to  enrich  their 
languages  with  new  words  and  phrases,  and  these  would  natu- 
rally be  taken  from  the  language  and  literature  of  the  people 
with  whom  they  were  most  in  connection,  and  from  whom  they 
chiefly  received  and  were  still  receiving  their  civilization.  It  is 
easy  to  see  how  in  these  ways  the  vernacular  languages  have  got 
many  Sanscrit  words  and  phrases,  and  yet  not  be  derived  from, 
nor  founded  upon,  that  language.  It  appears  probable  that 
some  and  perhaps  all  the  present  vernacular  languages  of  India, 
were  in  use  there  when  the  Sanscrit  was  carried  into  that  coun- 
try, and  that  the  Sanscrit  words,  terms,  and  phrases  they  now 
have,  were  received  in  connection  with  their  religion,  civilization, 
philosophy,  etc.,  in  the  same  manner  that  barbarous  nations 
have  always  borrowed  largely  from  the  languages  of  those  na- 
tions by  whom  they  have  been  Christianized  and  civilized. 

There  has  been  some  difference  of  opinion  in  respect  to  the 
number  of  languages  now  in  use,  as  what  some  orientalists 
reckon  different  languages,  others  call  only  dialects,  and  believe 
will  not  be  perpetuated  as  distmet  languages.  The  following  ap- 
pear to*  differ  from  each  other  enough  to  be  called  distinct  lan- 
guages, namely,  the  Tamul,  the  Canarese,  the  Teloogoo,  the  Mah- 
ratta,  the  Oriya  or  Orissa,  the  Bengalee,  the  Hindui,  the  Gujerat- 
tee,  the  Scinde,  the  Punjaubee,  and  the  Hindustanee.  This  may 
appear  a large  number  of  languages  to  be  in  use  in  one  country. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  India  is  as  large  in  extent,  and 
contains  nearly  as  large  a population  as  all  Europe  south  of 
Russia  and  the  Baltic  Sea.  Could  we  contemplate  India  as  it 
was  for  1000  or  1500  years  previous  to  the  Mohammedan  inva- 
sion, we  should  see  an  assemblage  of  10  or  12  different  and 
independent  nations,  each  vdth  its  own  government,  laws,  lan- 
guage, literatm-e,  etc.  The  INIohammedans  gradually  extended 
their  power  over  these  nations  till  nearly  all  India  was  subject 
to  the  emperors  of  Delhi.  The  native  dynasties  \vere  extin- 


436 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEEN. 


guished,  and  the  kingdoms  became  provinces  of  an  empire 
under  governors  or  deputies.  In  this  way  the  pohtical  state 
and  relations  of  the  country  were  entirely  changed.  India,  in- 
stead of  exhibiting  an  assemblage  of  separate  nations,  each  with 
its  own  king,  laws,  etc.,  became  an  empire  under  one  political 
head,  and  divided  into  provinces  under  governors. 

But  though  the  political  state  of  the  country  and  the  relations 
of  the  people  had  become  changed,  yet  they  stih  hved  in  the 
same  tendtories,  used  the  same  languages  and  customs,  and  to 
a great  extent  they  retained  the  same  religion  as  they  had  when 
they  were  independent  nations,  and  such  continued  to  be  their 
state  while  subject  to  the  emperors  of  Dellii.  And  in  these  re- 
spects there  was  little  change  when  the  English  power  was 
extended  over  the  country.  The  territories  within  which  any 
language  is  now  used,  shows  with  very  httle  variation  tlie  hmits 
of  its  ancient  kingdom.  Thus  the  territory  in  wliich  the  Tamul 
language  is  vernacular,  shows  the  limits  of  the  ancient  Tamul 
kingdom.  So  the  territories  or  districts  in  which  the  Canarese 
language,  the  Teloogoo  language,  etc.,  are  vernacular,  show  the 
limits  of  their  ancient  kingdoms  respectively.  And  the  ten  ito- 
ries  in  which,  and  the  population  by  which  these  different  lan- 
guages are  used,  are  nearly  or  quite  as  large  on  an  average,  as 
the  kingdoms  and  population  of  Europe  are,  when  compared 
with  the  number  of  languages  there  used. 

The  Tamul  is  more  refined  and  polished,  and  it  contains 
more  literature  than  any  other  vernacular  language  in  India. 
The  ancient  kings  of  this  nation  appear  to  have  encouraged 
learning  and  learned  men  at  their  court,  and  these  men  wrote 
their  works  in  the  Tamul  language.  Learned  men  of  the 
same  age  at  the  other  native  courts  and  over  India  generally, 
wrote  their  works  in  Sanscrit,  as  the  learned  men  of  Europe,  in 
the  middle  ages,  wrote  in  Latin.  The  other  vernacular  lan- 
guages contain  but  little  literature  of  native  origin.  What  they 
have,  consists  of  fragments  of  history,  translations  of  some  San- 
scrit works,  songs,  almanacs,  etc.  The  English  government  in 
carrying  out  its  system  of  education,  has  encouraged  the  prepa- 
ration of  original  works  and  translations  in  the  vernacular  lan- 
guages, and  many  valuable  books  have  been  printed  within  a 
few  years  past.  The  Education,  Missionary,  and  Book  Socie- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


437 


ties,  are  also  doing  much  to  create  a useful  vernacular  litera- 
ture. The  works  which  have  been  prepared  and  printed  in  the 
languages  of  India  within  25  or  30  years  past,  are  more  in  num- 
ber and  value  than  all  which  had  ever  been  written  and  printed 
in  them  previous  to  that  time. 

Nearly  all  these  languages  have  different  alphabets.  Some 
of  these  alphabets  are  capable  by  their  single  and  double  letters 
of  expressing  a great  variety  of  sounds,  making  the  language 
soft  and  musical.  But  some  of  them  are  harsh  and  guttural. 
Efforts  have  been  made  to  substitute  the  use  of  Roman  letters  in 
all  the  vernacular  languages,  and  so  have  only  one  instead  of  8 
or  10  different  alphabets.  Some  books  in  Bengal  were  printed 
in  this  way.  But  this  innovation,  though  it  had  zealous  advo- 
cates for  a while,  did  not  meet  with  much  favor  ; and  for  obvi- 
ous reasons  — the  sounds  of  many  letters  and  words,  proper 
names  as  well  as  other  words,  cannot  be  properly,  scarcely  intel- 
ligibly, expressed  by  the  Roman  letters,  at  least  not  by  any 
sounds  which  these  have,  in  the  English  or  any  modern  lan- 
guage. 

The  number  of  different  languages  in  India  occasions  more 
difficulty  to  Europeans  than  to  the  native  population.  The  latter 
experience  no  more  inconvenience  from  these  than  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Europe  do  from  the  number  and  difference  of  languages 
there  used.  In  India  the  languages  of  districts  bordering  on 
each  other  are  easily  acquired  by  the  inhabitants  so  far  as  they 
have  occasion  to  use  them.  In  the  cities  where  2 or  3 languages 
are  used,  people  who  use  the  same  language  generally  live  in 
one  part  of  the  city,  and  their  social  intercourse  is  among  them- 
selves. And  men  of  general  business  easily  acquire  as  much 
knowledge  of  each  language  as  they  require.  Europeans  trav- 
elling or  often  changing  their  place  of  residence  in  India,  have 
found  so  much  difficulty  from  these  different  languages  that  the 
importance  of  making  some  one  of  these  supersede  the  others 
and  become  the  common  language  of  the  country,  has  several 
times  been  urged  upon  the  public  and  upon  the  government. 
But  this  course  would  not  be  found  to  be  practicable,  nor  would 
the  anticipated  effect  be  realized. 

The  native  princes,  Mohammedan  and  Hindu,  often  gave 
salaries  and  pensions  to  men  of  reputed  learning  and  piety. 

37* 


438  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

By  such  means  they  secured  the  influence  of  these  men  and 
their  friends.  Such  men  in  return  for  the  favors  they  received, 
were  expected  to  celebrate  the  virtues  and  actions  of  their  sover- 
eigns. But  the  princes  of  India  did  little  or  nothing  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  common  people.  Education  in  reading,  writing, 
etc.,  was  regarded  generally  as  a qualification  for  business,  like 
the  mechanical  trades  of  carpentry,  masonry,  etc.  Those  who 
aimed  to  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  government,  or  to 
become  merchants  or  shopkeepers,  endeavored  to  obtain  the 
education  required  for  the  work  in  view.  And  some  education 
was  generally  regarded  as  essential  to  the  personal  respectability 
and  influence  of  the  brahmins.  So  schools  supported  by  fees 
were  frequent  in  the  cities,  towns,  and  large  villages.  These 
schools  were  seldom  well  managed,  and  the  education  acquired 
in  them  was  often  very  imperfect,  barely  enough  to  transact  the 
ordinary  business  of  keeping  accounts.  But  the  great  body  of 
the  people  had  no  education.  Till  recently  education  was 
scarcely  known  among  women,  and  of  the  men  in  some  districts 
perhaps  1 in  5 could  read,  but  in  other  districts  not  1 in  20  could 
read.  And  so  long  as  there  were  no  papers  or  journals  or 
books  of  any  interest  or  utility  to  read,  there  was  but  little  mo- 
tive for  taking  the  trouble  or  being  at  the  expense  of  learning. 

The  native  population  now  use  the  press  with  vigor  and  en- 
terprise. The  number  of  papers  and  journals  printed  in  the  ver- 
nacular languages  in  the  difierent  parts  of  India  is  now  large. 
These  papers  are  often  badly  managed,  and  yet  worse  supported  ; 
still  tliey  awaken  the  native  mind  and  diffuse  some  useful  infor- 
mation. The  native  presses  also  issue  books  of  all  kinds,  which 
appear  likely  to  sell  so  as  to  secure  remuneration.  Such  papers 
and  books  make  people  feel  the  importance  of  education,  and 
are  contributing  to  promote  it.  These  causes  in  connection 
with  the  course  the  English  government  is  now  pursuing,  and 
the  numerous  mission  schools  and  educational  institutions, 
open  a brighter  prospect  for  India. 

COMMERCE. 

The  commerce  of  India,  both  external  and  internal,  is  large. 
It  is  carried  on  with  China,  and  the  other  countries  and  islands 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


439 


east  and  south-east  from  India,  on  a large  scale.  This  trade  is 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  merchants  of  India.  The  vessels 
have,  generally,  European  officers  and  native  crews.  The 
two  principal  articles  of  export  to  China  are  cotton  and  opium. 
The  countries  bordering  on  the  Indus,  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  also  carry  on  a large  trade 
with  India.  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  are  the  principal 
ports  of  the  foreign  trade.  There  is  also  much  trade  at  the  nu- 
merous smaller  ports  on  the  eastern  and  western  coast  of  the 
peninsula.  The  trade  between  India  and  Europe  is  chiefly  car- 
ried on  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  There  has  been  much 
speculation  and  calculation  about  ways  and  means  for  carrying 
on  the  trade  between  India  and  Europe  by  the  Rea  Sea,  Egypt, 
and  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  for  a few  years  past  small 
quantities  of  valuable  goods  have  been  transmitted  by  that  way 
in  the  steam-ships  which  carry  the  mails.  Whether  any  canal 
between  the  Red  and  the  Mediterranean  Seas  across  the  isthmus 
of  Suez,  or  any  railroad  between  the  same  seas  via  Cairo, 
will  hereafter  restore  the  trade  of  the  southern  countries  of  Asia 
with  Europe  and  the  western  countries  of  Asia  to  its  former 
channel,  remains  to  be  seen.  It  appears  to  be  the  opinion  of 
those  who  have  given  most  consideration  to  this  subject,  that 
even  if  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  should  be  united 
by  a canal  or  railroad,  stfll  the  greatest  part  of  the  trade  be- 
tween the  southern  countries  of  Asia  and  the  western  countries 
of  Europe  wiU  always  be  carried  on  romid  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

The  internal  trade  of  India  is  large,  but  it  is  not  so  gi-eat  as 
might  naturally  be  expected,  considering  the  variety  of  its  cli- 
mate, soil,  and  productions.  The  streams  do  not  afford  so  many 
facilities  for  trade  as  might  naturally  be  expected  in  so  large  a 
country.  The  rivers  of  the  peninsula  in  the  rainy  season  are 
much  swollen  and  their  currents  are  rapid,  and  in  the  dry  season 
they  are  shallow,  and  have  many  sand-banks  in  their  course  and 
at  their  mouths.  These  obstacles  make  the  rivers  of  the  penin- 
sula and  also  the  Taptee  and  the  Nerbudda  of  little  use  for  com- 
merce. The  Ganges,  the  Brahmaputra,  and  the  Indus  are  noble 
rivers,  but  navigation  upon  them  is  much  impeded  by  inunda- 
tions, currents,  changes  in  their  channels,  and  sand-banks. 


440  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

There  are  steamboats  on  the  rivers,  but  the  results  expected  from 
them  have  not  been  yet  realized.  The  railroads  now  in  the 
course  of  construction  and  projected,  when  they  are  completed, 
will  open  an  immense  internal  trade  betu'een  the  different  and 
distant  provinces  of  the  country,  and  form  a new  era  in  its  com- 
merce. 

For  some  years  past  there  has  been  a weU-regulated  system 
of  steam-navigation  betu^een  the  large  seaports  in  the  southern 
countries  of  Asia.  One  line  of  steamships  nms  befrv^reen  Suez 
and  Calcutta,  stopping  at  GaUe  and  Madi'as.  At  Aden  this 
line  communicates  mth  one  running  to  Bombay,  and  at  GaUe 
it  communicates  with  a line  running  between  Bombay  and 
Singapore,  Canton,  and  other  eastern  ports.  And  at  Singapore 
this  last  mentioned  line  communicates  wdth  one  running  from 
that  port  via  Batavia  to  Australia.  All  these  lines  are  under 
the  patronage  of  the  British  government.  The  steamships  are 
of  the  first  class,  and  carry  the  mads,  passengers,  and  merchan- 
dise. Such  were  these  lines  of  steamships  when  I left  India, 
and  if  the  system  has  been  altered,  it  has  probably  been  in  the 
way  of  enlargement.  ' This  system  of  steam  navigation  has 
much  increased  the  trade  of  Lidia,  and  is  infusing  new  hfe  and 
spiiit  into  eastern  commerce. 

The  places  of  commerce  have  much  changed  since  it  began 
to  be  carried  on  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Calcutta, 
hladras,  and  Bombay,  had  no  distinction  under  the  native  gov- 
ernments, and  had  only  a few  thousand  inhabitants  when  the 
English  acquired  possession  of  them.  Now  each  of  them  con- 
tains half  a million  of  inhabitants,  and  in  commerce  as  well  as 
in  population  they  rank  in  the  first  class  of  cities  in  the  world. 
Surat,  Cambay,  Calicut,  Hooghly,  Dacca,  and  other  cities 
which  were  once  the  seats  of  large  commerce,  have  much  de- 
clined and  ceased  to  be  places  of  foreign  trade.  The  great  im- 
perial and  royal  cities  of  India,  as  Delhi,  Agra,  Oude,  etc.,  had 
never  much  foreign  trade.  Their  population,  wealth,  and  splen- 
dor originated  in  their  being  the  capitals  of  empires  and  king- 
doms. And  when  they  ceased  to  be  the  capitals  of  emperors, 
kings,  and  princes,  they  declined,  and  have  now  become  chiefly 
remarkable  for  their  ruins.  • 

Accounts  arc  kept  in  rupees,  annas,  and  pies  ; 12  pies  make 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


441 


an  anna,  and  16  annas  make  a rupee,  which  is  a silver  coin 
nearly  equal  in  value  to  half  a dollar.  The  currency  consists  of 
bank-notes,  silver,  and  copper.  Only  the  banks  established 
by  the  govermnent  issue  bank-notes.  The  sUver  coins  con- 
sist of  rupees  and  parts,  and  the  copper  coins  are  parts  of  annas. 
Gold  is  not  now  a legal  currency,  and  there  is  but  little  in  cir- 
culation. The  government  has  a large  mint  in  Calcutta,  and 
another  in  Bombay.  There  are  Insurance  Societies  in  the  large 
cities,  and  also  banks  wliich  do  large  business  in  loans,  discounts, 
and  exchange.  These  kinds  of  business  are  well  understood  by 
the  native  merchants.  Indeed,  exchange  appears  to  have  been 
in  operation  in  India  long  before  it  was  used  in  Europe.  Many 
of  tlie  native  bankers  and  merchants  are  intelligent,  enterprising, 
and  wealthy,  and  they  often  furnish  a large  part  of  the  capital 
of  the  English  merchants. 

The  foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and 
Bombay.  The  trade  for  the  last  year  of  which  I have  seen  the 
accounts,  was  : — Imports  at  Calcutta,  $26,415,850  ; at  Ma- 
dras, $4,530,020  ; at  Bombay,  $20,553,565.  Of  these  $37,594,- 
800  were  from  England.  The  exports  in  the  same  year  were  : 
from  Calcutta,  $50,740,190 ; from  Madras,  $8,364,440  ; from 
Bombay,  $20,553,565.  Of  these,  $35,132,350  were  to  Eng- 
land. 


AGRICULTURE. 

The  agriculture  of  India,  though  it  has  been  so  long  ranked 
among  civilized  countries,  is  in  a very  rude  state.  There  has 
probably  been  very  little  change  in  the  implements  of  labor  or 
the  mode  of  cultivation  for  2,000  years  past.  The  implements 
used  are  few  in  number,  and  their  construction  is  extremely 
rude.  The  ploughs  and  harrows  in  general  use  would  scarcely 
be  recognized  in  this  country,  as  designed  for  such  a use.  The 
cultivators  understand  very  well  the  different  kinds  of  soil,  and 
for  what  kind  of  grain  each  soil  is  best  adapted.  Manures  are 
but  little  employed  in  general  cultivation,  but  are  used  in  some 
places  for  horticulture  and  for  sugar-cane  and  tobacco.  As 
manure  is  seldom  used  for  grain,  and  the  ground  is  not  in  other 
respects  well  prepared,  the  crops  are  generally  light,  and  the 
same  kinds  of  grain  are  commonly  repeated  till  the  produce  will 


442 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


not  pay  the  tax,  the  seed,  and  the  labor,  and  then  it  is  aban- 
doned for  some  years.  Cultivated  in  this  imperfect  way,  sev- 
eral acres  in  India  do  not  produce  more  than  one  acre  in  Amer- 
ica. The  cultivated  lands  of  each  village  are  generally  situated 
together.  They  are  not  separated  from  the  pasture-lands  by  any 
wall  or  fence,  and  the  cattle  and  sheep  graze  under  the  care  of 
boys,  who  restrain  them  from  injuring  the  crops  of  grain.  The 
fields  belonging  to  different  owners  are  not  separated  from  each 
other  by  any  waU,  fence,  or  hedge,  but  only  by  posts  or  marks 
at  the  different  corners.  Indeed,  walls  or  fences,  or  hedges  of 
any  kind  are  seldom  seen  in  India,  except  around  villages,  houses, 
and  gardens. 

Rice  is  much  cultivated,  and  in  some  districts  is  the  principal 
article  of  food.  It  is  prepared  for  food  in  various  ways,  in  some 
of  which  it  becomes  better  than  I have  seen  it  in  any  other 
country.  In  other  districts  wheat,  millet,  and  other  cereal  grains 
are  cultivated.  The  inhabitants  depend  chiefly  on  the  produce 
of  the  gardens  and  fields  for  subsistence.  The  brahmins  and 
some  other  classes  never  eat  any  kind  of  meat,  and  the  great 
body  of  the  people  using  it  sparingly. 

Indigo  is  produced  in  large  quantities,  and  India  supplies  Eu- 
rope and  America  with  this  article.  The  districts  in  which  it  is 
most  cultivated,  are  chiefly  in  Bengal.  English  capital  is 
largely  employed  in  its  cultivation.  The  labor  of  the  cultivation 
and  the  manufacture  is  performed  by  the  natives,  but  the  work 
is  superintended  by  Europeans.  Under  their  care  and  skill  the 
quality  of  the  article  has  been  much  improved,  and  the  quantity 
has  been  greatly  increased.  The  plant  grows  to  the  height  of  3 
or  4 feet,  with  a hard  and  woody  stem  of  a gray  color  about  the 
root,  green  in  the  middle,  and  reddish  in  hue  towards  the  top. 
It  is  divided  into  a variety  of  knotty  stalks  with  small  sprigs 
terminating  with  about  8 pair  of  leaves  each,  of  an  oval  shape, 
thick  and  of  a dark  green  on  the  under-side.  It  is  in  these 
leaves  that  the  coloring  matter  forming  the  dye  is  chiefly  found, 
and  it  is  obtained  by  macerating,  beating,  and  washing  them, 
and  afterwards  passing  the  highly  colored  liquor  into  boilers, 
where  it  is  subjected  to  a certain  degree  of  evaporation,  and 
eventually  run  off  into  moulds,  pressed  free  from  moisture  and 
dried  ready  for  the  market.  An  ordinary  plantation  comprises 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


443 


4,000  acres  of  land,  which  may  yield  on  an  average  1,000 
maunds  of  82  lbs  each. 

The  poppy  is  largely  cultivated.  The  cultivation  of  the 
poppy  and  the  manufacture  of  opium  is  a monopoly  of  the  gov- 
ernment in  all  places  subject  to  the  East  India  Company.  The 
poppy  is  a delicate  plant  requiring  good  soil  and  much  care  in 
its  cultivation.  The  cultivation  of  the  poppy  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  opium  from  it  are  under  the  superintendence  of  govern- 
ment agents,  and  all  that  is  produced  belongs  to  the  government, 
the  cultivators  being  paid  for  their  labor  at  fixed  rates.  This 
cultivation  is  carried  on  only  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and 
the  opium  is  chiefly  disposed  of  by  monthly  auction  sales  in  Cal- 
cutta. The  cost  to  the  government  is  generally  from  125  to  150 
dollars  per  chest  of  140  lbs.,  and  the  price  realized  by  sale  is  gen- 
erally from  450  to  500  dollars  per  chest.  It  is  nearly  aU  ex- 
ported to  China,  and  other  places  cast  from  India.  Opium  is 
also  largely  cultivated  in  some  districts  in  Malwa,  which  are 
subject  to  some  native  princes.  In  these  places  the  East  India 
Company  does  not  interfere  with  its  cultivation.  But  as  these 
districts  have  no  sea-coast,  the  opium  in  order  to  be  exported 
must  be  carried  to  some  seaport  through  the  territory  belonging 
to  the  East  India  Company,  and  for  this  transit  a heavy  tax  is 
exacted.  Much  of  this  opium  is  brought  to  Bombay,  and  is  ex- 
ported to  China  and  other  places  east  from  India.  The  revenue 
realized  from  the  monopoly  in  Bengal,  and  from  the  transit-tax 
in  Bombay,  is  large.  In  the  revenue  accounts  for  1852,  which 
are  the  last  I have  seen,  it  amounted  to  £4,562,586,  or  more 
than  $18,000,000. 

Sugar-cane  has  been  cultivated  in  India  from  the  earliest  pe- 
riods of  history.  It  was  probably  the  “ sweet  cane  ” mentioned  by 
Moses,  and  its  product  was  “ honey  made  by  the  hands  of 
men,”  mentioned  by  Herodotus.  Sugar  is  made  for  domestic 
use  over  a large  part  of  Lidia,  and  it  is  exported  in  large  quantities 
from  some  districts,  cliiefly  from  Bengal,  to  foreign  countries. 
The  climate  and  soil  of  a large  part  of  India  are  well  adapted 
for  its  cultivation,  and  there  is  land  in  abundance  suited  to  its 
gro^vth.  But  skill  is  required  to  improve  its  quality,  and  capital 
might  extend  its  cultivation  to  an  indefinite  extent. 

Cotton  is  indigenous  in  Lidia  and  is  mentioned  in  the  Vedas, 


444 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


and  in  the  Institutes  of  Menu,  the  earliest  works  of  Indian 
origin.  Herodotus  also  speaking  of  India  says,  “ The  wold 
trees  of  that  country  bear  fleeces  as  their  fruit,  surpassing  those 
of  sheep  in  beauty  and  excellence,  and  the  Indians  use  cloth 
made  from  those  trees.”  For  some  centuries  a large  part  of  the 
cotton  produced  in  India  was  manufactured  into  cloths,  and 
then  exported  to  Europe  and  the  western  countries  of  Asia. 
But  since  the  invention  of  machinery  and  its  apphcation  to  the 
manufacture  of  cloths  in  Em-ope,  most  of  the  cotton  of  India, 
beyond  w^hat  was  required  for  home  consumption,  has  been  ex- 
ported in  its  raw  state  to  England  and  China.  The  great  de- 
mand for  cotton  in  England  for  her  manufacturing  interests,  the 
large  supplies  procured  from  America,  the  comparatively  small 
quantity  and  inferior  quality  of  the  cotton  received  from  India, 
and  the  strong  desire  of  the  English  people  generally  to  obtain 
their  supplies  from  their  own  possessions,  have  induced  the  East 
Lidia  Company  to  make  great  efforts  to  increase  the  quantity 
and  improve  the  quality  of  this  article  in  India.  With  this 
view,  some  20  or  25  years  ago,  they  procured  large  quantities 
of  cotton-seed  and  some  saw-gins  from  the  United  States,  and 
sent  them  to  India  — the  former  to  be  distributed  over  the  coun- 
tiy,  and  the  latter  to  be  worked,  and  also  to  be  for  samples  for 
maldng  others,  if  these  should  succeed  well.  As  these  means 
did  not  produce  the  results  which  had  been  expected,  the  East 
India  Company  engaged  a number  of  men  from  the  United 
States,  who  were  well  acquainted  with  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
in  their  respective  localities,  to  proceed  to  India  with  the  view  of 
improving  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  that  country.  Ac- 
cordingly some  12  or  15  such  men  from  IVLssissippi  and  other 
Southern  States,  proceeded  to  India  at  different  times  within  20 
years  past.  They  were  to  carry  on  their  operations  in  different 
parts  of  the  country ; some  of  them  in  the  districts  under  the 
government  of  Bengal,  some  in  the  districts  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Madras,  and  some  of  them  in  districts  subject  to  the 
government  of  Bombay.  They  examined  the  different  kinds  of 
cotton  produced,  the  modes  of  cultivation,  cleaning,  and  pacldng, 
the  different  kinds  of  soil,  etc.  In  some  places  they  made  sug- 
gestions and  gave  instructions  to  the  native  cultivators,  and  in 
other  districts  they  superintended  experimental  farms  and  plan- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


445 


tations,  where  ihe  American  mode  of  cultivation  and  cleaning 
could  be  fully  introduced,  and  the  native  cultivators  become  ac- 
quainted with  it.  Most  of  these  men,  becoming  discouraged 
with  the  unexpected  obstacles  and  difliculties  which  beset  them, 
or  dissatisfied  with  the  government  agents  in  connection  with 
whom  they  had  to  carry  on  their  various  operations,  soon  re- 
turned to  America.  A few  of  them  remained  for  several  years, 
but  I am  not  aware  that  there  is  any  one  of  them  at  the  present 
time  in  India.  Great  expectations  in  England  and  in  India 
were  entertained  of  these  experiments,  and  great  dissatisfaction 
was  expressed  at  the  result.  The  quantity  of  cotton  produced 
was  little,  if  any,  increased,  nor  did  it  appear  that  there  had 
been  any  general,  or  would  be  much  permanent  improvement  in 
the  quality.  In  both  these  respects,  expectations  were  disap- 
pointed. The  enterprise  and  experiment  were  generally  consid- 
ered to  be  a failure.  Different  causes  were  assigned  by  the  men 
employed,  by  the  government  agents,  by  the  merchants  in  India, 
and  by  the  manufacturers  and  public  in  England. 

"Whether  any  further  means  will  be  used  to  improve  the  culti- 
vation of  cotton  in  Lidia  by  procuring  seed  and  gins,  and  super- 
intending knowledge  and  skill  firom  America,  remains  to  be  seen. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  quantity  of  cotton  pro- 
duced in  Lidia  would  soon  be  increased  to  several  times  its 
present  yearly  average,  if  the  quality  could  only  be  improved  so 
as  to  obtain  a higher  price.  And  it  is  the  opinion  of  many  com- 
petent judges  that  the  quafity  of  the  different  species  might  be 
greatly  improved  by  better  cultivation  of  the  plant,  and  more 
careful  cleaning  and  packing,  adapting  all  to  the  climate,  sea- 
sons, etc.  It  is  certain  that  the  finest  fabrics  used  in  Europe 
for  several  centuries  were  made  of  the  cotton  of  India,  and  that 
some  of  the  finest  fabrics  now  manufactured  in  the  world, 
as  the  Dacca  muslins,  and  some  others,  are  stiff  made  in  India, 
and  made  of  the  cotton  of  India,  and  wdthout  the  aid  of  ma- 
chinery, a manner  in  which  such  fabrics  could  not  be  made  in 
any  country  in  Europe.  And  if  the  cotton  for  such  fine  fabrics 
was  formerly  produced  in  India,  and  is  stiff  produced  there  in 
a few  places,  where  there  is  sufficient  demand  to  pay  for  its 
cultivation,  the  manufacturers  of  England  are  confident  that,, 
as  India  formerly  supplied  Europe  with  such  fine  fabrics  manu- 

38 


446 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


factured  &om  her  own  cotton,  so  she  could  be  made  to  supply 
England  now  with  cotton  adapted  to  aU  kinds  of  her  manu- 
factures. There  is  much  dissatisfaction  in  England  with  the 
East  India  Company  on  this  subject,  and  this  was  one  thing 
urged  lately  against  renewing  and  prolonging  the  Company’s 
chartered  rights  for  another  period  of  20  years. 

The  area  of  land  in  India  which  is  suited  to  the  cultivation 
of  cotton,  is  3 or  4 times  as  large  as  has  been  at  any  time  used 
for  cotton  in  the  United  States.  Labor  in  those  districts  is 
abundant  and  cheap,  not  exceeding  from  6 to  9 cents  per  day, 
and  often  cheaper  than  this,  and  the  laborers  generally  find- 
ing their  own  food.  And  yet  the  cotton  England  has  obtained 
from  India  for  20  years  past,  has  been  upon  an  average  only  one 
eighth  part  of  what  she  has  obtained  in  the  mean  time  from  the 
United  States.  The  average  price  of  Indian  cotton  in  the  Eng- 
lish market,  on  account  of  its  generally  inferior  quality,  is  only 
two  thirds  the  price  of  American  cotton.  This  difference  in  the 
price  will  make  the  value  of  all  the  cotton  which  England  pro- 
cures annually  from  India  only  one  twelfth  part  of  the  value  of 
what  she  procures  from  America. 

India  suffers  much  from  drought.  Seldom  a year  passes 
without  the  rains  failing,  and  consequently  the  crops  failing  in 
some  part  of  the  country.  Li  such  cases  the  poverty  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  want  of  facilities  for  procuring  grain  from  other 
places,  occasions  great  distress.  Not  unfrequenlly  nearly  all  the 
inhabitants  are  compelled  to  leave  their  homes,  go  into  other 
places  and  appeal  to  the  charity  and  compassion  of  the  people 
to  save  them  from  starvation.  Roads  and  railways  for  trans- 
portation would  much  diminish  these  evils.  Means  for  cultivat- 
ing ground  by  irrigation,  would  also  greatly  diminish  them.  Li 
this  way  in  many  districts,  the  amount  of  the  crops  might  be 
greatly  increased,  and  in  some  places  2 or  even  3 crops  in  suc- 
cession be  procured  in  a year.  Formerly  the  native  govern- 
ments were  awake  to  the  importance  of  works  of  this  kind,  and 
some  rivers  and  plains  arc  lined  with  works  for  in-igation.* 

* “In  14  districts  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Madras  territory  the  public  ac- 
counts show  that  there  are  upwards  of  43,000  works  for  irrigation  in  repair, 
besides  more  than  10,000  out  of  repair,  all  of  wliich  were  constructed  before 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


447 


Some  large  works  of  this  kind  have  been  constructed  by  the 
East  India  Company  in  the  provinces  on  the  Ganges  and  its 
branches,  and  the  outlay  has  in  all  cases  yielded  a large  return.* 
There  are  still  millions  of  acres  in  different  parts  of  India,  now 
of  little  use  and  value,  but  which  might  in  this  way  be  brought 
to  a highly  productive  state,  and  made  to  yield  a large  return 
for  the  expenses  incurred  upon  them.  Public  works  of  this  char- 
acter would  be  profitable  to  the  government  by  increasing  the 
revenue.  While  in  the  process  of  construction  they  would 
furnish  employment  and  means  of  support  to  many  thousands 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  by  increasing  the  productiveness  of  their 
lands  would  be  of  great  permanent  advantage  to  the  cultivators. 
And  unless  the  government  undertakes  such  works  and  com- 
pletes them,  they  can  never  be  made.f 

The  agricultural  population  are  generally  very  poor,  and  pass 
through  life,  depressed  in  spirits,  and  embarrassed  in  their  cir- 
cumstances. The  appearance  of  their  villages,  their  houses, 
furniture,  personal  appearance,  lands,  cattle,  implements  of  hus- 
bandry, and  conversation  with  each  other,  are  all  indicative  of  a 
state  of  depression  and  poverty.  They  are  generally  involved 
in  debt,  and  it  appears  to  them  to  be  entirely  beyond  their 
means  or  power  to  improve  their  circumstances,  or  in  any  way 
ameliorate  their  condition.  They  have  only  the  prospect  of  be- 
ing able  to  obtain  a scanty,  coarse,  and  hard-earned  subsistence 
while  they  live,  and  then  to  leave  their  families  to  the  same 
state,  or  what  they  call  their  fate. 

the  English  had  possession  of  the  countrj'.  The  annual  revenue  from  these 
lands  is  £1,500,000,  or  nearly  7,500,000  dollars.” 

♦ The  aggregate  length  of  these  canals  is  765  miles,  and  the  expense  of 
making  them  has  been  7,500,000  dollars.  The  revenue  of  the  government  from 
navigation  and  irrigation,  chiefly  from  the  latter,  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
1,500,000  to  2.000,000  dollars  annually,  a result  so  gratifying  that  works  of  a 
similar  character,  for  wliich  there  is  much  need,  will  probably  soon  be  under- 
taken. These  works,  as  well  as  the  large  railways,  now  in  the  course  of 
construction,  will  produce  great  results  in  developing  the  resources  of  the  coun- 
try, and  will  be  enduring  monuments  of  British  enterprise  and  skill. 

■f  “ In  India,  government  is  really  the  landlord,  and  the  occupiers  of  the 
land  are  for  the  most  part  miserably  poor,  and  generally  in  arrears  to  the 
government  for  their  rents,  or  for  money  boiTowed  to  pay  them.  Irrigation 
can  only  be  conducted  on  a large  scale,  and  therefore  the  expense 'of  it,  where- 
ever  it  is  adequately  performed,  must  be  defrayed  by  the  government.” 


448 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Such  has  been  hitherto  the  state  and  prospect  of  the  great 
body  of  the  people  of  India  for  many  years  past.  The  measures 
of  the  government  fixing  the  rent  or  tax  on  the  land  in  some  dis- 
tricts for  a certain  period,  as  15  or  20  years,  and  so  giving  the  oc- 
cupants the  advantage  of  any  improvements  they  can  make,  has 
been  regarded  by  them  as  a great  favor,  and  should  be  extended 
wherever  they  do  not  come  in  conflict  with  intermediate  par- 
ties or  previous  revenue  settlements.*  If  the  works  for  irriga- 
tion, and  the  roads  and  railways  for  transportation,  which  have 
been  projected,  are  carried  on  vigorously,  and  completed  during 
the  present  period  of  the  East  India  Company’s  charter,  thus 
first  furnishing  employment  to  great  numbers  of  the  people,  and 
then  opening  the  way  for  industry  and  enterprise  to  develop  the 
natural  resources  of  the  different  parts  of  the  country,  it  will 
constitute  a new  and  important  era  in  the  history  of  India. 


MANUFACTURES. 

India  and  the  other  countries  of  southern  Asia  supplied  Eu- 
rope and  the  western  parts  of  Asia  wdth  cotton  and  silk  manu- 
factures for  many  centuries.  The  traffic  of  the  English  and 
other  East  India  Companies  for  two  centuries  was  chiefly  in 
articles  of  this  kind,  and  such  would  apparently  have  con- 
tinued to  be  the  course  of  trade  to  the  present  time,  if  new 
causes  had  not  occurred  to  interrupt  it.  The  invention  of  ma- 
chinery and  its  application  to  the  various  purposes  of  manufac- 
tures, have  made  great  changes  in  the  commerce  bertveen  Eu- 
rope and  the  southern  countries  in  Asia.  Fine  fabrics  of  cotton 
goods  to  a great  amount  are  now  annually  sent  from  England 
to  Lidia,  and  the  manufacture  of  such  articles  in  India  has 
nearly  ceased.  The  coarser  kinds  of  cotton  goods  for  domestic 
use  are  stiU  made  there  in  large  quantities,  but  even  in  tliese  ar- 
ticles manual  labor  holds  very  unequal  competition  with  ma- 
chinery. This  change  in  the  manufactures  of  India  has  been  a 
great  injury  in  those  districts  where  the  inhabitants  were  for- 
merly largely  engaged  in  such  labor.  High  or  moderate  protec- 
tive duties  would  have  greatly  diminished  these  evils,  but 


* For  the  revenue  settlement  of  Bengal,  see  pages  188  and  196-198. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


449 


unhappily  for  India  the  power  to  regulate  all  the  commerce  be- 
tween the  two  countries  has  been  in  the  Parliament  of  England 
and  in  the  East  India  Company,  and  the  commerce  between 
England  and  those  parts  of  India  subject  to  the  English  (which 
now  includes  nearly  all  India  and  all  the  seaports)  has  been 
managed  on  terms  for  the  benefit  of  the  manufactures  of  Eng- 
land, and  much  to  the  injury  of  the  manufacturing  interests  of 
India.  Villages,  towns,  and  cities,  which  formerly  subsisted  by 
their  manufactures  and  were  in  a flourishing  state,  are  now  be- 
coming dilapidated,  and  falling  to  decay  and  ruin.  The  popu- 
lation in  some  such  places  I have  seen,  exhibit  the  appearance 
of  extreme  poverty,  and  they  know  not  what  to  do  for  means  of 
support,  nor  where  to  go  for  employment.  A late  governor- 
general  of  India,  in  a communication  to  the  Directors  of  the 
East  India  Company,  says : “ Some  years  ago  the  East  India 
Company  annually  received  of  the  produce  of  the  looms  of 
India  to  the  amount  of  6,000,000  to  8,000,000  pieces  of  cotton 
goods.  The  amount  gradually  fell,  and  has  now  ceased  alto- 
gether. English  goods  made  by  machinery  has  now  superseded 
the  produce  of  India.  Cotton  piece  goods,  for  ages  the  staple 
manufacture  of  India,  seem  forever  lost.  And  the  present  suf- 
fering to  numerous  classes  in  India  is  scarcely  to  be  paralleled  in 
the  history  of  commerced 

The  use  of  machinery  for  any  kind  of  manufactures  is  yet 
scarcely  known  in  India.  The  inhabitants  use  the  same  kind 
of  spinning  wheels,  looms,  etc.,  which  their  ancestors  had  cen- 
turies ago.  Very  few  among  them  have  any  capital  to  con- 
struct and  apply  machineijy  to  manufacturing  purposes,  and  the 
few  who  have  means  have  not  sufficient  confidence  in  the  suc- 
cess of  such  works  to  engage  in  them.  The  regulations  of  the 
government  and  some  other  causes  have  prevented  Europeans 
from  engaging  much  in  such  enterprises.  And  even  if  these 
difficulties  were  aU  removed,  the  want  of  motive  power  has  been 
a great  obstacle  to  the  use  of  machinery.  The  rivers  of  India, 
owing  to  the  peculiar  seasons,  in  very  few  places  furnish  any 
permanent  and  reliable  water  power,  and  the  coal-deposits  are 
situated  so  far  from  the  districts  which  have  the  raw  material 
and  the  population  for  manufactures,  and  are  so  inaccessible  for 
want  of  roads,  canals,  and  railways,  that  steam  power  has  been 

38* 


450 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


available  only  to  a small  extent  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
Should  the  railroads  which  have  been  projected,  be  constructed 
and  become  available  for  the  transmission  of  cotton,  coal,  etc., 
and  the  needful  facilities  and  securities  for  establishing  cotton 
manufactories  in  suitable  localities  be  obtained,  the  abundance 
and  cheapness  of  the  raw  material,  and  the  low  price  of  labor  * 
and  provisions  may  yet  again  make  India  a great  manufacturing 
country.  Her  inhabitants  may  again  be  able  to  make  their  cot- 
ton into  cloth  not  only  sufficient  for  their  own  use,  but  to  supply 
England  and  other  countries,  as  they  formerly  did  for  many  cen- 
turies, with  fine  fabrics,  and  at  a cheaper  rate  than  those  nations 
can  manufacture  them. 

Silk  goods  are  made  in  considerable  quantities  for  domestic 
use  and  also  for  exportation.  The  wooUen  goods  manufactured 
in  India  are  coarse,  as  the  wool  produced  in  the  country  is  too 
coarse  to  be  capable  of  being  made  into  fine  cloths.  Cashmere 
shawls,  known  in  aU  parts  of  the  world,  are  stiU  made  in  large 
quantity  in  Cashmere  and  other  parts  of  northern  India.  At  one 
time  30,000  looms  were  engaged  in  the  Lahore  districts  in  the 
manufacture  of  these  shawls.  Not  more  than  12,000  or  15,000 
looms  are  now  thus  engaged.  These  shawls  are  much  worn  by 
native  princes,  nobles,  and  wealthy  men.  The  material  is  the  hair 
of  a goat,  which  is  said  to  thrive  best  in  Cashmere.  The  imple- 
ments used  in  agriculture  and  in  the  mechanic  arts  are  generally 
made  in  the  country.  Cables,  ropes,  and  cordage,  are  made  of 
coir  and  different  kinds  of  hemp.  Good  household  furniture, 
carriages,  etc.,  are  made  in  aU  places  where  there  is  sufficient 
demand  to  encourage  such  work.  All  classes  of  people  are  ex- 
cessively fond  of  jewelry,  and  their  ornaments,  which  are  of  many 
different  kinds,  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones,  are  generally 
made  by  the  native  goldsmiths.  The  skill  displayed  in  such 
work  generally  exceeds  what  Europeans  expect  to  find  in  India, 
and  they  are  yet  more  surprised  to  see  so  ingenious  and  good 

* Wages  in  India  seldom  exceed  6 cents  for  a woman,  and  9 cents  for  a man 
per  day  at  common  labor.  Over  a large  part  of  the  country  wages  are  less 
than  these  sums.  And  the  lalwrers,  whether  men  or  women,  generally  find 
their  own  food.  There  are  millions  of  j)crsons  in  India  who  would  be  glad  to 
obtain  work  at  these  prices. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


451 


articles  produced  by  the  aid  of  so  few  and  such  rude  implements. 
What  was  said  about  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloths,  is 
equally  true  concerning  metals.  There  is  abundance  of  iron 
ore,  and  of  very  rich  quality,  in  different  parts  of  India,  but  no 
fuel,  procurable  where  it  is,  to  smelt  it,  and  no  power  to  move 
machinery  for  manufacturing  it  into  the  various  articles  for 
which  it  is  used.  Could  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  using  these 
natural  riches  of  the  country  be  removed,  India  might  again 
become  as  much  distinguished  among  nations  for  her  resources, 
her  manufactures,  her  wealth,  and  her  power,  as  she  was  in  an- 
cient times. 


ARCmTECTURE. 

The  most  remarkable  structures  of  Hindu  and  Mohamme- 
dan origin  still  remaining,  are  temples,  mosques,  and  palaces, 
many  of  them  now  in  a dilapidated  state.  The  temples  are 
generally  of  a heavy  and  sombre  appearance,  more  resembling 
the  Egyptian  than  the  Greek  or  Roman  architecture.  Some 
are  entirely  of  hewn  stone,  but  they  are  generally  of  brick,  or 
stone  and  lime,  and  are  stuccoed.  As  the  temples  are  designed 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  idol,  and  not  of  an  assembly  of 
worshippers,  they  are  generally  small  in  circumference,  but  are 
'often  high  and  surrounded  with  a wall,  sometimes  2 or  3 walls, 
inclosing  a considerable  area  of  ground.  The  outside  of  the  tem- 
ples are  frequently  covered  with  figures  descriptive  of  the  Hindu 
mythology.  The  Hindu  palaces  in  their  construction,  decora- 
tions, and  the  durability  of  materials,  appear  to  have  be'en  infe- 
rior to  those  of  monarchs  of  the  same  age  among  the  nations  of 
western  Asia. 

The  Mohammedans  introduced  a new  era  of  architecture  into 
India.  Their  structures  are  distinguished  by  the  frequent  use 
of  the  arch  and  of  the  dome  ; if  these  were  previously  known  in 
India,  they  were  seldom  if  ever  used.  The  Mohammedan  em- 
perors and  their  nobles  came  to  India  from  or  through  Persia. 
There  was  much  intercourse  between  their  courts  and  the  Mo- 
hammedan monarchs  in  western  Asia,  and  they  had  some- 
times, if  not  generally,  Greek  and  Italian,  or  Roman  artists  and 
architects  in  their  employment.  AVith  such  aid  and  abundant 


452 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


means  it  would  naturally  be  expected  that  they  would  erect 
structures  worthy  of  their  age,  their  religion,  and  their  name. 
And  so  they  did ; for  their  palaces,  their  mosques,  their  mauso- 
leums, and  their  private  dwellings,  will  long  continue  to  be  mon- 
uments of  their  magnificence,  their  zeal  for  their  faith,  their 
wealth  and  taste,  and  their  respect  for  their  dead,  or  desire  of 
remembrance  when  dead. 

The  seats  of  English  power  in  India,  as  Calcutta,  jMadras, 
and  Bombay,  contain  many  fine  buildings,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate. Of  the  latter,  many  belong  to  wealthy  natives.  These 
are  often  well  furnished,  and  being  surrounded  by  beautiful 
gardens,  are  delightful  residences.  In  aU  places  occupied  by  the 
English  as  permanent  civil  or  military  stations,  are  some  good 
houses,  which  from  their  adaptation  to  the  climate  (which  is  so 
warm  over  a large  part  of  the  country  that  fire  is  never  required 
in  houses  for  comfort),  are  more  comfortable  than  strangers  on 
first  aiTiving  in  India  suppose. 

The  houses  of  the  wealthy  and  middle  classes  of  the  native 
population,  excepting  a small  portion  in  the  cities  which  have 
grown  up  under  English  influence,  are  generally  badly  con- 
structed, inconvenient,  and  dark.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
the  houses  and  aU  their  appurtenances  are  smrounded  with  a 
high  waU,  which  has  only  one  entrance  and  conceals  all  inclosed 
within  it  from  view.  Such  cities  and  villages  have  - a very 
gloomy  appearance.  This  mode  of  building  is  designed  to  se- 
cure protection  from  robbers,  etc.  The  houses  of  the  lower 
classes  are  generally  wretched,  with  little  room,  or  convenience, 
or  comfort.  They  often  consist  of  bamboo-walls,  thatched 
roofs,  and  earth  floors.  In  other  districts  the  walls  are  of  stone 
and  earth,  with  thatched  or  badly  tiled  roofs  and  floors  of  earth. 
They  often  consist  of  only  one  or  two  rooms  with  little  conven- 
ience of  letting  in  the  light  or  letting  out  the  smoke-,  while  the 
furniture  is  so  scant  that  the  place  appears  more  as  though  it 
was  deserted  than  occupied. 

Vessels  of  all  kinds  and  classes  are  built  in  Bombay, 
Calcutta,  Cochin,  and  some  other  places.  The  forests  on  the 
western  coast  of  the  peninsula,  and  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  contain  excellent  timber  for  ships.  The 
expense  of  building  ships  in  Lidia  is  much  greater  than  in  Eu- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


453 


rope  or  America,  but  they  are  far  more  durable.  Ships  of  war 
and  ships  for  commerce  of  the  largest  size  have  been  built  in 
the  dock-yard  in  Bombay.  The  work  in  some  cases  was 
entirely  performed  by  the  natives.  These  ships  are  said  to  be 
equal  in  their  materials  and  workmanship  to  any  that  belong  to 
the  royal  navy  or  to  the  commercial  marine,  equal  to  any  that 
carry  the  British  flag.  Steam-ships  have  also  been  built  in 
Bombay,  but  the  heavy  machinery  used  in  them  was  brought 
from  Europe. 


MUSIC. 

Music  appears  to  have  been  formerly  reduced  to  scientific 
principles,  and  to  have  been  more  cultivated  in  India,  than  it 
now  is.  The  native  martial  music,  so  far  as  they  had  any,  has 
been  changed  with  the  government  of  the  country  and  disciphne 
of  the  army  for  European  music,  as  the  drum,  fife,  etc.  Their 
rehgion  furnishes  but  Uttle  occasion  for  the  use  of  music.  A 
few  large  temples  have  a company  of  musicians,  who  play  a 
while  nights  and  mornings.  Operas  are  unknown,  and  theatri- 
cal amusements  are  of  a meagre  character.  IMarriages  are 
almost  the  only  occasions  when  usage  requires  musical  perform- 
ance and  entertainments.  The  Hindus  have  many  different 
kinds  of  instruments,  as  drums,  trumpets,  horns,  cymbals,  haut- 
boys, fiddles,  etc.,  but  the  musicians  are  generally  men  of  low 
caste,  who  have  httle  sldll  and  less  taste.  A company  of  musi- 
cians at  marriages  commonly  consists  of  6 or  8,  and  sometimes 
of  as  many  as  15  or  20  performers.  The  larger  the  company, 
the  greater  the  noise  and  apparently  the  confusion  of  sounds. 
Singing  is  one  of  the  accomplishments  of  women  of  loose  mor- 
als, and  some  such  have  acquired  much  celebrity  for  their  musi- 
cal talents.  The  singing  and  dancing  of  this  class  of  persons 
are  the  favorite  amusements  of  the  wealthy  and  at  the  courts 
of  the  native  princes.  The  writers  of  popular  songs  have  some- 
times acquired  much  celebrity  by  their  skill  and  taste  in  singing 
them.  People  when  at  work  in  company  often  beguile  the 
time  by  singing,  one  singing  a couplet  and  the  rest  adding 
a chorus.  These  songs  have  little  meaning  in  them  and  are 
often  very  obscene.  Still  the  Hindus  have  a natural  fondness 
for  music. 


454 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Singing  has  been  introduced  into  the  worsliip  of  the  assem- 
blies of  native  Christians.  The  hymns  are  in  the  native  lan- 
guages, but  they  are  generally  adapted  to  European  tunes. 
This  part  of  worship  is  performed  with  much  propriety.  The 
native  Christians  also  show  their  fondness  for  music  by  often 
singing  these  hymns  by  themselves,  in  their  families  and  in  their 
social  meetings. 


PAINTING  AND  SCULPTURE. 

The  Hindus  appear  never  to  have  excelled  in  painting.  In 
this  art  they  are  inferior  to  the  Chinese  and  to  the  Persians. 
Some  of  their  colors  are  durable,  as  may  be  seen  on  the  t\’aUs 
of  some  of  the  cave-temples  of  Adjunta,  probably  made  in  the 
5th  or  6th  century.  The  walls  of  their  temples  often  contain 
paintings  of  their  gods,  heroes,  battles,  etc.,  as  described  in  their 
sacred  books,  so  that  the  worshippers  see  on  all  sides  illustrations 
of  their  sacred  history  and  objects  of  adoration.  The  walls  of 
private  houses  often  contain  similar  paintings.  I once  saw  a 
large  royal  palace,  reported  to  have  cost  nearly  $1,000,000,  in 
which  the  walls  of  the  rooms  and  halls  were  covered  with  paint- 
ings of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu  and  other  actions  and  events 
contained  in  the  Purans.  The  paintings  of  this  character  have 
much  influence  in  communicating  a knowledge  of  their  popular 
superstitions.  This  art  is  made  subservient  to  what  they  beheve 
to  be  truth  and  piety.  Some  years  ago  missionaries  began  to 
insert  cuts  and  illustrations  more  frequently  in  religious  and  edu- 
cational books,  and  the  native  taste  was  soon  manifested  by 
their  increased  estimation  of  such  works  and  demand  for  them. 
The  native  press  has  since  commenced  the  same  course,  and  by 
such  means  greatly  increased  the  sale  and  circulation  of  their 
publications.  But  in  painting  portraits,  natural  scenery,  etc.,  the 
Hindus  are  inferior  to  the  Chinese. 

, More  attention  appears  to  have  been  paid  to  sculpture  than  to 
pninting.  The  cavc-temples  contain  statues  in  great  numbers 
and  variety,  some  single  and  others  in  large  groups.  Those  fig- 
ures are  generally  a part  of  the  rock  in  which  the  excavations 
are  made,  and  some  of  them  are  of  colossal  size.  INIany  of 
these  figures  and  groups  are  bold  and  spirited  in  their  design,  but 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


455 


they  do  not  exhibit  the  human  form  in  good  proportions,  nor  are 
its  parts  well  developed.  Such  statuary  appears  much  better 
at  a distance  and  in  their  partially  lighted  temples  than  on 
near  inspection.  Marble  idols  for  their  temples  and  for  worship 
in  their  houses  are  common  among  the  wealthy.  In  works  of 
this  kind  the  Hindus  are  far  inferior  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
or  to  the  modern  nations  of  Europe.  Their  skill  however  is 
BtUl  sufficient  to  entitle  them  to  a place  in  the  rank  of  civilized 
nations. 


ASTKONOJIT. 

There  is  much  obscurity  in  the  early  history  of  astronomy  in 
India.  Their  system,  so  far  as  any  has  come  down  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  has  been  examined  by  some  of  the  ablest  astronomers 
and  mathematicians  of  Europe,  as  Bailly,  Playfair,  Maskelyne, 
and  Bentley,  and  there  was  much  difference  among  them  re- 
specting various  things  in  it.  The  general  opinion  now  is,  that 
though  all  the  pretensions  of  Hindu  astronomy  cannot  be  al- 
lowed, yet  that  in  astronomical  science,  they  were  once  in  ad- 
vance of  any  other  nation,  and  that  the  Greeks  were  indebted  to 
Lidia  for  much  of  their  knowledge  on  this  subject.  The  names 
of  the  Hindu  astronomers,  the  time  when  they  lived,  and  the 
places  where  their  observations  were  made,  cannot  be  certainly 
ascertained ; only  their  works,  and  these  not  in  any  regular  system 
or  connected  order,  have  come  down  to  the  present  time.  The 
modern  astronomers  in  India  know  how  to  use  these  tables 
and  rules  in  making  their  almanacs  and  calculating  echpses, 
but  they  are  ignorant  of  the  principles  upon  which  these  tables 
and  rules  are  made.  They  generally  say  that  these  tables  are 
the  work  of  men  who  were  divinely  assisted  to  make  them,  and 
I have  often  heard  the  common  people  say  that  the  original  au- 
thors of  such  tables  and  rules  must  have  been  inspired,  for  how 
could  they,  unless  inspired,  have  made  tables  by  which  the  as- 
tronomers can  foretell  such  future  events  as  eclipses. 

These  ancient  astronomical  works  show  that  the  wTiters  had 
correct  views  of  the  solar  system.  But  the  mythological  opin- 
ions, for  system  it  cannot  be  called,  have  continued  to  be  the 
popular  creed  to  the  present  time.  The  popular  notion  of 
eclipses  is,  that  a great  monster,  called  Ketu,  then  attempts  to 


456 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


seize  and  destroy  the  sun  or  moon,  and  so  at  the  time  of  an 
echpse,  the  people  fast  and  pray  that  the  sun  or  moon,  as  the 
case  may  be,  may  not  be  destroyed.  Sometimes  they  implore 
Ketu  to  forbear  and  spare  the  sun  or  the  moon,  and  sometimes 
they  beseech  the  gods  to  interpose  and  save  them.  The  brah- 
mins and  the  Hindus  generally  fast  on  days  when  an  eclipse  is 
expected,  till  it  has  passed  over;  they  then  perform  the  pre- 
scribed religious  ceremonies  and  eat.  If  it  is  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun,  and  is  to  be  nearly  or  quite  total,  its  beginning  and  pro- 
gress is  observed  by  many  with  much  anxiety.  AU  business  is 
suspended.  Some  engage  in  prayers  to  the  gods  to  interpose 
and  preserve  the  sun ; some  implore  the  demon,  who  is  believed 
to  be  making  an  attack  upon  the  sun,  to  desist ; and  some  give 
alms  to  the  poor,  supposed  then  to  be  pecuharly  meritorious. 
There  are  men  in  different  parts  of  the  country  who  understand 
the  astronomical  tables  and  rules  enough  to  make  almanacs. 
These  almanacs  contain  notices  of  the  solar  and  lunar  eclipses 
to  be  expected  in  the  coming  year.  These  notices  generally 
vary  some  from  the  exact  time,  but  as  such  echpses  are  not  ob- 
served for  any  practical  purposes,  and  people  have  very  indefi- 
nite notions  of  accuracy  in  time,  the  errors  and  differences  gen- 
erally pass  unobserved.  Changes  and  aU  phenomena  in  the 
heavenly  bodies  are  much  intermixed  with  superstitious  notions 
on  astrology,  and  the  almanacs  of  the  Indian  astronomers  are 
chiefly  valued  for  the  supposed  information  they  contain  con- 
cerning lucky  and  unlucky  days,  signs,  etc.  The  superstition  of 
the  people  in  these  matters  is  excessive,  and  notions  of  this 
character  govern  them  in  the  greater  part  of  the  important 
transactions  of  life.  The  opinion  of  the  astrologer  is  an  im- 
portant element  in  forming  a marriage  contract,  and  then  in  fix- 
ing upon  the  time  for  the  ceremonies,  in  determinmg  to  make  a 
voyage,  journey,  etc.,  and  then  in  setting  out  upon  it.  So  strong 
are  the  superstitious  feelings  of  many  concerning  the  supposed 
influence  of  the  stars  on  human  affairs,  and  that  some  days  are 
lucky,  and  others  again  are  unlucky,  that  no  arguments  or 
promises  would  induce  them  to  deviate  from  the  course  which 
these  stars,  signs,  etc.,  indicate  as  the  way  of  safety,  prosperity, 
and  happiness.  The  evils  and  inconvenience  of  these  supersti- 
tions and  prejudices  are  among  the  things  that  press  heavily 
upon  the  people  of  Lidia. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


457 


MEDICINE. 

Works  on  diseases  and  their  remedies  show  that  at  some  for- 
mer period,  much  attention  was  given  to  these  subjects.  Works 
of  this  character  were  translated  into  the  Arabic  language,  and 
the  Arabian  writers  acknowledge  their  obligation  to  India.  In- 
oculation for  the  smallpox  was  practised  in  India  long  before 
it  was  known  in  Europe.  Venesection,  lithotomy,  and  couch- 
ing for  cataract,  were  understood  and  practised.  The  hst  of 
Indian  medicines  includes  many  of  mineral  as  well  as  of  vege- 
table origin,  and  their  chemical  preparation  was  as  well  under- 
stood as  in  any  country  at  that  time.  The  giving  and  taking 
of  medicines  are  often  mixed  with  superstitious  usages  and  fool- 
ish notions,  which  are  regarded  as  essential  to  their  efficacy. 
Their  imperfect  knowledge  of  anatomy  does  not  admit  of  their 
becoming  skilful  in  surgery.  The  practice  of  medicine  is  gener- 
ally confined  to  the  same  families  for  successive  generations, 
the  father  communicating  to  his  sons  his  knowledge  and  his 
skill,  his  books,  and  as  far  as  possible,  his  reputation.  There  ap- 
pear never  to  have  been  any  ancient  schools  of  medicine  which 
acquired  celebrit}*,  nor  does  the  art  of  healing  appear  to  have  in 
any  way  received  the  patronage  of  native  governments.  Poets 
who  could  celebrate  the  praises  of  their  benefactors,  and  brah- 
mins and  devotees,  whose  support,  on  account  of  their  rehgious 
character,  was  deemed  a work  of  merit,  and  obtained  for  their 
benefactors  the  reputation  of  piety  as  well  as  of  liberality,  were 
the  objects  of  royal  bounty.  But  those  who  were  sick  or  in- 
jured by  accidents,  must  seek  for  medical  knowledge  and  sur- 
gical skill  where  they  could  find  them. 

The  Enghsh  government  supports  surgeons  in  the  army,  in 
the  native  as  well  as  the  European  regiments.  The  care  which 
the  English  government  shows  for  the  health  of  their  native 
troops,  and  the  treatment  these  receive  when  sick,  so  different 
from  what  is  seen  and  experienced  in  the  armies  of  the  native 
prmces,  have  greatly  strengthened  the  power  of  the  English  in 
Lidia.  The  European  surgeons  in  charge  of  the  native  regi- 
ments have  generally  some  native  assistants  under  their  care, 
who  acquire  considerable  knowledge  of  diseases  and  the  Eu« 

39 


458 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ropean  manner  of  treating  them.  These  men  on  leaving  the 
army,  and  sometimes  perhaps  while  in  cormection  with  it,  prac- 
tise medicine  among  the  native  population  in  the  cities  and 
large  towns.  And  defective  as  the  knowledge  and  skill  of  this 
class  are  when  compared  with  the  regularly  educated  physicians 
of  Europe  and  America,  they  are  yet  far  superior  to  the  com- 
mon native  doctors.  There  are  large  hospitals  in  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay,  and  in  other  large  cities,  and  generally  at 
the  civil  stations,  where  medical  advice  and  medicines  are  given 
gratuitously  to  the  poor  and  suffering.  The  English  have  done 
much  to  introduce  and  extend  vaccine  inoculation.  The  gov- 
ernment also  furnishes  medicine  and  sometimes  medical  attend- 
ance for  a while  in  places  where  cholera  prevails.  Medical 
institutions  have  been  recently  established  by  the  English  gov- 
ernment in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay.  They  have  well- 
qualified  professors,  and  it  is  expected  that  native  men  will 
become  prepared  in  them  to  practise  medicine  among  their 
countrymen,  and  so  India,  in  the  course  of  time,  will  have  a 
qualified  medical  profession,  for  want  of  which  she  has  so  long 
suffered. 

The  oriental  nations  generally  acknowledge  the  superiority  of 
Europeans  in  medical  science  and  skill.  The  readiness,  and 
frequently  the  anxiety  they  manifest  when  iU,  to  put  themselves 
under  the  care  of  European  physicians,  even  when  they  have  no 
more  knowledge  of  the  party  than  that  he  is  an  acknowledged 
physician  among  his  countrymen,  is  surprising.  This  is  true  of 
the  princes  as  well  as  of  the  common  people,  and  Emropean 
physicians,  by  their  medical  skill,  with  the  emperors,  kings,  and 
princes,  have  often  been  able  to  perform  important  services  for 
the  English  interests  in  Lidia.  In  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay, 
and  perhaps  a few  other  cities,  some  European  physicians  have 
had  profitable  practice  among  the  higher  classes  of  the  native 
population. 


MARRIAGE. 

Agreements  and  arrangements  concerning  marriage  in  India 
are  made  by  parents  for  their  children.  They  feel  it  as  much  a 
part  of  their  duty  to  effect  the  marriage  of  their  children,  as  they 
do  to  support  them  when  yoimg,  and  to  educate  them.  Such 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


459 


has  been  the  custom  of  the  country  for  many  centuries.  One 
reason  they  assign  for  this  custom  is,  that  if  their  children  should 
grow  up  unmarried,  they  might  form  unsuitable  connections  to 
the  sorrow  and  dishonor  of  their  friends,  and  to  their  own  un- 
happiness. Another  reason  assigned  is,  that  if  allowed  to  grow 
up  unmarried,  they  perhaps  would  not  form  any  marriage  con- 
nection, but  would  live  itily  and  lewdly  and  become  profligate. 
The  marriage  relation  is  also  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  pre- 
serve the  moral  character  of  their  daughters.  A long  and  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  many  people  of  different  classes,  and 
the  spirit  that  generally  pervades  the  native  population,  satisfied 
me  that  these  opinions  of  the  consequences  of  parents  allowing 
their  children  to  grow  up  unmarried,  and  then  to  form  what  con- 
nections they  pleased  or  none  at  all,  have  more  of  prudence,  wis- 
dom, and  consideration  in  their  favor  than  they  at  first  sight  ap- 
pear to  have.  Unhappy  as  such  early  marriages  often  must  be, 
yet  I am  not  certain  but  in  India,  where  society  is  so  corrupt,  em- 
ployment so  difficult  to  procure,  temptations  to  licentiousness  so 
great,  and  the  means  of  supporting  families  so  hard  to  be  real- 
ized, greater  evils  would  result  from  parents  allowing  their  chil- 
dren to  grow  up  unmarried,  and  then  to  marry  as  they  please  or 
not  marry  at  aU.  No  doubt  families,  if  the  marriage  connection 
between  the  parents  was  formed  at  mature  age  and  from  their 
free  choice,  would  generally  be  happier,  yet  very  many  men,  if 
they  grew  up  unmarried,  would  never  enter  the  marriage  state, 
and  it  appears  not  unlikely  that  the  social  and  moral  state  of 
people  would  be  worse  than  it  now  is.  Could  polygamy  be 
abolished  and  widows  among  all  classes  have  the  same  right  of 
again  entering  the  married  state  that  men  have,  so  that  widow- 
ers could  marry  women  of  their  own  age,  and  not  be  compelled, 
as  they  now  are,  to  marry  young  girls  and  even  children,  it  would 
probably  be  as  well  for  the  present  custom  of  parents  arranging 
and  settling  and  completing  the  marriage  of  their  children  to 
continue  until  the  people  have  become  better  educated,  and  a 
better  moral  spirit  shall  pervade  all  classes  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  higher  classes  generally  marry  their  children  at  an  earlier 
age  than  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  Boys  are  generally 
married  at  ages  varying  from  7 or  8 to  12  or  15  years,  and 
girls  at  an  earlier  age.  Among  the  brahmins,  if  any  girl  remains 


460 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


unmarried  until  she  is  11  years  old,  the  family  is  suspended 
from  caste.  The  marriage  of  children,  sons  as  well  as  daugh- 
ters, is  regarded  as  a matter  of  great  importance.  AH  classes 
are  very  superstitious  in  respect  to  lucky  and  unlucky  days  for 
this  ceremony.  The  astrologer  is  called  to  show  his  knowledge 
of  the  future,  and  the  stars  and  other  powers,*  supposed  to  have 
influence  over  human  affairs,  are  consulted.  K these  opinions 
and  indications  should  all  be  favorable,  the  marriage  covenant 
between  the  parents  of  the  children  is  made,  and  a propitious 
time  for  the  ceremony  is  selected.  The  friends  of  both  parties 
are  invited  to  be  present.  The  gatherings  at  such  times  are 
generally  large,  and  continue  for  2 or  3 days,  and  sometimes  for 
a week.  The  marriage  ceremonies  are  performed  by  some  brah- 
min, in  the  presence  of  the  assembly.  These  ceremonies  are  nu- 
merous, tedious,  and  mystical,  and  being  in  the  Sanscrit  language 
are  utterly  unintelligible  ; for  even  if  the  people  understood  the 
language  (and  not  one  in  a thousand  does  understand  it)  he 
hurries  through  it  so  fast  and  speaks  so  low  that  none  know 
what  he  says.  Indeed,  much  of  what  he  says  consists  of  mysti- 
cal words  and  phrases,  wliich  he  repeats  by  rote,  often  under- 
standing as  little  of  them  himself  as  those  do  who  hear  him. 
Yet  aU  these  ceremonies  are  believed  to  be  of  great  importance. 
The  expenses  for  ornaments,  religious  ceremonies,  feasting, 
music,  processions,  illuminations,  presents  to  friends,  etc.,  are 
large.  The  rich  expend  money  very  freely  on  such  occasions, 

* I once  became  ill  when  on  a missionary  tour,  and  had  to  stop  a while  in  the 
verandah  of  a temple.  While  there  I was  much  Iroublcd  by  people  coming  to 
consult  the  god  about  a marriage  then  under  consideration.  The  way  they  pro- 
ceeded was  first  to  worship  the  idol,  and  then  taking  two  flowers  put  them  in 
water  and  pressed  one  of  them  on  the  right  and  the  other  on  the  left  breast  or 
cheek  of  the  idol.  The  idol  was  of  stone,  somewhat  resembling  the  human 
form,  and  having  been  recently  besmeared  with  shandur  (red  lead  and  oil 
mixed),  the  flowers  would  adhere  to  it  so  long  as  they  continued  to  be  wet 
The  people  having  thus  applied  the  flowers,  would  then  stand  before  the  idol 
and  pray  thus: — “O  god,  if  this  marriage  now  under  consideration  will  ho 
happy,  then  cause  the  flower  on  thy  right  breast  or  cheek  to  fall  fir.st;  and  if  it 
will  be  unhappy,  then  cause  the  flower  on  thy  left  breast  or  cheek  to  fall  first” 
They  would  then  all  stand  anxiously  waiting  to  see  the  result.  They  tided  the 
experiment,  or  rather  in  this  way  consulted  the  god,  several  times,  and  were 
prepared  to  act  in  accordance  with  what  they  believed  to  be  his  revealed  will 
Similar  ways  of  consulting  the  gods  in  important  matters  are  often  practised. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


4G1 


and  the  lower  classes  often  incur  debts  which  are  a burden  upon 
them  for  years. 

When  the  marriage  ceremonies  are  over,  the  bridegroom  and 
the  bride  return  to  their  respective  homes,  each  living  with  their 
parents,  and  occasionally  interchanging  visits  till  they  arrive  at  a 
state  of  puberty.  Some  further  ceremonies  are  then  performed, 
and  the  parties  begin  to  live  together. 

One  unhappy  consequence  of  the  early  age  at  which  mar- 
riages take  place  in  India  is,  that  one  of  the  parties  not  unfre- 
quently  dies  before  they  have  lived  together.  A widower,  what- 
ever his  age  may  be,  and  to  whatever  caste  he  may  belong,  can 
marry  again.  But  a widow  of  the  brahminical  caste,  whether 
she  has  ever  lived  with  her  husband  or  not,  is  not  allowed  again  to 
enter  the  married  state.  She  is  not  allowed  to  wear  her  hair,  or 
any  ornaments,  or  to  be  present  at  marriages  or  any  other  festive 
occasions.  Thus  excluded  from  the  marriage  state  and  dis- 
graced in  social  life,  her  circumstances,  especially  if  she  has  not 
sons  to  protect  her,  are  very  humiliating,  and  her  situation  be- 
comes extremely  painful.  Tliis  state  often  leads  openly  or  se- 
cretly to  a life  of  vice  and  prostitution.  It  was  this  view  of  the 
painful  prospect  before  them  in  life  that  formerly  induced  so 
many  -^ddows  of  this  caste  voluntarily  to  perish  with  the  bodies 
of  their  deceased  husbands  on  the  funeral  pile.  There  is  some 
prejudice  among  some  of  the  other  high  castes  against  widows 
marrying  again,  and  in  some  places  and  circles  such  marriages 
seldom  occur,  but  I am  not  aware  that  it  is  prohibited  to  any 
caste  except  the  brahmins.  Among  the  great  body  of  the  Hin- 
dus, vddows  as  well  as  ^vddowers  can  marry  again.  The  state- 
ment sometimes  made  that  widows  in  India  cannot  again  enter 
the  married  state,  is  true  only  of  the  high  castes.  The  marriage 
of  widows  is  not  prohibited  by  the  shastras  to  more  than  one 
tenth  part  of  the  people.  Among  nine  tenths  of  the  people 
widows  can  marry  again  and  again,  if  they  please.  The  cere- 
monies of  the  second  marriage  of  women  are  different  from 
those  of  the  first  marriage.  They  are  shorter,  more  simple,  and 
less  expensive.  The  marriage  of  ‘v^ddows,  especially  of  such  as 
have  children,  is  not  so  frequent  as  it  is  in  Christian  coun- 
tries. But  among  the  Mohammedans  and  the  great  body  of 
Hindus,  there  is  no  law  or  usage  depriving  widows  of  the  privi- 

39* 


462 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


lege  and  the  right  of  again  entering  the  marriage  state.  In- 
deed, considering  how  early  females  are  married,  generally  when 
mere  children,  and  consequently  how  many  of  them  become 
widows,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  society  could  exist,  were  no 
widows  of  any  caste  permitted  again  to  enter  on  married 
hfe. 

It  is  deelared  in  the  Hindu  laws  to  be  a crime  for  parents  to 
seU  their  daughters  to  be  married,  or  to  accept  any  pecuniary 
consideration  for  giving  them  in  marriage  to  any  party  whatever. 
But  this  law  is  httle  regarded.  It  is  very  common  for  parents  to 
take  all  they  can  get  in  such  cases,  and  for  a pecuniary  consid- 
eration they  will  often  give  their  daughters  in  marriage  to  old 
men  who  are  widowers,  or  to  men  who  have  already  one  or  two 
wives.  In  this  way  young  girls  are  often  sacrificed  for  money 
to  a wretched  and  miserable  life  by  their  selfish  and  unfeehng 
parents. 

Parents  generally  marry  their  sons  as  well  as  their  daughters 
when  young,  and  in  such  cases  the  men  and  women  are  nearly 
of  the  same  age.  But  sometimes  boys,  either  from  the  poverty 
of  their  parents  or  from  some  other  cause,  grow  up  unmarried, 
and  such  men,  whatever  may  be  their  age,  will  marry  young 
girls.  Among  the  brahmins,  aU  the  girls  must  be  married  before 
they  are  11  years  old,  and  as  widows,  however  young  they  may 
be,  cannot  again  enter  the  married  state,  aU  bachelors  and  wid- 
owers of  this  caste,  if  they  wish  to  many,  whatever  their  age 
may  be,  can  only  marry  young  girls,  mere  chUdren.  Tliis  un- 
reasonable custom  is  the  cause  of  many  unequal  and  incongru- 
ous connections  — men  40,  50,  60  and  more  years  old  married 
to  young  girls.  Such  marriages  and  famUies  can  seldom  be 
otherwise  than  unhappy. 


POLYGAMY. 

Polygamy  is  practised  among  all  classes  of  the  native  popu- 
lation in  India  — among  Hindus,  Mohammedans,  Parsees,  and 
Jews.  Among  some  classes  the  custom  is,  that  if  a man’s  first 
wife  has  no  children  he  may  take  a second,  and  for  the  same  reason 
a third,  etc.  And  among  some  classes,  if  a man’s  wife  has  no 
son  he  may  take  a second  wife.  There  may  be  other  causes 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


463 


which  are  deemed  sufficient  for  it*  Wealth  and  inclination 
generally  govern  the  conduct  of  men  in  these  matters  more  than 
any  fixed  rules.f  The  Koran  allows  any  Mohammedan  to  marry 
four  wives,  and  then  to  have  as  many  concubines  as  he  can 
maintain.  But  polygamy  appears  not  to  be  more  common 
among  them  than  it  is  among  the  Hindus.  The  Parsees  or  Zo- 
roastrians  practise  polygamy,  but  cases  of  it  are  not  frequent. 
The  Jews  also  in  India  practise  it,  and  think  they  have  sufficient 
authority  for  it  in  the  example  of  the  patriarchs  and  kings  of  the 
Old  Testament.  I have  often  had  discussions  with  them  upon 
this  subject. 

A peculiar  kind  of  polygamy  exists  among  the  brahmins  of 
Bengal.  BuUalsen,  a former  Raja  of  Bengal,  having  observed 
that  many  of  the  brahmins  had  little  regard  to  the  shastras  and 
religious  rites  and  usages,  in  the  hope  of  promoting  learning 
and  religion  among  them,  divided  them  into  several  classes  or 
orders.  The  first  class  was  called  Kuleen  or  the  Kulecn  brah- 
mins, and  was  designed  to  embrace  only  those  wffio  were  learned, 
pious,  etc.  But  instead  of  continuing  to  be  an  Order  of  Merit, 
as  was  mtended,  it  has  become  a mere  hereditary  distinction,  a 
kind  of  hereditary  nobility  without  any  reference  to  the  personal 
qualities  in  view  of  which  it  originated.  This  class  claims  and 
everywhere  receives  preeminence,  and  it  is  a great  honor  to  be 
allied  to  them.  The  men  of  this  class  can  marry  into  other  divis- 
ions of  the  brahminical  caste,  who  wiU  often  give  large  sums  of 
money  for  the  honor  of  such  a comiection,  but  the  women  or 
daughters  of  kuleen  brahmins  can  marry  only  into  their  ovm 
class  or  order.  Li  consequence  of  this  strange  usage,  says  Ward, 
“ the  sons  of  kuleens  are  generally  preengaged,  while  their  un- 

*•  The  Institutes  of  Menu,  which  are  the  highest  authority  in  such  matters, 
say : — “A  barren  wife  may  be  superseded  by  another  in  the  eighth  year ; she 
whose  children  are  all  dead,  in  the  tenth ; she  who  brings  forth  only  daughters, 
in  the  eleventh ; she  who  speaks  unkindly,  without  delay.” 

j I was  once  ascending  the  Ganges  with  some  friends  when  one  of  our  com- 
pany who  belonged  to  Calcutta,  directed  our  attention  to  a large  and  beautitul 
house  situated  near  the  bank  of  the  river,  remarking  that  the  resident  was  a 
son  of  the  late  king  of  Oude.  After  looking  a while  at  the  palace,  the  park, 
and  other  things,  he  pointed  out  some  appurtenances,  and  said  that  those  places 
were  occupied  by  the  harem.  I inquired  how  many  wives  the  owner  had.  My 
friend  replied  that  he  did  not  know  the  exact  number,  but  there  were  about  80. 


464 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


married  daughters  for  want  of  young  men  of  equal  rank,  become 
so  numerous  that  husbands  cannot  be  found  for  them ; hence 
one  kuleen  brahmin  often  marries  a number  of  wives  of  his  own 
order.  Each  kuleen  marries  at  least  two  ^\dves ; one  the  daugh- 
ter of  a brahmin  of  his  own  order,  and  the  other  of  a shortry 
brahmin  ; the  former  he  generally  leaves  at  her  father’s,  the  other 
he  takes  to  his  own  house.  It  is  essential  to  the  honor  of  a 
kuleen  that  he  have  one  daughter,  but  by  the  budh  of  many 
daughters  he  sinks  in  respect ; hence  he  dreads  more  than  other 
Hindus  the  birth  of  daughters.  Some  inferior  kuleens  marry 
many  wives.  I have  heard  of  persons  having  120 ; many  have 
15  or  20,  and  others  40  or  50  each.  Numbers  procure  a subsist- 
ence by  this  excessive  polygamy ; at  their  marriages  they  obtain 
large  presents,  and  as  often  as  they  visit  these  wives  they  receive 
presents  from  the  father,  and  thus  having  married  into  40  or 
50  families,  a kuleen  goes  from  house  to  house,  and  is  fed,  clothed, 
etc.”  * In  this  way  BuUalsen’s  creation  of  an  Order  of  Merit 
among  the  brahmins,  has  produced  a state  of  monstrous  polyg- 
amy, which  has  no  equal  in  the  history  of  human  depravity. 

The  domestic  habits  of  the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans  are 
such  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  ascertain  or  definitely  say 
what  proportion  of  men  have  two  or  more  wives,  and  in  some 
districts  the  cases  are  much  more  frequent  than  in  others.  In 
some  places  the  proportion  of  men  who  have  two  or  more  wives, 
may  be  1 in  5,  and  in  other  places  not  more  than  1 in  10.  In 
this  respect  there  is  no  difference  between  the  native  population 
in  the  territories  under  the  English  government,  and  in  those 
which  are  subject  to  the  native  princes.  When  the  East  India 
Company  began  to  acquire  territory  in  India,  and  so  have  a 
native  population  under  their  government.  Acts  of  Parliament 
were  passed  authorizing  the  inhabitants  to  live  and  act  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  previously  established  laws  and  usages  in 
civil  and  religious  matters.  The  English  government  has  always 
had  the  power  to  make  any  new  laws  for  which  there  might  ap- 
po^ar  to  be  occasion.  But  none  have  been  enacted  concerning 
polygamy,  nor  does  it  appear  likely  that  any  such  will  be  enacted 
for  some  time  to  come.  So  the  laws  and  usages  previously 
existing  are  stiU  in  force,  and  they  are  administered  by  English 


* Ward’s  View  of  the  Hindus,  vol.  1,  p.  81,  82. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


465 


magistrates.  Thus  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  which 
have  belonged  to  the  English  for  several  generations,  polygamy 
is  practised  as  freely  by  the  different  classes  and  castes  of  the 
native  population,  as  it  would  be  if  they  were  living  under  gov- 
ernments professing  their  own  faith.  And  in  the  same  manner 
polygamy  with  all  its  evils,  personal,  social,  and  moral,  exists 
among  more  than  100  millions  of  people  living  under  the  Brit- 
ish government  People  of  different  religions  and  castes  never 
intermarry  with  each  other,  and  all  questions  and  cases  concern- 
ing marriage,  inheritance,  etc.,  are  decided  in  the  courts  accord- 
ing to  established  laws  and  usages  of  the  respective  parties. 
Cases  of  this  character,  where  the  parties  are  Hindus,  are  decided 
according  to  the  Hindu  laws  and  usages,  and  where  the  parties 
are  Mohammedans  according  to  their  laws  and  usages.  So 
also  with  the  Parsecs,  the  Jews,  etc.  In  cases  affecting  the  va- 
lidity of  marriages,  as  cases  concerning  hereditary  right  to  prop- 
erty, the  question  considered  by  the  courts  is,  whether  the  mar- 
riage in  its  circumstances  and  connections  was  in  accordance 
with  the  established  usages  of  that  class  of  people,  and  was 
then  regarded  by  all  interested  as  a proper  and  valid  marriage. 
If  it  is  decided  to  be  of  this  character,  then  all  questions  depend- 
ing upon  the  marriage  or  involved  in  it,  are  determined  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  and  usages  of  the  parties  interested. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  polygamy  among  the  native  pop- 
ulation of  India  is  protected  by  Acts  of  Parliament,  and  by  the 
decisions  of  the  highest  courts.  The  marriage  of  a Hindu  or  a 
Mohammedan  or  a Jew  in  India  with  his  second,  third,  or  fourth 
wife,  if  it  is  performed  according  to  the  Hindu  or  Mohammedan 
or  Jew  ish  laws  and  usages,  is  as  valid  as  his  marriage  wdth  his 
first  wife,  as  valid  as  the  marriage  of  any  European  or  Ameri- 
can is  in  his  own  country.  The  children  of  each  wife  are  equally 
legitimate.  He  cannot  divorce  either  of  Ms  wives  without  due 
form  of  law,  and  the  law  is  open  to  his  wives  for  redress,  if  he 
should  refuse  to  support  them  or  their  children. 

CASTE. 

The  distinctions  of  Caste  in  India  are  so  peculiar,  and  have 
existed  so  long,  they  have  had  so  much  influence  upon  the  state 


466 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


and  character  of  the  people  in  time  past,  and  still  have  so  much, 
that  they  appear  to  deserve  particular  consideration. 

The  history  of  several  ancient  nations  mention  that  the  in- 
habitants were  divided  into  different  classes  according  to  their 
occupations.  “ In  Egypt  the  people  are  said  to  have  been 
divided  into  4 classes,  namely,  the  priests,  the  military  class,  the 
artificers,  and  the  husbandmen.”  “ The  Colchians  and  the  Ibe- 
rians were  divided  into  4 classes,  whose  rank  and  office  were 
hereditary  and  unchangeable.”  In  Persia,  “ Jamshed  divided  all 
the  people  into  4 classes.”  In  these  nations  the  divisions  are 
ascribed  to  their  government,  and  so  like  their  other  laws  and 
usages,  they  perished  in  the  changes  of  dynasties  and  the  revo- 
lutions of  time.  Those  who  originated  the  distinctions  of  caste 
which  have  been  perpetuated  in  India,  whether  they  were 
princes  or  priests,  or  what  is  more  probable,  both  combined, 
took  what  was  for  them,  a wiser  course.  They  inserted  these 
distinctions  in  their  sacred  books,  and  so  ascribed  their  origin 
and  the  laws  for  observ'^ing  them  to  the  Creator. 

The  Vedas  and  their  expositors  mention  the  existence  and  the 
comparative  rank  of  the  four  original  castes,  and  the  Institutes 
of  Menu  and  other  works  believed  by  the  Hindus  to  be  of 
divine  origin,  contain  particular  accounts  of  the  origin  and  na- 
ture of  these  distinctions.  The  following  are  extracts  from 
these  works : — 

“ That  the  human  race  might  be  multiplied,  Brahma  caused 
the  brahmins  to  proceed  firom  his  mouth,  the  kshatryas  from  his 
arms,  the  vaishyas  from  his  thighs,  and  the  shudi-as  from  his 
feet.  To  the  brahmins  he  assigned  the  duties  of  reading  the 
Vedas,  of  teaching  them,  of  sacrificing,  of  alluring  others  to 
sacrifice,  of  giving  alms  if  they  be  rich,  and  if  indigent,  of  re- 
ceiving gifts.  — To  defend  the  people,  to  sacrifice,  to  give  alms, 
to  read  the  Vedas,  to  shun  the  allurements  of  sensual  gratifica- 
tion, are  in  a few  words  the  duties  of  the  kshatryas.  — To  keep 
herds  of  cattle,  to  bestow  largesses,  to  sacrifice,  to  read  the 
scriptures,  to  carry  on  trade,  to  lend  money  at  interest,  and  to 
cultivate  land,  are  prescribed  to  the  vaishyas.  — One  principal 
duty  the  Supreme  Ruler  assigned  to  the  shudras,  namely,  to 
serve  the  before-mentioned  classes  without  depreciating  their 
worth.” 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


467 


In  the  Bhagawat  Gita,  Krishna  says,  “ Mankind  was  created 
by  me,  of  four  kinds,  distinct  in  their  principles,  and  in  their 
duties.”  — “ The  duties  of  brahmins,  kshatryas,  vaishyas,  and 
shudras  are  distributed  agreeably  to  their  natural  characteristic 
qualities.  The  natural  duties  of  the  brahmins  arc  subjugation 
of  the  mind  and  body,  austerity,  sanctity,  forbearance,  divme 
and  human  knowledge  and  faith.  The  duties  of  the  kshatryas 
are  heroism,  energy,  patience,  policy,  not  fleeing  in  battle,  gen- 
erosity, aptitude  for  governing.  The  duties  of  the  vaishyas  are 
commerce,  agriculture,  and  tending  cattle.  The  duty  of  the 
shudras  is  to  serve  the  other  orders.” 

These  extracts  show  that  the  Hindu  sacred  books  teach  that 
the  distinctions  of  caste  are  of  divine  origin,  and  commenced 
with  their  creation.  Such  is  the  belief  of  all  orthodox  Hindus. 
They  no  more  believe  that  the  dJfferent  castes  into  which  they 
are  divided,  were  originally  of  one  common  stock,  and  subse- 
quently became  separated  into  different  castes  as  they  now  are, 
than  we  believe  that  camels,  horses,  goats,  and  hogs,  were 
originally  of  one  common  stock,  and  that  the  differences  we  now 
see  between  them  have  all  subsequently  taken  place.  The  Hin- 
dus all  believe  that  the  Creator  of  the  human  race,  or  dif- 
ferent races  as  they  regard  them,  was  the  founder  of  caste  by 
separately  creating  each  order.  They  also  believe  that  he  as- 
signed to  each  caste  its  comparative  rank,  and  its  appropriate 
and  particular  duties.  So  there  are  no  laws  of  higher  origin  or 
of  more  importance  than  those  which  pertain  to  caste. 

The  brahmins  were  to  be  treated  with  reverence  almost  equal 
to  the  gods,  and  with  respect  far  greater  than  kings.  Injuries 
inflicted  upon  them  were  to  be  punished  wdth  great  severity, 
while  the  same  crimes  if  committed  by  them  were  to  be  treated 
with  great  lenity,  and  for  no  crime  whatever  were  they  ever  to 
be  put  to  death,  or  reduced  to  slavery.  Still  the  course  of  life 
prescribed  for  them  was  far  from  being  one  of  ease  and  self- 
indulgence.  A brahmin  was  to  be  emphatically  a religious 
man.  The  first  part  of  his  life  he  was  to  be  a student  under  the 
continual  care  of  his  spiritual  guide,  learning  and  reading  the 
Vedas,  and  performing  religious  rites  and  ceremonies.  In  the 
second  part  he  was  to  become  a householder.  In  this  period 
his  duties  were  to  read  and  teach  the  Vedas,  to  offer  sacrifices, 


468 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


and  to  assist  others  to  sacrifice,  to  receive  gifts,  and  bestow  alms. 
He  may  eat  animal  food  if  it  has  been  offered  in  sacrifice,  and 
this  subject  is  mentioned  in  a manner  which  indicates  a frequent 
practice.  In  all  cucumstances  he  is  to  be  careful  in  sustaining 
his  religious  profession,  to  abstain  from  all  amusements,  and 
from  aU  fight  conduct  and  frivolous  conversation.  And  so  he 
is  to  continue  tfil  the  time  for  entering  upon  the  third  state, 
thus  : — “ When  he  perceives  his  muscles  become  flaccid,  and 
his  hair  gray,  and  sees  the  child  of  his  child,  let  him  then  seek 
refuge  in  a forest.”  He  is  to  be  clothed  with  the  bark  of  trees, 
or  the  skin  of  a black  antelope  ; he  must  not  cut  his  hair  or  his 
nails,  he  must  sleep  on  the  bare  ground,  and  “ five  without  fire, 
without  a mansion,  wholly  silent,  feeding  on  roots  and  fruit.” 
He  must  submit  to  many  severe  austerities,*  and  carefully  per- 
form all  the  required  sacrificed  and  ceremonies.  In  the  fourth, 
or  last  period  or  state  of  fife,  he  is  released  from  all  the  forms 
and  ceremonies  of  religion ; he  may  now  cease  to  inflict  acts  of 
mortification  upon  himself,  and  devote  his  time  to  contempla- 
tion, and  to  meditation  upon  the  Supreme  Sphit.  The  abstinence 
and  self-denial  to  be  practised  are  still  great,  but  they  are  not  so 
severe  as  in  the  previous  state.  He  may  leave  the  forest  and 
return  to  the  abodes  of  civilized  fife.  “ Having  abandoned  all 
ceremonial  acts,  having  expiated  aU  his  offences,  having  ob- 
tained a command  over  his  organs,  and  having  perfectly  under- 
stood aU  the  Vedas,  he  may  become  an  anchorite  in  the  house 
of  Iris  son,  while  the  household  affairs  are  conducted  by  his  son.” 
And  thus  he  was  to  continue  to  the  end  of  fife. 

The  brahmins  now  seldom  attempt  to  perform  all  these  rites 
and  to  practise  all  these  austerities.  The  rules  of  caste  among 
them  have  changed  in  various  ways,  but  they  regard  themselves 
as  observing  the  most  important  and  essential  rules.  They 
alone  can  possess  and  expound  the  Vedas,  and  they  must  offi- 
ciate in  all  religious  rites  and  ceremonies.  They  profess  to 
obey  their  rules  in  respect  to  eating  and  drinking,  and  they  have 

* “ In  the  hot  season  let  liim  sit  exposed  to  five  fires,  four  blazing  around  him, 
with  tlic  sun  above  ; in  tlic  rains  let  him  stand  uncovered,  without  even  a man- 
tle, where  the  clouds  pour  the  heaviest  showers ; in  the  cohl  season  let  him  wear 
liumid  vesture,  and  let  him  by  degrees  increase  the  austerity  of  his  devo- 
tions.” 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


469 


great  influence  over  all  the  other  castes.  In  some  districts  they 
make  one  tenth  or  hvelfth  part  of  the  peoj)le,  but  in  others  not 
more  than  one  twentieth  part.  A small  proportion  of  them 
understand  the  Sanscrit  language  and  its  literature,  and  nearly 
all  are  edueated  in  the  vernacular  languages  of  their  district. 
They  are  easy  and  polite  in  their  manners,  ready  and  fluent 
in  conversation,  and  fond  of  discussion  on  religious  and  meta- 
physical subjects. 

The  kshatryas  and  vaishyas,  as  pure  castes,  are  now  de- 
clared by  the  brahmins  to  be  extinct,  and  this  is  the  general 
opinion  among  the  Hindus.*  A few  families  in  some  places 
claim  to  belong  to  these  original  castes,  but  their  claims  are  not 
generally  allowed,  and  it  is  certain  that  they  do  not  retain  and  ex- 
ercise the  original  rights  of  these  castes,  as  reading  the  Vedas, 
offering  sacrifices,  etc.  Only  the  brahmins  now  possess  the  Ve- 
das, and  officiate  in  religious  rites  and  ceremonies. 

Caste,  in  its  nature  and  origin,  is  an  essential  part  of  the  Hindu 
religion,  and  all  nations  and  tribes  not  professing  this  faith,  are 
called  in  their  sacred  books  outcastes  and  polluted.  Caste  con- 
sists essentially  in  pretended  and  supposed  birth-purity.  It  is 
strictly  hereditary  and  never  can  be  acquired.  It  is  not  properly 
of  a moral  nature,  nor  in  any  way  connected  with  or  dependent 
upon  moral  qualities.  People  may  commit  any  kind  of  iniquity, 
may  be  guilty  of  falsehood,  theft,  lewdness,  robbery,  and  murder, 
and  they  often  are  guilty  of  these  crimes,  are  convicted  of  them 
and  publicly  punished  for  them,  and  yet  do  not  lose  caste.  Caste 
appears  not  to  have  been  designed  to  promote  justice  or  pu- 
rity or  holiness,  but  by  maldng  fancied  distinctions  of  differ- 
ent classes  of  the  human  race,  and  arbitrary  rules  concerning 
family  connections  and  social  intercourse,  to  elevate  some  of 
these  classes  and  to  depress  others  and  to  perpetuate  this  state,, 
so  that  no  vices  could  degrade  the  former,  and  no  virtues  elevate 
the  latter. 

The  supposed  purity  of  caste  may  be  destroyed  or  impaired 
by  a violation  of  its  rules,  and  such  violations  are  punished  in 
various  ways  according  to  the  nature  of  the  offence.  People 
may  incur  this  evil  by  personally  violating  its  rules,  or  by  partici- 

* Page  434. 

40 


470 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


pating  knowingly  or  unknowingly  with  those  who  are  transgres- 
sors. This  liability  to  suffer  for  the  transgression  of  others,  makes 
people  watchful  over  the  conduct  of  one  another.  If  there  is 
any  report  or  accusation  against  any  one  of  having  broken  the 
rules  of  his  caste,  a meeting  of  the  same  caste-people  is  held  to 
investigate  the  matter,  and  if  he  is  fomid  guilty,  he  is  sentenced 
to  some  punishment.  This  punishment  may  be  a fine  or  some 
penance,  or  entire  exclusion  from  caste.  The  penalties  are  often 
heavy,  humiliating,  and  severe,  as  the  payment  of  large  sums  of 
money,  difficult  ceremonial  ablutions,  painful  penances,  humiliat- 
ing confessions,  eating  and  drinlving  things  of  a ffithy  and  dis- 
gusting nature,  but  supposed  to  have  some  purifying  efficacy. 
And  the  unhappy  person  is  suspended  from  aU  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  caste  tiU  he  has  paid,  or  performed  or  suffered  all 
the  penalty.  It  is  amazing  to  see  what  men  will  give,  and  do, 
and  suffer  to  recover  their  standing  in  their  caste.  But  then 
there  is  no  punishment  so  great  and  so  severe  as  exclusion  from 
caste.  According  to  the  Hindu  laws  a man  excluded  from  his 
caste  loses  aU  his  marital,  parental,  social,  and  civil  rights.  He 
is  to  be  expelled  at  once  from  his  house  and  his  home,  to  be  dis- 
owned by  his  family  and  his  friends,  and  to  be  driven  from  all 
society.  He  is  to  be  regarded  as  dead,  and  funeral  rites  of  a 
peculiar  character  are  to  be  performed  for  him.  His  legal  heirs 
take  possession  of  his  property  as  though  he  were  dead.  His 
family,  his  friends,  and  aU  his  caste  unite  in  executing  the  sen- 
tence which  has  been  passed  upon  him.  He  can  obtain  no 
redress  or  sympathy  by  appealing  to  people  of  other  castes,  for 
the  people  of  each  caste  always  claim  the  right  of  managing 
such  matters  as  they  please,  and  one  caste  will  not  interfere  with 
the  proceedings  of  another  caste.  K he  appealed  to  princes  or 
to  magistrates,  they  never  interfered  further  than  to  ascertain 
that  the  proceedings  had  been  according  to  the  rules  of  caste ; 
they  never  changed  these  rules  — for  they  are  believed  to  be  of 
divine  origin,  and  the  duty  of  kings  and  princes  are  to  govern 
their  people  according  to  these  rules  and  laws. 

The  shudras,  or  fourth  caste,  are  often  called  in  the  Institutes 
of  Menu,  “ the  servile  class,”  and  their  state,  civil,  social,  and 
religious,  was  exfremely  degraded.  “ Their  duty  was  to  serve 
the  other  classes  (castes)  without  depreciating  their  worth.” 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


471 


They  are  not  described  as  being  the  chattels  or  property  of  the 
other  classes,  though  such  appears  to  have  been  the  state  of 
some  among  them.  They  could  acquire  and  hold  property  of 
any  kind,  and  could  dispose  of  it  as  they  pleased.  They  could 
pursue  the  mechanical  arts  as  joinery,  masonry,  etc.  They 
might  learn  to  read,  to  write,  to  paint,  etc.  Probably  no  kind 
of  manual  labor  was  prohibited.  They  could  perform  sacrifices 
but  must  not  use  the  texts  of  the  Vedas,  nor  the  same  ritual  as 
the  other  castes.  Brahmins  were  not  allowed  to  teach  them  the 
Vedas,  nor  to  assist  them  in  sacrifice,  nor  to  instruct  them  how 
to  make  any  expiation  for  sin.  To  acquire  the  religious  knowl- 
edge or  to  perform  the  religious  rites  of  the  other  castes,  was  a 
crime.*  The  punishments  to  be  inflicted  upon  shudras  for  vari- 
ous offences  were  far  more  severe  than  when  committed  by  the 
otlier  classes.  Thus  they  were  not  only  to  be  kept  in  greater 
ignorance,  but  to  be  punished  more  severely  for  their  crimes. 

The  kshatryas  and  vaishyas  having  been  destroyed  or  no 
longer  existing  as  pure  castes,  all  who  are  not  brahmins, 
are  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  mixed  castes  (the  offspring  of 
unlawful  connections),  or  to  some  of  the  numerous  classes  into 
which  the  shudras  have  become  divided,  or  to  those  who  are  re- 
garded as  outcastes  and  included  under  the  general  name  of 
pariars.  Some  of  these  classes  have  had  for  some  generations, 
probably  for  some  centuries,  a different  social  and  political  po- 
sition from  what  is  assigned  to  them  in  their  shastras.  As  the 
kshatryas  and  vaishyas,  if  stiff  existing,  are  not  recognized  as 
pure  castes,  the  ground  they  originally  occupied  in  the  social 
and  political  system  must  be  occupied  by  the  remaining  castes. 
Many  brahmins  are  now  engaged  in  secular  occupations.  They 

* “ If  a sliudra  gets  by  heart  any  part  of  the  Vedas  or  the  Sliastras,  the  mag- 
istrates shall  put  him  to  death.  If  a shudra  assumes  the  brahminical  thread 
(the  distinguishing  badge  of  the  brahmins)  the  magistrate  shall  fine  him  800 
puns  of  cowries.  If  a shudra  shall  perform  the  yog  (a  religious  rite)  the  magis- 
trate shall  put  him  to  death,  or  fine  him  200  ashrafees.” 

“If  a shudra  shall  presume  to  read  any  part  of  the  Vedas  or  Shastras  or  Pu- 
rans  to  a brahmin,  a kshatrya,  or  a vaishya,  the  magistrate  shall  heat  some  bitter 
oil  and  pour  it  into  that  shudra’s  mouth;  and  if  a shudra  listens  to  the  Vedas  or 
Shastras,  then  the  oil,  heated  as  before,  shall  be  poured  into  his  ears,  and  anseez 
and  wax  shall  be  melted  together,  and  the  orifice  of  his  earn  shall  be  stopped 
therewith.” — Halhed’s  Gentoo  Code. 


472 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


engage  without  religious  scruples  in  nearly  all  kinds  of  govern- 
ment service.  They  have  been  ministers  of  State,  counsellors, 
secretaries,  judges,  clerks,  military  officers,  and  common  soldiers. 
In  some  districts  they  are  divided  into  two  classes,  one  class 
preparing  themselves  to  obtain  their  livelihood  by  teaching  re- 
ligious duties  and  performing  religious  rites,  and  the  other  pre- 
paring themselves  for  secular  employment.  This  last  class  have 
no  hesitation  about  engaging  in  the  service  of  Europeans,  Mo- 
hammedans, or  Hindus  of  a lower  caste  than  themselves,  if  they 
are  not  required  to  do  any  tiling  contrary  to  their  rules  of 
caste. 

So  men  of  the  lower  castes  have  often  been  princes,  generals, 
merchants,  soldiers,  etc.,  and  have  had  brahmins  in  their  em- 
ployment. StiU,  whatever  the  business  relations  of  the  par- 
ties may  be,  each  caste  carefully  observes  the  rules  of  its  own 
order,  and  is  expected  carefully  to  avoid  every  thing  which 
would  be  to  the  prejudice  of  the  caste  of  the  other  party.  There 
is  thus  mutual  observance  and  forbearance,  if  not  mutual  re- 
spect. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  Hindus  for  2,000  or  3,000  years 
when  living  under  their  own  governments.  Nor  until  recently 
was  it  materially  different  under  the  English  government ; for 
the  policy  they  adopted  was  to  govern  their  Hindu  subjects  ac- 
cording to  Hindu  laws  and  usages,  and  their  Mohammedan  sub- 
jects according  to  the  Mohammedan  laws  and  usages.  And 
such  continued  to  be  their  pohcy  until  1836,  when  Lord  Wil- 
liam Bentinck,  then  governor-general,  passed  a law  or  caused  one 
to  be  passed,  that,  “ In  any  civil  suit  where  the  parties  are  of  dif- 
ferent religious  persuasions,  the  laws  of  the  Hindus,  Mohamme- 
dans, or  other  religions,  shall  not  be  permitted  to  operate  to  de- 
prive such  party  or  parties  of  any  property  to  which  but  for  the 
operation  of  such  laws  they  would  have  been  entitled.” 

As  this  law  was  applicable  only  to  Bengal,  and  some  of  its 
provisions  appeared  to  be  difficult  or  imperfect,  it  had  not  much 
influence.  No  further  laws  affecting  caste  were  passed  till  1850, 
when  the  Marquis  of  Dalhousie,  then  governor-general,  passed 
the  following : — “So  much  of  any  law  or  usage  in  force  within 
the  British  territories  as  inflicts  on  any  j)crson  forfeiture  of  rights 
or  property,  or  may  be  held  in  any  way  to  impair  or  afl’ect  any 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


473 


right  of  inheritance  by  reason  of  his  or  her  renouncing,  or  having 
been  excluded  from  the  communion  of  any  religion,  or  being  de- 
prived of  caste,  sliall  cease  to  be  enforced  as  law  in  the  courts  of 
the  East  India  Company,  and  in  the  courts  established  by  the 
Royal  Charter  within  the  said  territories.”  This  law  was  de- 
signed to  give  equal  toleration  and  protection  to  all  classes  of 
people.  The  Hindus  remonstrated  and  protested,  but  all  was  in 
vain.  The  Act  has  become  one  of  the  laws  of  the  country.  No 
law  in  any  country  was  ever  more  required,  and  no  law  ever 
produced  more  important  results. 

This  law  plaees  aU  classes,  Christians,  Jews,  Mohammedans, 
and  Hindus,  upon  equal  ground,  permitting  every  man  to 
profess  and  practise  what  religion  he  pleases,  and  to  change 
his  religion  when  he  pleases,  and  retain  his  personal,  family, 
and  property  rights.  It  was  designed  to  confer  upon  the 
people  of  India  the  same  liberty  of  conscience  which  the 
people  in  England  and  in  the  United  States  enjoy.  jVnd 
yet  this  law  so  reasonable  and  just,  excited  great  alarm  among 
the  Hindus  and  INIohammedans,  who  regarded  it  as  an  uncalled 
for  interference  with  their  usages  and  rights,  and  designed  to 
destroy  the  great  bulwarks  of  their  religion.  Public  meetings 
were  held,  earnest  speeches  were  made,  and  exciting  articles  ap- 
peared in  the  native  journals.  Memorials  were  sent  to  the  gov- 
ernor-general, and  Court  of  Directors.  And  when  these  were 
found  to  be  unavailing,  a large  sum  of  money  was  raised  by  sub- 
scription, and  an  English  barrister  of  the  supreme  court  in  Cal- 
cutta was  despatched  with  a memorial  to  England.  In  May, 
1853,  I saw  this  memorial  (signed  by  more  than  8,000  names) 
presented  to  the  House  of  Lords  by  Lord  Monteagle,  who  made 
a speech  in  favor  of  the  memorialists.  Lord  EUenborough  (who 
had  been  governor-general  of  India)  then  made  a speech,  de- 
scribing what  would  be  the  unhappy  consequences  of  this  law, 
and  deprecating  any  changes  in  the  rehgious  laws  and  usages 
of  the  people  of  India.  Earl  Granville  then  made  a speech  in 
reply,  and  the  memorial  was  then  referred  to  the  Committee  of 
the  House  on  the  state  of  India.  The  prayer  of  the  memo- 
•iaJists  was  not  granted. 


40* 


474 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS. 

India,  including  a territory  as  large  as  aU  Eiu-ope  south  of  the 
Baltic  and  Russia,  or  all  the  United  States  betw^een  the  INIis- 
sissippi  and  the  Atlantic,  extending  through  26  degrees  of  lati- 
tude, containing  8 or  10  different  nations,  “wath  as  many  different 
languages,  and  a population  of  150  mUlions  of  inhabitants,  must 
necessarily  have  great  diversity  of  customs  and  manners.  The 
difference  between  these  nations  in  personal  appearance,  manners, 
and  language,  is  nearly  or  quite  as  great  as  it  is  among  the  na- 
tions of  Europe.  The  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  are 
fairer  than  those  in  the  Deckan  and  southern  parts.  Some  peo- 
ple in  the  western  and  north-western  provinces,  as  the  Parsees, 
and  Cashmerians,  are  but  little  darker  than  the  inhabitants  of 
the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  while  the  natives  of  the  Deckan, 
and  the  provinces  south  of  it,  are  as  dark  and  many  of  them 
darker  than  the  mulattoes  of  the  United  States.  Among  the 
inhabitants  of  India  are  to  be  found  people  of  every  shade  of 
complexion  from  a European  or  American  of  dark  complexion 
to  the  common  negro.  But  none  of  the  inhabitants  have  the 
peculiar  African  features.  They  have  black  and  sti-aight  hair, 
and  dark  eyes.  People  in  the  northern  parts  are  of  the  average 
height  of  Em'opeans  or  Americans,  but  in  the  Deckan  and  in 
the  provinces  to  the  south  of  it,  they  are  of  less  stature  and 
lighter  form.  The  Bengalees  are  not  so  large  as  the  inhabitants 
of  the  north-west  provinces,  but  are  generally  taller  than  the  peo- 
ple on  the  eastern  and  western  coast  of  the  peninsula.  They 
have  generally,  very  dark  complexion  for  that  latitude ; they 
are  effeminate  in  their  appearance,  and  timid  and  servile  in 
their  manners.  The  Teloogoos,  the  Tamulians,  and  the  Ca- 
narese,  are  more  timid  and  servile  in  their  intercourse  with 
Europeans,  and  with  superiors  among  their  own  people,  than 
the  Mahrattas  or  the  Gujerattees.  The  climate  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  India  makes  it  necessary  for  the  inhabitants  to 
wear  more  clothing  in  the  cool  months  than  the  inhabitants  of 
the  peninsula  wear.  The  men  wear  turbans,  pagotas,  and  caps 
of  various  Idnds  and  shapes.  Those  of  the  rich  are  of  fine 
cloth,  and  elegant  shape,  while  the  poor  have,  generally,  only  a 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


475 


few  yards  of  coarse  cloth  wTapped  round  the  head.  The  rich 
wear  long  garments,  'the  upper  part  fitted  to  the  body  and  con- 
fined with  a girdle  or  sash,  and  the  lower  part  hanging  loosely. 
The  Mohammedans  and  Parsces  generally  wear  loose  trousers ; 
the  Hindus  wear  a cloth  \vrapped  round  the  body,  fastened  be- 
hind, and  hanging  loosely  nearly  to  the  feet.  In  the  Deckan 
and  the  provinces  south  of  it,  the  laboring  classes  generally  wear 
but  little  clothing  when  in  their  ordinary  occupation  and  in  their 
houses.  The  shoes  of  all  classes  arc  commonly  of  clumsy  make 
and  appearance,  and  in  the  southern  provinces  are  scarcely  worn 
in  the  house.  All  classes,  Mohammedans  as  well  as  Hindus,  put 
off  their  shoes  when  they  go  into  places  of  worship,  or  of  any  re- 
pute for  sanctity.  The  women  in  the  northern  provinces  are 
fairer  and  better  looking  than  in  the  southern  provinces.  They 
also  wear  more  clothing  and  adjust  their  dress  with  more  taste 
and  propriety,  producing  a more  becoming  and  every  way  su- 
perior personal  appearance.  AJl  classes  of  women  are  fond  of 
ornaments.  They  wear  jewels  and  rings  in  the  ears  and  nose, 
rings  on  the  fingers  and  toes,  chains  on  the  neck,  and  bracelets 
on  their  arms,  their  wrists,  and  their  ankles.  These  ornaments 
are  of  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  pearls,  coral,  ivory,  etc.,  often 
amounting  in  value  to  hundreds,  and  sometimes  to  many  thou- 
sands of  dollars.  They  appear  sometimes  to  be  really  burdened 
with  their  ornaments.  They  take  great  pains  and  manifest 
much  pride  in  ornamenting  their  children,  both  girls  and  boys. 
Small  children  whose  whole  clothing  did  not  cost  a dollar,  will 
often  have  on  them  ornaments  worth  $100.  Children  are  often 
robbed  and  sometimes  murdered  to  obtain  their  ornaments.  A 
large  part  of  the  property  of  many  people  consists  of  jewelry. 
The  dowry  given  with  daughters  in  marriage  consists  to  a great 
extent  in  articles  of  this  character,  and  is  regarded  as  the  prop- 
erty of  the  wnfe.  These  articles  are  worn  at  marriages,  holidays, 
and  other  festive  occasions,  and  consisting,  as  they  do,  chiefly  of 
gold  and  silver,  they  can  be  converted  at  any  time  into  money, 
■wdthout  much  loss.  A large  part  of  the  precious  metals  in  the 
country  is  in  jewelry,  and  the  supposed  possession  and  value  of 
such  property  occasions  much  of  the  thieving,  robbing,  plunder- 
ing, and  mtudering  that  take  place.  This  fondness  for  orna- 
ments, their  extravagance  in  proem'ing  them,  and  ostentation  in 


476 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


using  them,  are  the  cause  of  many  evils  to  their  possessors  and 
to  the  community,  and  they  have  been  the  subject  of  much  cen- 
sure and  counsel,  in  the  European  and  native  papers,  but  hith- 
erto apparently  with  little  effect.  These  things  will  apparently 
be  the  principal  objects  of  desire  and  attention  among  the  fe- 
males in  India,  as  long  as  personal  appearance  shall  continue  to 
be  the  quality  chiefly  regarded.  When  education  has  produced 
a due  appreciation  of  mental  qualities  in  women,  we  may  hope  to 
see  their  excessive  love  of  finery  and  pride  of  jewelry  give  place 
to  more  just  views  of  character,  and  to  the  desired  reformation 
of  manners. 

For  greater  security  in  times  of  danger,  and  for  convenience 
in  social  intercourse  and  transactions  of  business,  the  agricultu- 
ral population  generally  live  in  villages.  The  distinctions  and 
rules  of  caste  also  make  it  necessary  for  people  to  live  in  villages, 
so  that  those  of  the  same  caste  may  live  near  each  other,  and  so 
have  opportunities  and  facilities  for  social  intercourse,  and  for 
the  mutual  aid  and  protection  which  they  require,  but  could  not 
have  if  they  lived  in  the  dispersed  state  of  the  rural  population 
of  the  United  States.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  villages 
are  surrounded  with  high  walls,  and  entered  through  gates, 
which  are  closed  or  carefully  guarded  nights.  Such  walls  have 
seldom  been  found  necessary  in  the  districts  under  the  English 
government,  and  in  many  places  they  are  becoming  dilapidated. 
The  houses  are  generally  small,  and  badly  constructed.  They  have 
seldom  any  glass  windows,  and  the  floors  are  commonly  earth. 
Chairs  and  tables  are  seldom  used,  as  people  sit  upon  mats. 
Vessels  for  cooking  and  eating  are  of  brass  and  copper,  and 
those  too  poor  to  procure  such,  use  coarse  earthen  vessels.  In 
eating,  their  fingers  serve  for  knives  and  forks.  In  some  rural 
districts  all  the  furniture  in  the  houses  would  not  upon  an  aver- 
age exceed  a few  dollars’  value.  This  furniture  always  includes 
one  or  more  hand  mills  for  grinding  grain  for  the  use  of  the  fam- 
ily. Beds  consist  of  a rude  frame  with  a mat  or  mattrass  upon 
them,  or  more  frequently  these  are  spread  on  the  floor  for  the 
night  and  removed  in  the  daytime.  People  generally  make  but 
Httlc  change  in  their  dress  for  the  night.  Their  practice  of  fre- 
quent bathing  conduces  to  cleanliness  and  health.  The  villages 
generally  have  a few  shops  for  the  sale  of  grain,  tobacco,  coarse 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


477 


cloths,  etc.,  and  the  large  villages  have  appointed  market-days  or 
fairs,  to  which  travelling  traders,  peddlers,  and  people  from  the 
hamlets  resort.  The  villages  generally  contain  one  or  two 
houses  for  travellers  to  lodge  inside  the  gates,  and  so  they  have 
the  same  security  as  the  inhabitants.  The  temple  dedicated  to 
the  tutelary  deity  and  containing  his  or  her  image,  is  generally 
just  outside  or  inside  the  gate,  and  fronting  it,  so  as  to  appear 
before  people  when  going  out  or  coming  into  the  village. 

In  the  large  towns  and  old  eities,  the  streets  are  generally  nar- 
row and  crooked,  few  of  them  being  wide  enough  or  kept  in  a 
state  to  allow  carriages  of  any  kind  to  pass.  Many  of  the 
houses  are  two  and  three  stories  liigh,  built  of  brick  or  stones 
and  lime,  and  the  walls  plastered  on  both  sides.  To  Europeans 
they  appear  to  be  badly  constructed,  and  as  they  have  but  little 
glass  in  the  windows,  the  rooms  appear  to  be  dark,  gloomy,  in- 
convenient, and  uncomfortable.  The  merehants  and  bankers 
generally  occupy  the  principal  street,  and  sometimes  their  shops 
and  houses  surround  a public  square.  They  sit  cross-legged  on 
carpets  in  their  place  of  business  on  the  floor,  which  is  gen- 
erally raised  about  two  feet  from  the  ground.  They  are  com- 
monly neat  in  their  dress  and  personal  appearance,  and  very 
courteous  in  their  manners.  They  lend  money  to  small  traders, 
and  to  aU  classes  of  people,  and  the  rate  of  interest  and  dis- 
count is  generally  high.  They  often  make  advances  of  money 
to  the  native  princes  upon  a mortgage  of  the  revenues  of  certain 
districts,  or  the  taxes  of  a certain  kind,  and  to  the  farmers  and 
cultivators  of  the  land  upon  the  security  of  their  crops.  The 
bankers  have  much  influence  in  the  community,  and  they  have 
often  acted  a conspicuous  part  in  the  political  history  of  the 
country.  Their  general  style  of  living  is  plain  and  frugal,  but 
they  expend  money  freely  for  ornaments,  and  also  for  the  mar- 
riage of  their  children.  They  also  sometimes  spend  large  sums 
in  going  on  pilgrimage  to  sacred  places,  in  erecting  temples,  and 
in  making  tanks  and  large  wells  for  public  use.  Such  works 
are  declared  in  the  shastras  to  be  very  meritorious,  and  they 
procure  a much  desired  reputation  for  the  performer  and  his 
family.  A rich  man  in  India  is  expected  to  do  far  more  for  his 
family  connections,  and  he  generally  does  do  more  for  them, 
than  men  in  similar  circumstances  do  for  their  relations  and 
connections  in  the  United  States. 


478 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


In  Bengal,  Gujerat,  and  the  low  grounds  of  the  peninsula, 
rice  is  produced  in  large  quantity.  It  is  cooked  in  many  differ- 
ent ways,  and,  mixed  with  sugar,  butter,  spices,  and  vegetables, 
forms  the  principal  article  of  food.  In  the  hilly  and  table-lands 
of  the  Deckan,  and  in  the  northern  provinces  of  the  country, 
W’^heat,  rye,  and  other  kinds  of  grain  are  produced  and  generally 
used.  The  people  of  India,  w^^hen  compared  wdth  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  United  States,  eat  but  little  meat.  The  brahmins 
and  jainas  religiously  abstain  from  meat  of  every  kind.*  They 
will  not  even  eat  eggs,  saying  there  is  the  germ  of  life  in  them. 
Some  classes  will  eat  no  meat  but  fish.  The  Jews  and  Moham- 
medans do  not  eat  pork.  Hindus  of  aU  classes  abstain  from  eat- 
ing beef,  but  the  great  body  of  them  wiU  eat  fish,  fowds,  goats, 
and  sheep.  StiU  they  use  these  lands  of  food  sparingly.  Prob- 
ably the  rural  population  generally  do  not  eat  any  kind  of  meat 
so  often  as  once  a week.  Li  some  instances  people  are  so  poor 
that  they  cannot  procure  meat.  But  people  generally  in  the 
coimtry  districts  could  keep  fowls  if  they  washed  to  have  them 
or  their  eggs  for  food,  and  the  price  of  a sheep  in  the  villages 
does  not  generally  exceed  half  a doUar,  and  in  some  districts 
not  more  than  25  cents. 

Water  is  the  common  drink  at  meals  and  other  times.  To- 
bacco is  chewed  and  smoked,  (used  most  in  the  latter  way,)  but 
the  quality  of  the  Indian  plant  is  not  so  strong  as  American  to- 
bacco. AU  classes  chew  a pungent  aromatic  leaf  caUed  betel 
wdth  areca-nut,  Ume,  and  spices,  mixed  together.  These  sub- 
stances have  some  narcotic  influence,  but  do  not  produce  intox- 
ication. The  use  of  spirituous  liquors  is  prohibited  to  the 
brahmins,  and  it  is  disreputable  among  aU  the  higher  classes. 

* Some  earnest  advocates  for  the  use  of  only  vegetable  food  in  tliis  countr}', 
have  confidently  expressed  the  opinion  that  if  men  would  use  only  vegetable 
food,  they  would  gradually  recover  the  patriarchal  age.  But  unhappily  for 
this  opinion,  no  one  has  yet  practised  this  mode  of  life  long  enough  to  prove  by 
his  own  example,  whether  it  is  true  or  not  Now  if  the  advocates  of  tliis  opin- 
ion will  only  go  to  India,  they  can  find  thousands  of  people  who  have  never 
eaten  any  kind  of  meat,  nor  did  their  ancestors  eat  any  for  more  than  2,000 
years  past,  and  yet  these  classes  of  people  do  not  live  any  longer  than  other 
classes  who  are  in  similar  circumstances  for  preserving  health,  and  who  posse.ss 
equal  means  for  curing  and  avoiding  diseases. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


479 


Some  people,  generally  of  the  lower  classes,  use  arrack  and  other 
kinds  of  intoxicating  liquor,  and  some  smoke,  and  in  various 
ways  use  the  intoxicating  and  stupefying  vegetable  called  ganja, 
or  Indian  hemp  [cannabis  saliva).  Opium  is  eaten  and  smoked, 
and  a liquor  made  from  it  is  drank,  in  the  districts  where  it  is  pro- 
duced. In  the  rural  districts  of  the  greater  part  of  Lidia,  intem- 
perance is  uncommon,  and  it  is  cliiefly  seen  in  the  cities  and 
towns  under  the  English  government,  where  it  has  been  intro- 
duced by  a system  of  licensing  persons  to  traffic  in  spirits. 
Drunkenness  is  most  common  in  places  wliich  have  grown  up 
under  the  patronage  and  protection  of  the  EngUsh  government, 
where  the  European  population  is  the  largest,  and  their  influence 
strongest,  as  in  the  cities  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  and 
at  large  military  stations  in  the  interior.  The  general  opinion 
is  that  intemperance  has  been  decreasing  for  some  years  past 
among  the  European  population,  while  aU  admit  that  it  has 
much  increased  among  the  native  population  since  they  came 
under  English  government.  Temperance  societies  have  been 
formed,  and  many  natives  as  well  as  Europeans  have  united  in 
efforts  to  prevent  the  spread  of  intemperance,  and  to  remove  and 
diminish  the  causes  which  sustain  it. 

The  distinctions  of  caste  are  a great  obstacle  to  free,  social, 
and  friendly  intercourse.  Among  the  wealthy  it  is  a frequent 
practice  and  a work  of  great  merit  to  give  dinners  to  brahminsJ'i 
but  the  person  who  gives  the  dinner,  if  he  is  not  a brahmin,  can-v 
not  eat  with  them  or  even  be  one  of  their  company  without! 
eating.  His  presence  in  the  company  would  pollute  aU  the  food, 
and  make  it  unfit  for  any  brahmin  to  eat.  He  can  only  look 
from  some  distance  upon  those  who  are  feasting  upon  his  liber- 
ality, and  who  vdll  not  allow  him  at  whose  expense  they  are 
eating,  (and  he  may  be  their  prince  too,)  to  come  near  them,  lest 
his  touch  should  pollute  the  food  they  are  eating.  But  among 
those  of  the  same  caste,  eating  together  is  a strong  bond  of 
union.  Dinners  are  frequent  and  are  regarded  as  evidence  of 
good  standing  in  the  caste.  MTiile  a man  is  under  the  censure 
of  his  caste,  or  any  accusation  of  having  violated  any  of  its  rules, 
he  is  excluded  from  aU  caste-dinners  and  ceremonies,  and  this  is 
felt  to  be  a great  reproach  and  punishment.  Diimers  make  an 
important  part  of  family  gatherings,  and  domestic  and  festive 


480 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


occasions,  as  marriages,  etc.  At  such  times  the  men  and  women 
always  eat  in  separate  places.  People  of  all  classes  eat  with 
their  hands,  using  their  fingers  instead  of  knives,  forks,  and 
spoons.  They  sit  on  mats  and  carpets,  and  not  in  chairs  or  at 
tables. 

The  hunting  of  w^ild  animals  has  always  been  one  of  the 
sports  of  India.  The  dreadful  and  much  dreaded  tiger,  the 
noble  and  huge  elephant,  and  the  fearless  lion  are  found  in  the 
forests,  and  hunting  them  has  always  been  the  favorite  sport  of 
the  sovereigns  of  the  country  — a sport  worthy  of  princes,  kings, 
and  emperors,  if  any  kind  of  sport  can  have  such  a character.* 
Wild  cattle,  buffaloes,  leopards,  bears,  wolves,  several  kinds  ot 
deer,  wild  hogs,  etc.,  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  countr}'-, 
and  are  generally  the  property  of  any  one  ■who  can  kill  them. 
Mock  battles  in  illustration  of  wars  and  actions  described  in 
their  sacred  books  are  sometimes  exhibited  by  princes  on  a large 
scale.  Fights  between  animals,  as  elephants,  lions,  tigers,  leop- 
ards, etc.,  are  exhibited  and  draw  great  crowds  of  spectators. 
The  amusements  of  the  courts  and  kings  in  former  times  in- 
cluded dramatic  exhibitions  of  a much  higher  character  than 
any  performances  of  this  kind  among  the  Hindus  of  the  present 
age.  There  are  60  plays  in  the  Sanscrit  language.  These  ex- 
hibit more  talent  and  taste  than  are  to  be  found  in  similar  works 
of  any  Asiatic  nation  ancient  or  modern,  though  they  are  infe- 
rior to  the  elaborated  and  finished  dramas  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
These  plays  were  performed  in  the  royal  palaces  fitted  up  for  the 
occasions  before  kings  and  their  courts.  Kahdas,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Hindu  dramatic  writers,  hved  at  the  court  of  Vick- 
ramditya,  who  reigned  in  Awanti  (the  modern  Oujein)  about 
50  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  his  plays  appear  to  have 

* But  even  in  these  kinds  of  sport  the  peculiarities  of  the  southern  Asiatic 
character  were  often  consj)icuous.  The  prince  when  on  a hunting  excui-sion 
would  select  his  place  and  then  send  his  servants  and  soldiers,  often  as  numer- 
ous as  a small  army,  to  surround  the  land  supposed  to  contain  the  game,  and  to 
urge  it  to  the  spot  where  the  prince  and  his  courtiers  were  waiting  to  shoot  the 
animals  as  they  passed  a certain  corner  or  reached  a certain  point.  In  this  way 
the  prince  would  have  the  honor  and  sport  of  killing  all  the  game,  unless  he 
would  permit  his  courtiers  to  assist  him,  while  others  would  have  all  the  labor 
and  the  danger  of  bringing  it  all  to  him  to  be  shot,  and  then  of  escaping  from 
them  if  attacked. 


THE  NATIVE.  POPULATION. 


481 


been  performed  before  the  prince  and  his  court.  The  perform- 
ers were  men  or  women  according  to  the  respective  parts,  and 
the  assemblies  were  of  a mixed  character.  The  parts  of  these 
plays  and  the  manner  in  which  they  were  performed,  furnish  an 
interesting  picture  of  the  ancient  manners  of  the  Hindus.  They 
show  that  the  exclusion  of  females  from  courts,  assemblies,  and 
public  entertainments,  was  not  the  practice  before  the  Moham- 
medan conquest.  Among  the  ancient  Hindus,  women  were  per- 
mitted to  appear  freely  and  openly  on  public  occasions.  They 
assisted  in  dramatic  exhibitions,  and  composed  part  of  the  as- 
semblies which  witnessed  these  amusements.  They  formed 
a part  in  marriage  festivities  and  bridal  processions.  They  at- 
tended public  religious  ceremonies  and  visited  the  temples  when- 
ever they  pleased.  And  such  continues  to  be  the  custom  in 
some  provinces,  where  the  Hindus  have  retained  their  liberty  and 
their  power.  Exhibitions  or  performances  of  a theatrical  char- 
acter are  now  very  common  in  which  one  man  is  the  principal 
speaker,  aided  by  a few  assistants  and  some  musicians.  In  these 
performances  females  sometimes  perform  parts,  but  such  parts 
are  more  frequently  performed  by  men  or  boys  in  the  dress  of 
women. 

No  class  of  Asiatics  ever  dance  for  their  own  pleasure  or 
amusement,  but  there  are  persons  who  are  dancers  by  profes- 
sion for  the  amusement  of  others.*  These  dancers  are  young 
women,  and  always  supposed  to  be  courtesans.  They  generally 
constitute  a company  of  one,  two,  or  three  dancers  wdth  several 
musicians  who  stand  behind  them.  All  classes  of  people  are 
very  fond  of  these  entertainments,  and  money  is  freely  expended 
in  supporting  them.  Among  the  rich  they  are  often  in  large 

* The  southern  Asiatics  have  no  idea  of  pleasure  in  labor  or  exertion,  un- 
less in  the  excitement  called  forth  by  some  great  motive.  They  ■wonder  much 
■when  they  see  English  gentlemen  and  ladies  appear  to  find  pleasure  in  dancing. 
They  often  attend  English  balls  as  spectators,  and  when  some  of  them  after 
looking  at  the  dancing  for  a while  were  asked  what  they  thought  of  it,  they 
replied  that  the  English  appeared  to  enjoy  dancing,  for  if  they  did  not  find 
pleasure  in  it,  they  would  not  practise  it,  but  they  thought  their  own  custom 
much  better,  namely,  instead  of  laboring  so  hard  and  wearj-ing  and  exhausting 
themselves  by  dancing,  to  hire  persons  whose  professed  business  was  dancing, 
and  who  could  dance  much  better,  and  then  sitting  down  themselves,  or  reclin- 
ing on  their  couches  at  ease,  look  on  and  see  them  dance. 

41 


482 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


halls  elegantly  furnished  with  carpets,  couches,  mirrors,  chande- 
liers, etc.  The  dress  and  performance  of  the  dancers  are  said  to 
be  not  ungraceful  nor  offensive  to  propriety  or  decency,  but  as 
the  performers  are  always  women  of  loose  morals,  such  exhibi- 
tions cannot  but  have  a hcentious  tendency.  Indeed,  it  is  said 
that  the  latter  part  of  these  entertainments  is  often  designed 
and  adapted  to  excite  amorous  passions  and  sometimes  results  in 
gross  licentiousness.  These  amusements  have  an  unhappy  in- 
fluence in  promoting  loose  morals  and  m degrading  the  female 
character.  The  people  are  fond  of  chess,*  cards,  and  some  other 
games  of  sldll.  They  also  practise  several  games  of  chance  and 
have  various  ways  of  gambhng. 

The  Hindu  festivals  are  numerous,  and  all  are  more  or  less 
religious  in  their  character.  In  most  of  these,  however,  the  re- 
ligious part  or  rites  occupy  but  a small  portion  of  the  time.  The 
people  on  such  occasions  generally  omit  all  labor,  and  putting 
on  their  best  clothes  ride  out  in  carriages  or  walk  about  where 
the  principal  objects  of  attraction  are:  — to  see  curiosities  and 
jugglers,!  to  procure  fruits  and  sweetmeats,  to  reciprocate  civil- 
ities and  inquiries  with  friends,  etc.  In  some  instances,  as  on 
the  Mohurrum,  the  chief  festival  of  the  Mohammedans  in  India, 
the  people  form  long  processions  and  proceed  in  order  through 
the  principal  streets  preceded  by  bands  of  music  and  carrying 

* The  invention  of  this  celebrated  game  has  been  ascribed  to  the  Hebrews, 
the  Babylonians,  and  the  Persians.  But  Sir  W.  Jones  in  his  Dissertation  “ On 
the  Indian  Game  of  Chess,”  ascribes  it  to  the  Hindus. 

t Jugglery  has  been  practised  in  India  from  very  remote  antiquity,  perhaps 
as  early  as  it  was  in  Egypt.  The  jugglers  travel  about  over  the  country  in  com- 
panies, and  exhibit  their  feats  and  arts  in  the  private  grounds  of  the  wealthy, 
and  in  the  public  and  open  places  of  towns  and  cities,  trusting  to  the  generosity 
of  spectators  for  compensation.  They  generally  have  snakes  of  poisonous  or 
uncommon  kinds,  which  are  c.xhibited  in  various  ways.  Some  of  these  snakes 
will  raise  their  heads  and  move  them  slowly  to  the  sound  of  a pipe,  played  by 
one  of  the  company.  They  handle  these  snakes,  even  the  most  venomous  kind, 
without  fear  or  injury.  It  is  said  and  doubtless  truly,  that  the  poisonous  fangs 
have  been  c.xtracted.  This  however  docs  not  always  secure  impunity,  as  such 
fangs  in  young  snakes  will  sometimes  grow  again  and  inflict  mortal  wounds. 
These  jugglers  are  remarkably  expert  in  their  feats  of  strength  and  agility,  and 
in  their  tricks  of  deception.  They  are  an  ignorant  and  despised  caste  of  peo- 
ple, and  the  general  opinion  of  the  other  castes  is  that  they  worship  evil  spirits, 
and  have  the  assistance  of  such  beings  in  performing  their  feats  and  tricks. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


483 


banners,  or  something  which  represents  the  origin  and  occasion 
of  the  festival.  There  is  very  little  intemperance  on  such  days 
and  rarely  any  rows  or  quarrels,  or  accidents  or  injuries. 

The  higher  classes  are  very  attentive  to  all  the  customs  and 
usages  of  official  and  social  intercourse,  and  great  importance  is 
given  to  such  matters.  At  the  durbars  or  levees  of  princes,  the 
rank  of  every  person  who  attends,  is  carefully  determined,  and 
each  is  seated  according  to  his  rank.  The  prince  (raja,  or  em- 
peror, or  whatever  he  may  be,)  takes  the  seat  assigned  and  pre- 
pared for  him,  wliich  is  the  most  conspicuous  place.  All  pay 
their  respects  to  him  in  succession,  each  presenting  a gift 
called  a nuzzur,  for  which  he  receives  something,  generally  a 
dress,  in  return.  The  nuzzur  generally  consists  of  money,  but 
may  be  of  jewels,  or  some  rare  and  curious  article.  People  of 
rank  are  courteous  and  polite  to  all  classes,  and  expect  from 
others  what  they  so  freely  give.  Such  is  also  the  conduct  and 
character  of  the  lower  classes.  Indeed,  there  is  more  dignity, 
ease,  and  grace  of  manners,  and  a more  careful  observance 
of  the  civilities,  rules,  proprieties,  and  usages  of  official  and 
social  intercourse  among  aU  ranks  and  classes  of  people  in 
India,  than  among  the  corresponding  classes  in  Europe  and 
America. 

But  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  Hindus  are  a very  de- 
ceitful people,  and  often  while  apparently  so  civil,  so  kind,  and 
benevolent,  are  in  heart  and  in  purpose,  the  very  reverse  of  what 
they  appear  to  be.  They  have  great  power  of  dissimulation  and 
hypocrisy.  Their  language  abounds  in  compliment,  flattery, 
and  assurances  of  good-will,  which  often  deceive  Europeans, 
though  not  each  other,  for  among  themselves  aU  appear  at  once 
to  understand  just  how  much  and  how  little  such  language  and 
assurances  mean,  and  what  reliance  can  be  put  upon  them. 
The  Hindus  are  very  discriminating  judges  of  character,  and  are 
seldom  deceived  by  Europeans,  or  by  one  another. 

Perjury  is  fearfully  common  in  the  courts  of  justice.  It  is  a 
frequent  saying  and  a general  opinion  that  men  enough  can  be 
hired  for  a small  sum  to  swear  to  their  knowledge  of  things  of 
which  they  know  nothing,  and  to  the  truth  of  things  which  they 
know  to  be  false.  English  magistrates  of  great  experience  in 
public  business,  have  often  declared  that  they  could  place  but 


484 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


little  reliance  upon  native  testimony,  especially  upon  that  of  the 
Hindus,  unless  it  was  coiToborated  by  separate  facts,  and  con- 
curring circumstances.  The  native  character  appears  to  be 
equally  depraved  in  respect  to  bribery.  Li  the  Hindu  and  IMo- 
hammedan  governments,  men  holding  official  situations  gen- 
erally depended  upon  fees,  bribes,  and  exactions,  for  compensa- 
tion. Salaries  were  almost  nominal,  and  yet  government  func- 
tionaries of  all  classes  managed  to  accumulate  large  fortunes. 
Bribeiy  and  extortion  in  such  governments  were  common,  and 
the  effects  were  very  demoralizing  and  distressing.  And  bribery, 
notwithstanding  all  that  can  be  done  to  prevent  it,  is  yet  not 
uncommon  among  the  natives  holding  official  situations  under 
the  English  government.  The  Hindu  sacred  books  justify  false- 
hood, and  even  inculcate  deceit  in  many  specified  cases.  And 
such  a code  of  morality,  and  the  licentious  character  and  im- 
moral conduct  of  their  gods,  the  objects  of  their  worship  and 
adoration,  leave  us  little  reason  to  expect  much  improvement 
in  regard  to  telling  the  truth,  till  they  have  a purer  code  of  mor- 
als, and  begin  to  worship  the  Deity,  whose  actions  are  righteous, 
and  whose  attributes  are  holy. 


B U D H I S M . 

Budhism  has  been  mentioned  as  a form  or  system  of  religion 
which  existed  in  India  at  an  early  period.  The  origin  of  this 
religion  is  involved  in  much  obscurity.  Some  orientalists  have 
been  of  the  opinion  that  it  preceded  brahmmism.  But  the  more 
general  opinion  has  been  that  it  originated  in  some  efforts  to  re- 
form some  of  the  brahminical  doctrines,  and  became  after 
a while  a rival  system.  It  was  once  the  religion  of  some  king- 
doms in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  but  after  long  struggles,  it 
was  expelled  from  all  continental  India,  cxcc})t  Nepaul,  where  it 
is  slUl  the  religion  of  the  country,  though  in  some  places  it  is 
much  mixed  with  brahminical  superstitions.  It  is  also  the  relig- 
ion of  the  southern  part  of  Ceylon,  and  of  the  countries  east 
from  India,  as  Burma,  Siam,  and  China. 

Budhism  has  difl’ered  much  in  its  doctrines  at  different  times, 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


485 


and  also  at  the  same  time,  as  these  have  been  set  forth  by  its 
different  professors.  It  is  in  vain  to  expect  much  truth,  or  reason, 
or  consistency  in  such  systems  as  Budhism  and  Brahminism, 
which  were  not  only  rival  and  conflicting  systems,  but  the  pro- 
fessors and  followers  of  each  could  not  agree  upon  its  doctrines 
among  themselves.  It  is  enough  to  show  the  different  doctrines, 
so  far  as  these  can  now  be  ascertained,  which  were  believed  and 
professed  among  them. 

The  most  ancient  doctrines  of  Budhism  appear  to  have  been 
atheistical,  holding  that  the  material  universe  is  eternal,  and 
that  all  the  changes  which  take  place,  are  only  the  effect  of 
the  inherent  and  essential  properties  and  qualities  of  matter. 
They  professed  to  believe  that  the  power  of  originating  organi- 
zation, and  then  of  producing  in  these  organized  forms  all  the 
phenomena  they  exhibit,  is  inherent  in  matter,  or  nature  as  they 
call  it,  and  that  the  agency  which  organized  forms  have  in  pro- 
ducing other  forms,  is  the  result  of  their  inherent  power,  and  re- 
quires no  external  aid  or  agent.  To  this  supposed  inherent  and 
essential  power  of  matter,  they  ascribe  the  origin  and  perpetua- 
tion of  the  human  race  and  aU  other  beings,  as  well  as  the 
changes  which  take  place  in  inanimate  and  inorganic  matter. 

Some  of  the  early  Budhists  appear  to  have  believed  in  an  infi- 
nite and  self-existent  Being,  who  created  the  material  universe, 
or  reduced  its  chaotic  materials  to  form,  and  having  communi- 
cated to  them,  or  endowed  them  with  aU  the  various  properties 
they  now  possess,  again  assumed  a state  of  repose  and  uncon- 
cern about  his  works,  and  that  the  material  universe  by  the 
operation  and  force  of  its  communicated  and  now  inherent 
power,  continues  and  produces  and  exhibits  all  the  endlessly 
diversified  forms  of  existence  and  changes  of  matter,  which 
compose  the  apparent  world  of  life,  action,  and  motion. 

Of  these  pretended  philosophers,  one  class  believe  in  no  Crea- 
tor or  Governor  of  the  universe,  and  so  are  properly  called  athe- 
ists. The  other  class  profess  to  believe  in  an  eternal  and  self- 
existent  Deity,  who  created  the  universe,  or  reduced  it  to  its 
present  state  and  order,  but  who  has  since  exerted  no  agency  in 
it,  or  superintendence  over  it.  They  appear  to  be  of  the  opin- 
ion that  the  inherent  powers  of  matter,  or  nature  as  they  call  it, 
in  certain  peculiarly  combined  organizations,  produces  conscious- 

41* 


486 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ness,  instinct,  reason,  volition,  and  the  perception  of  moral  rela- 
tions and  qualities.  They  appear  to  believe  that  in  some  inex- 
plicable way,  a kind  of  personal  identity  is  acquired,  and  that  the 
same  being  has  successive  states  of  existence,  a kind  of  transmi- 
gration on  the  disorganization  of  one  body  into  another.  They 
believe  that  certain  beings,  called  Budhas,  have  acqukcd  the 
first  rank  in  the  scale  of  existence  by  a long  course  of  virtuous 
actions  and  austerities  in  successive  states  of  being  or  transmi- 
grations. 

The  Budhists  believe  that  the  number  of  these  Budhas  who 
have  thus  raised  themselves  in  the  scale  of  beings  is  large,*  and 
some  of  these  at  long  intervals  have  appeared  or  become  incar- 
nate again  and  again  in  the  world  to  reform  mankind  and  restore 
religion  to  its  original  purity.  Among  the  most  distinguished 
of  these  incarnations  was  Gaudama,  who  appeared  at  several 
different  times.  His  last  appearance  or  incarnation  was  at  Be- 
nares in  the  6th  century  before  the  Christian  era.  He  reformed 
Budhism,  which  had  become  very  much  corrupted,  and  taught 
the  system  as  it  now  exists.  He  also  established  its  rules  of 
worship  and  its  moral  precepts.  He  is  now  regarded  by  the 
Budhists  as  the  head  of  their  religion  and  of  the  religious  world, 
and  to  continue  so  (though  long  since  passed  into  a higher  state 
of  existence)  till  he  shall  complete  his  allotted  period  which  they 
generally  hold  to  be  5,000  years. 

In  a religion  so  widely  spread  and  where  in  its  progress  it 
must  have  come  in  conflict  with  previous  forms  of  superstition, 
much  difference  in  doctrine  and  practice  might  naturally  be  ex- 
pected. The  Budliists  have  a large  body  of  literature  which  is 
as  extravagant  and  absurd  as  the  Purans.  These  works  are  in 
the  Pah  language  which  is  the  same  with  them  in  Lidia,  as  the 
Sanscrit  is  with  the  brahmins.  Pali  appears  to  have  been  the 
language  current  in  Magada,  one  of  the  ancient  Idngdoms  on 
the  Ganges  where  Gaudama  was  born  and  where  Budhism  was 
the  prevailing  rehgion  for  several  centuries.  Some  of  the  Icings 
of  Magada  were  zealous  in  propagating  this  system. 

The  Budhists  differ  from  the  brahmins  in  some  doctrines 
which  each  class  regard  as  fundamental,  and  it  does  not  appear 

* ]Ur.  Hodgson  in  liis  account  of  Budliism  in  Xcpaul  gives  a list  of  130  Bud- 
has  of  the  first  class.  — Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  IG,  p.  44G. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


487 


strange  that  the  two  classes  should  call  each  other  by  odious 
names ; that  the  brahmins  shall  call  the  Budhists  atheists,  and 
the  Budhists  should  call  the  brahmins  polytheists.  The  Bud- 
hists deny  the  authority  of  the  Vedas  and  Purans  and  have 
their  own  sacred  books.  They  believe  in  the  primitive  and  nat- 
ural equality  of  all  mankind,  and  allow  no  distinctions  of  caste. 
Among  the  Budhists  the  priests  can  be  from  any  class  in  the 
community.  Tliey  must  live  in  a state  of  celibacy  and  conti- 
nence. They  live  together  so  far  as  their  circumstances  will 
permit,  in  monasteries,  and  are  subject  to  particular  rules  of  eat- 
ing, sitting,  bathing,  and  sleeping.  They  carry  their  respect  for 
animal  life  much  further  than  the  brahmins,  for  they  do  not  eat 
after  noon,  nor  drink  after  dark  for  fear  of  swallowing  minute 
insects.  Some  of  them  carry  a brush  wdth  them  to  sweep  places 
before  they  sit  down,  lest  they  should  crush  some  living  crea- 
tures. And  some  of  them  even  keep  a thin  cloth  over  their 
mouths  to  prevent  their  taking  in  minute  insects  with  their 
breath.  As  their  priests  can  be  from  any  class  of  the  commu- 
nity, so  they  can  at  any  time  leave  the  priesthood,  and  resume 
their  former  place  in  the  community.  The  difference  between 
the  priests  of  the  two  systems  is  much  greater  than  between  the 
laity.  And  some  of  these  differences  are  of  a nature  to  be  pe- 
culiarly offensive  to  the  brahmins. 

The  monuments  of  Budhism  scattered  over  India  show  that 
its  followers  must  once  have  been  numerous,  wealthy,  and  pow- 
erful. The  cave-temples  of  Kennery  in  Salsette  about  25  miles 
from  Bombay,  and  of  Karlee  on  the  road  from  Bombay  to 
Poona  above  the  Ghats  are  Budliistical.  Of  the  celebrated 
cave-temples  of  Elora,  16  miles  north  from  Aurangabad  some 
are  Eudhistical  and  some  are  brahminical,  and  some  exhibit  a 
mixture  of  both  systems.  Those  last  mentioned  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  having  been  first  made  by  the  Budhists,  and  after- 
wards altered  and  appropriated  to  brahminical  worship.  Many 
Hindu  temples  exhibit  evidence  of  their  materials  having  previ- 
ously been  used  in  Budhist  temples.  The  history  of  neither 
party  furnishes  any  reliable  accounts  of  the  straggles  between 
them,  nor  by  what  means  the  brahmins  succeeded  in  triumph- 
ing over  their  enemies.  For  2 or  3 centuries  after  the  time  of 
Gaudama,  the  Budliists  w^ere  active  and  zealous  in  propagating 


488 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


their  religion,  and  it  was  at  that  time  carried  into  Ceylon,  where 
the  inhabitants  had  previously  practised  demonolatry,  similar  to 
the  religion  of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  India.  Budhism 
continues  to  be  the  religion  of  the  southern  part  of  Ceylon, 
though  many  of  the  lower  class  stUl  practise  the  worship  of 
demons,  which  is  often  called  devil-worship.  From  Ceylon 
Budhism  was  propagated  eastwards  to  Burma,  Siam,  and  China, 
and  it  is  now  supposed  to  be  the  religion  of  a larger  number  of 
the  human  family  than  any  other  system. 


MOHAMMEDANS. 

The  Mohammedans  of  India  are  variously  estimated  at  ii, 
tVj  tV  of  the  entire  population  of  the  country.  This  appears 
to  be  a small  proportion  when  we  consider  the  great  number  of 
this  religion  who  immigrated  into  the  country,  their  avowed 
purpose  in  conquering  it,  the  long  period  they  governed  it,  and 
the  efforts  they  made  to  proselyte  the  inhabitants  to  their  faith. 
And  yet  when  we  consider  the  population  of  India,  commonly 
estimated  at  150,000,000,  the  whole  number  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan population  will  probably  amount  to  15,000,000  or  18,000,- 
000.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges, 
where  their  power  was  first  established  and  the  invaders  and 
immigrants  chiefly  settled.  In  some  districts  in  Bengal  they 
make  one  fourth,  and  in  a few  places  are  said  to  make  nearly 
one  half  of  the  population.  In  the  southern  parts  of  the  penin- 
sula their  proportion  is  small ; in  some  districts  they  are  not 
more  than  1 in  25  or  80  of  the  population.  It  has  been  estima- 
ted that  half  of  the  Mohammedan  population  of  India  are  de- 
scendants of  the  conquerors  and  immigrants  from  Persia,  Af- 
ghanistan, and  Arabia,  and  half  are  the  descendants  of  prose- 
lytes from  Hinduism  during  the  Mohammedan  dynasties.  As 
the  conquerors  and  the  subsequent  immigrations  were  from  Per- 
sia and  Afghanistan,  so  the  peculiar  type  of  the  religion  they 
introduced  and  propagated,  resembled  what  has  existed  in  those 
countries  far  more  than  the  pure  and  primitive  form  wliich 
has  existed  in  Arabia. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


489 


Persian  was  the  court  language  among  the  ]\Iohammcdan 
princes  of  Lidia,  and  it  still  continues  to  be  used  among  their 
descendants.  But  the  language  in  general  use  among  the  INIo- 
hammedans  is  ILiidustanee,  which  is  formed  of  the  language 
they  brought  with  them  into  India,  and  of  Iluidee  or  Ilinduee, 
the  language  they  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  where  they 
first  established  their  dominion,  and  which  was  the  chief  seat  of 
their  power.  Hindustanee  may  be  called  the  military  language 
of  India.  It  is  easUy  acquired  for  colloquial  purposes,  and  is 
the  common  medium  of  intercourse  between  Europeans  and  na- 
tives. It  is  easily  eombined  with  the  vernacular  languages,  and 
so  varies  very  considerably  in  different  parts  of  India.  The  Mo- 
hammedan population  is  so  much  dispersed  over  the  country, 
and  their  language  is  so  easily  acquired  and  already  so  much 
used,  that  some  orientalists  have  urged  the  expediency  and  im- 
portance of  making  Huidustanee  the  lingua  f ranca  of  the  whole 
country'.  But  this  attempt  is  not  likely  to  be  made,  and  if  made, 
would  fail  of  success. 

Some  of  the  native  princes  are  IVIohammedans  and  a few  of 
them,  as  the  Nizam  of  Hydrabad,  the  Nabob  of  Lucknow,  and 
some  others,  yet  retain  considerable  territory  and  power.  But 
these,  through  a failure  of  direct  heirs  to  succeed  them,  or  the 
mismanagement  of  their  affairs,  are  diminishing  in  number,  in- 
fluence, and  power,  and  it  appears  not  unlikely  that  in  a few 
years  all  will  be  divested  of  territorial  possessions,  and  be  re- 
duced to  a state  of  dependence  upon  the  English  for  pensions 
and  annuities  to  sustain  some  shadow  of  their  former  pa- 
geantiy.  The  generally  acknowledged  principles  of  Moham- 
medan governments  in  matters  of  war,  finance,  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  etc.,  are  superior  to  those  of  the  Hindus.  But 
we  look  in  vain  for  any  evidence  of  their  superiority  in  the  state 
of  their  territories,  which  are  generally  in  a bad  state.  Their 
misgovernment  originates  in  part  in  the  feelings  of  contempt 
they  cherish  towards  aU  who  are  not  of  their  faith,  and  the  va- 
rious offensive  and  oppressive  ways  in  which  they  manifest 
these  feelings. 

IMohammedans  in  India  all  practise  circumcision  and  attach 
great  importance  to  it.  The  rite  is  generally  performed  by  bar- 
bers, and  it  may  be  performed  at  any  time  before  the  13th  year. 


490 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


They  carefully  abstain  from  eating  pork.  Their  princes  have 
often  been  intemperate,  but  the  great  body  of  the  people,  so  far 
as  I have  seen  them,  do  not  use  any  kind  of  spirituous  liquors, 
and  di'unkenness  among  them  is  disreputable  and  is  seldom  seen. 
I never  heard  of  any  IMohammedan  being  in  any  way  engaged 
in  trafficking  in  liquors.  The  general  sentiment  among  them 
would  not  allow  any  one  of  their  faith  to  follow  such  business 
in  any  place  I knew.  Polygamy  is  practised.  Their  domestic 
habits  are  such  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  how  far  this  custom 
exists.  Their  princes  generally  have  several  wives  and  concu- 
bines, but  few  of  them  have  so  many  as  their  prophet  Mo- 
hammed had.  Wealthy  men  have  generally  more  than  one 
wife,  and  instances  of  polygamy  are  not  unfrequent  among  the 
middling  and  lower  classes.  Perhaps  taking  aU  the  population, 
one  man  in  5 or  6 may  be  a polygamist.  But  the  custom  pre- 
vails more  in  some  provinces  than  in  others.  This  custom  has 
a very  unhappy  influence  on  families  and  on  the  general  state  of 
society.  It  is  not  a corruption  of  their  system  but  an  integral 
part  of  it.  Mohammed  himself  practised  it,  and  it  has  his  au- 
thority in  his  example  as  well  as  in  the  doctrines  he  taught.  So 
Mohammedanism  can  never  be  reformed  so  as  to  forbid  poly- 
gamy, and  this  practice  more  than  any  thing  else  in  the  system 
is  working  the  destruction  of  the  countries  and  communities 
which  profess  this  religion. 

The  Mohammedans  have  more  intellectual  character  than  the 
Hindus.  This  superiority  appears  to  be  the  natural  result  of  the 
more  rational  and  consistent  doctrines  concerning  God,  his  at- 
tributes, and  his  providence,  contained  in  the  Koran,  than  any 
doctrines  found  in  the  Hindu  sacred  books  or  in  their  worship. 
The  object  contemplated  in  religious  worship  must  exert  very 
considerable  influence  upon  the  mental  character  of  any  people, 
and  when  looking  at  the  Hindu  deities  and  at  their  rites  and 
ceremonies,  I have  often  wondered  that  the  people  who  profess 
and  practise  sucli  a religion  do  not  become  more  stupid  and  dull 
of  understanding  than  they  are.  The  Mohammedans  have  gen- 
erally more  physical  strength  than  the  Hindus,  which  is  owing 
probably  in  part  to  their  northern  origin,  and  in  part  to  their 
eating  more  meat  for  food. 

Mohammedans  have  generally  a great  contempt  for  the  relig- 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


491 


ion  of  the  Hindus.  They  abhor  it  for  its  polytheism  and  idola- 
try. When  I went  to  India  the  Koran  had  not,  so  far  as  I know, 
been  printed  in  India.  All  copies  of  it  were  in  manuscript  and 
were  scarce  and  costly.  Some  10  or  12  years  ago  an  attempt 
was  made  in  Bombay  to  print  the  Koran  in  lithography  and 
succeeded  well.  They  were  so  pleased  with  these  copies  that 
other  editions  of  different  sizes  were  soon  printed  and  many 
thousand  copies  were  issued.  They  were  purchased  and  carried 
or  sent  to  be  sold  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  other  countries.  For 
the  last  10  years  I was  in  India,  as  good  a copy  of  the  Koran 
could  be  purchased  for  one  dollar  as  could  be  procured  for  8 or 
10  dollars  for  the  first  10  years  I was  there.  One  rich  man  was 
so  pleased  with  these  printed  copies  that  he  printed  an  edition 
of  1,000  copies  in  beautiful  style  and  distributed  them.  Rich 
men  also  often  purchased  a number  of  copies  and  distributed  to 
people  around,  and  sent  them  into  those  parts  of  the  country 
where  the  Koran  was  supposed  to  be  scarce.  And  such  liberal- 
ity and  zeal  have  not  been  limited  to  Bombay.  A native  prince 
at  Lucknow  not  long  since  expended  §2,500  on  an  edition  of 
the  Koran  in  Arabic  with  a Hindustanee  translation  and  com- 
mentary, which  was  designed  for  gratuitous  circulation.  Thus 
private  zeal  and  liberality  supplied  the  want  of  a Koran  Society 
to  furnish  the  destitute.  I should  not  be  surprised  to  hear  of 
the  formation  of  Koran  Societies  upon  the  plan,  object,  and 
agency  of  Bible  Societies. 

There  is  no  priesthood  among  the  Mohammedans  in  India. 
A man  who  can  read  and  expound  the  Koran  is  called  a Moo- 
lah. As  people  generally  do  not  understand  the  language  of  the 
Koran  (which  is  Arabic),  they  often  assemble  in  the  mosques 
and  private  houses  to  hear  the  Koran  read  and  explained.  Mo- 
hammedans fast  during  the  month  of  Ramazan  in  India,  as  they 
do  in  Turkey  and  other  countiies.  The  fast  consists  in  not 
eating  or  drinking  any  thing  in  the  daytime.  In  the  night  they 
may  eat  and  drink  as  much  as  they  wish.  Still  tliis  mode  of 
fasting  for  a whole  month  is  often  a severe  duty,  and  hard  dis- 
cipline. Li  many  places  are  the  tombs  of  reputed  saints  which 
are  held  in  great  veneration,  and  many  people  in  their  vicinity 
make  vows  to  them.  These  saints  have  generally  an  anniver- 
sary or  annual  festival,  when  people  assemble,  often  many  thou- 


492 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


sands,  to  perform  their  vows  and  offer  their  prayers  to  the  saints. 
These  reputed  saints  occupy  a place  among  the  Mohammedans 
in  India  similar  to  what  Romish  saints  have  among  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  Europe.  Mohammedanism  in  India  consists  much 
in  local  usages  and  popular  superstitions,  which  have  no  author- 
ity in  the  Koran.  Many  go  on  pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  and  such 
as  live  to  return  are  afterwards  much  respected  among  their 
people. 

The  Mohammedans  are  fond  of  religious  discussion  and  con- 
troversy. Not  restrained  by  any  rules  of  caste,  they  can  asso- 
ciate freely  with  Europeans.  A few  distinguished  men  among 
them  have  become  Christians  and  honored  their  profession,  but 
they  are  generally  more  opposed  to  Christianity  than  the  Hin- 
dus. They  have  made  considerable  use  of  the  press  within  a 
few  years  past  for  vindicating  their  rehgion  and  confirming  the 
faith  of  their  people.  The  most  spirited  controversy  between 
Mohammedanism  and  Christianity  has  been  in  Northern  India. 
Some  able  works  have  there  been  published  on  both  sides,  and 
the  subject  has  excited  much  attention. 

Christian  writers  on  Mohammed  have  generally  said  that  he 
performed  no  miracles  and  acknowledged  in  the  Koran  that  he 
had  not  power  to  perform  any,  and  they  refer  to  places  which 
are  supposed  to  acknowledge  or  imply  this  want  of  power.  But 
the  Mohammedans  do  not  admit  that  their  prophet  wanted  this 
evidence  of  his  mission’s  being  divine.  So  far  from  this  they 
believe  that  he  performed  many  and  wonderful  miracles,  and 
that  signs  and  miracles  and  prodigies  in  testimony  of  his  divine 
mission  were  frequently  taking  place  around  him.  A work 
called  the  “ Light  of  Mohammed,”  printed  at  Lucknow,  at 
Agra,  and  at  Carrapore,  contains  accounts  of  more  such  mira- 
cles and  prodigies  than  aU  that  are  in  the  New  Testament.  Of 
this  work  12  editions  had  been  printed  when  I left  India,  and 
devout  Mohammedans  appeared  to  have  entire  confidence  in  its 
assertions  and  statements.  Such  views  of  Mohammed,  of  his 
mission  and  his  works  arc  more  firmly  and  generally  held  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  the  northern  parts  of  India,  who  have  ob- 
tained their  religion  and  their  traditions  from  Persia,  than  in  the 
southern  parts  where  they  have  obtained  their  principles  from 
Arabia. 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


493 


The  Mohammedan  religion  has  made  but  little  progress  in 
India  since  the  decline  of  their  political  power.  Now  and  then 
some  Hindu  who  has  lost  caste  or  is  involved  in  trouble  with  his 
own  peojde,  will  join  the  Mohammedans  and  become  incorpo- 
rated with  them.  According  to  the  Hindu  theory  of  caste,  any 
person  not  a Hindu,  whoever  and  whatever  he  may  be,  is  lower 
than  any  Hindu  who  has  always  observed  the  rules  of  his  caste. 
But  practically  the  Mohammedans  occupy  a much  higher  social 
position  even  in  the  view  of  the  Hindus  themselves  than  the 
low  caste  Hindus.  So  when  a Hindu  of  low  caste  becomes  a 
member  of  the  Mohammedan  community,  he  rises  in  the  social 
scale  and  in  general  respectability.  Considering  the  state  and 
circumstances  of  the  low  caste  Hindus  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  treated  by  the  high  castes,  and  that  by  becoming  Mo- 
hammedans they  at  once  come  under  their  protection  and  often 
secure  other  advantages,  as  employment,  relief  from  pecuniary 
embarrassment,  a marriage  connection,  etc.,  (for  the  Moham- 
medans hold  out  these  advantages  to  proselytes,)  it  appears 
strange  that  more  Hindus  do  not  become  Mohammedans. 

The  progress  of  Christianity  and  other  causes  now  in  opera- 
tion in  India,  will  strongly  affect  the  Mohammedans  in  common 
with  all  other  classes  of  the  native  population,  and  when  they 
see  the  Hindus  losing  all  confidence  in  their  sacred  books,  neg- 
lecting their  idolatries  and  rites  and  ceremonies,  some  of  them 
becoming  Christians  and  others  sinking  into  scepticism  and  in- 
difference to  aU  religion,  it  appears  not  unlikely  that  the  Moham- 
medans may  become  animated  vdth  zeal  for  propagating  their 
faith,  and  that  this  religion  may  spread  faster  than  it  ever  did 
when  urged  on  by  all  the  force  of  pohtical  power  and  war 
against  Hinduism  m the  state  it  then  w^as.  There  is  no  prospect 
of  Mohammedans  again  acquiring  much  pohtical  power  in  India, 
but  considering  the  state  of  the  native  population  and  the  vari- 
ous causes  in  operation  affecting  their  rehgious  character,  it  does 
not  appear  improbable  fliat  Mohammedanism  may  yet  spread 
and  become  the  rehgion  of  a much  larger  proportion  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  country  before  it  shall  be  numbered  one  of  the  prov- 
inces of  the  kingdom  of  Immanuel,  and  its  inhabitants  become 
his  obedient  and  happy  subjects. 

42 


494 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEEN. 


THE  PARSEES. 

The  Parsees  are  a class  of  people  who  live  chiefly  in  the 
western  parts  of  India.  Their  number  was  found  at  the  late 
census  of  Bombay,  to  be  about  75,000  in  that  small  island. 
They  are  also  numerous  in  Gujerat,  and  a few  are  settled  in 
most  of  the  seaports  and  large  cities  in  the  southern  countries 
of  Asia.  Their  ancestors  fled  from  Persia  some  centuries  ago 
to  escape  the  persecutions  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  after 
wandering  about  for  considerable  time,  became  quietly  settled 
in  Gujerat.  They  are  the  most  intelligent,  wealthy,  and  enter- 
prising of  any  class  in  the  native  population  of  India.  The 
religion  of  their  ancestors  when  they  escaped  from  Persia,  was 
the  system  of  Zoroaster,  the  same  as  the  religion  of  the  ancient 
Persians,  in  the  times  of  Cyrus  and  Xerxes.  Their  Scriptures 
are  called  the  Zend  Avesta,  and  are  ascribed  to  Zoroaster.  There 
has  been  much  difference  of  opinion  in  respect  to  the  time  when 
he  lived,  how  many  there  were  of  this  name,  and  whether  the 
work,  called  the  Zend  Avesta,  was  really  written  by  any  one  of 
this  name,  or  was  not  rather  written  long  after  the  reputed 
epoch  of  any  of  the  Zoroasters. 

The  Zend  Avesta  comprises  several  parts  which  are  seldom 
used  together.  These  are  called  the  Vandidad,  the  Yasna  or 
Izashne,  and  the  Vispard.  The  Parsees  appear  generally  to  be- 
lieve in  two  self-existent  and  eternal  Beings,  called  Horrhazd,  the 
good  deity,  and  Ahriman,  the  bad  deity.  The  former  produces 
all  the  good  and  the  happiness  that  are  in  the  world,  and  the 
latter  produces  all  the  evil  and  the  misery  that  are  in  the  world. 
Some  believe  that  both  these  deities  derive  their  being  from  one 
anterior,  called  Zarwan,  though  who  and  what  this  being  was 
or  is,  they  are  not  agreed.  They  believe  in  great  numbers  of 
good  and  evil  angels,  who  have  the  power  and  the  disposition 
to  interfere  in  human  affairs,  and  their*’religion  consists  in  part 
of  rites  and  supplications  to  procure  the  aid  and  protection  of 
the  one  class,  and  of  deprecations  and  other  means  to  avert  the 
power  and  displeasure  of  the  other  class.  They  have  gi-eat  rev- 
erence for  fire,  and  they  worship,  gazing  at  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  and  often  at  fire  wherever  seen.  Some  among  them  say 


THE  NATIVE  POPULATION. 


495 


they  contemplate  the  sun,  moon,  etc.,  only  as  symbols  of  the 
Deity,  and  that  their  worship  is  really  aimed  to  the  invisible, 
omnipresent,  and  omnipotent  God.  But  probably  many  and 
perhaps  most  of  them  when  gazing  upon  the  sun  in  their  wor- 
ship, think  of  nothing  beyond  the  visible  object  they  are  con- 
templating. 

In  their  temples  consecrated  fire  is  kept  continually  burning. 
It  is  preserved  with  much  care,  and  many  rites  and  ceremonies 
are  performed  upon  it  and  to  it.  Fragrant  kinds  of  wood, 
gums,  spices,  etc.,  are  thrown  upon  it,  or  offered  to  it.  Their 
reverence  for  fire  prevents  their  even  using  it  for  the  self-indul- 
gence of  smoking  tobacco,  or  any  other  substance.  And  as 
gunpowder  can  only  be  used  in  connection  with  fire,  their  rev- 
erence for  this  element  prevents  their  using  gunpowder  for  the 
destruction  of  human  or  of  animal  life.  So  they  never  become 
soldiers  nor  huntsmen.  I am  not  aware  that  they  ever  make  an 
image  or  symbol  of  any  deity,  and  consecrating  it,  worship  it  as 
the  Hindus  prepare  and  worship  the  idols  of  their  deities.  But 
the  Parsees  address  their  prayers  and  praises  to  great  numbers 
of  supposed  spiritual  beings.  They  also  address  their  prayers  to 
created  objects  in  such  a way  and  spirit  as  appear  clearly  to  de- 
serve the  name  of  religious  homage. 

The  manner  in  which  they  dispose  of  their  dead  is  peculiar. 
The  Hindus  generally  burn  their  dead.  The  Mohammedans 
bury  their  dead.  But  the  Parsees  neither  burn  nor  bury  their 
dead.  Large  cemeteries  are  prepared  with  much  labor  and  ex- 
pense. They  are  open,  (have  no  covering  over  them,)  and  are 
surrounded  wdth  high  walls.  They  are  intrusted  to  a particular 
class  among  them,  and  no  others  ever  go  into  them.  These 
persons  take  charge  of  aU  dead  bodies,  and  perform  the  ceremo- 
nies of  disposing  of  them.  These  bodies  are  carried  into  the 
cemeteries  and  deposited  there,  exposed  to  the  sun,  atmosphere, 
etc.  The  bodies  of  the  wealthy  are  covered  with  a screen  of 
brass  wire,  but  the  bodies  of  the  common  people  have  no  cov- 
ering put  over  them,  and  so  are  soon  devoured  by  vultures, 
crows,  etc.,  which  may  generally  be  seen  in  great  numbers  hov- 
ering over  the  cemeteries,  and  sitting  on  the  walls.  The  bones 
are  from  time  to  time  collected  and  put  into  a part  of  the  cem- 
etery till  they  are  all  decomposed.  They  attach  great  impor- 
tance to  their  rites  of  burial. 


496 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


Many  of  the  Parsees  are  wealthy,  have  large  and  weU-fur- 
nished  houses,  weU-cultivated  gardens,  keep  elegant  carriages, 
etc.  Women  occupy  a higher  social  position  among  them  than 
among  the  Hindus  or  Mohammedans.  Many  women  have 
some  education,  and  the  higher  classes  have  shown  a desire  to 
have  then-  daughters  educated,  and  have  established  schools  for 
this  purpose.  They  have  evinced  more  public  spuit  and  liber- 
ahty,  and  they  associate  with  Europeans  more  than  any  other 
class  of  the  native  population.*  A considerable  number  of  them 
have  been  to  Europe.  Several  Parsees  have  professed  Chris- 
tianity, and  among  the  native  ordained  missionaries  in  India, 
are  two  weU-educated  and  respectable  men  who  were  originally 
Parsees,  but  are  m connection  with  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
in  Bombay. 

* The  North  American  Kcview  for  July  1,  1851,  contains  a notice  of  Sir 
Jamsetjee  Jejeehhoy,  one  of  the  Parsee  merchants  of  Bombay.  I was  ac- 
quainted with  Sir  Jamsetjee,  and  saw  many  instances  and  monuments  of  his 
liberality.  It  has  been  lately  stated  in  some  of  the  Bombay  journals,  that  the 
amount  of  bis  benefactions  to  public  works  and  institutions,  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion, and  to  objects  of  charity  and  religion,  has  exceeded  1,000,000  dollars.  And 
yet  he  is  in  possession  of  a princely  fortune,  all  the  result  of  his  own  industry 
and  enterprise. 


PART  VI. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA* 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  SYRIAN  CHURCHES  OP  MALAB.Vi^ 

The  early  history  of  Christianity  in  India  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity.  Eusebius,  the  father  of  ecclesiastical  history,  says 
that  “ St.  Bartholomew  went  to  India.”  Socrates,  who  contin- 
ued Eusebius’s  work,  says,  that  in  the  division  of  the  gentile 
world,  which  the  apostles  made  among  them,  “ India  was  as- 
signed to  St.  Bartholomew.”  It  appears  uncertain,  however, 
from  his  description  of  the  country  called  India  as  contiguous  to 
Ethiopia,  what  country  was  then  intended  by  this  name.  And 
in  another  part  of  his  work  he  says  that  India  was  not  enlight- 
ened by  the  gospel  till  the  reign  of  Constantine,  or  some  time  in 
the  early  part  of  the  4th  century.  There  have  also  been  many 
traditions  in  India  that  St.  Thomas  preached  the  gospel  at  dif- 
ferent places  in  that  country.  Such  have  been  the  traditions  of 
the  Syrians  or  Nestorian  Christians  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  and 
these  traditions  have  generally  been  believed  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  in  India.  But  no  mention  is  made  of 
the  tradition  by  Eusebius  or  Socrates,  from  which  we  may  infer 
that  they  knew  nothing  of  it,  or  if  they  did,  that  they  had  no 
confidence  in  it.  Indeed,  it  is  said  that  no  mention  of  any  such 
tradition  is  found  in  any  of  the  Latin  or  Greek  historians  before 
the  14th  century. 

La  Croze  in  his  learned  work  called  the  History  of  Chris- 
tianity in  India,  sums  up  these  traditions  thus : — “In  the  divis- 

* An  account  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Establishment  for  the  European  population 
has  been  given  (see  p.  308  and  358).  This  Part  has  respect  to  the  propaga/- 
tion  and  state  of  Christianity  among  the  native  population. 

41* 


(497) 


498 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ion  of  the  world  which  was  made  by  the  Apostles,  India  fell  to 
the  lot  of  St.  Thomas,  who  after  having  established  Christianity 
in  Arabia  Felix  and  in  the  island  of  Socotra,  proceeded  to 
Cranganore,  where  the  principal  king  of  the  country  then  resided. 
It  was  there  that  the  fabulous  adventures  happened,  of  which  we 
read  in  this  Apostle’s  life,  written  by  the  pretended  Abdias  of 
Babylon.  The  Apostle  having  established  many  churches  at 
Cranganore,  proceeded  to  Quilon,  a large  city  on  the  same  coast 
where  he  converted  many  persons  to  the  Christian  faith.  From 
this  place  he  proceeded  to  the  eastern  coast,  now  called  Coro- 
mandel, and  lived  for  a while  at  Meliapore,  a town  now  called 
by  Europeans  St.  Thome,  where  he  is  said  to  have  converted 
the  king  and  aU  the  people.  Here  a persecution  arose,  and  the 
good  Apostle  was  put  to  death  by  the  idolaters,  who  were  set 
on  by  their  priests,  the  Brahmins.” 

Such  is  the  sum  of  the  traditions  concerning  St.  Thomas 
in  India,  and  they  are  generally  believed  by  the  Syrian  Chris- 
tians of  Malabar  and  by  Roman  Catholics.  But  La  Croze  does 
not  think  them  worthy  of  any  credit.  Some  learned  Roman 
Catholics  in  Europe  do  not  put  any  confidence  in  these  tradi- 
tions. All  ancient  churches  had  strong  motives,  in  their  desires 
to  sustain  their  comparative  superiority,  or  at  least  their  equality 
in  rank,  as  well  as  to  justify  their  doctrines  and  practices,  to  as- 
cribe their  origin,  rules  of  discipline,  etc.,  to  the  Apostles.  And 
the  reasons  for  their  wishing  for  the  reputation  of  having  such  an 
origin  generally  increased,  as  they  departed  more  and  more  from 
the  plain  doctilnes  and  simple  usages  of  primitive  Christianity. 
The  best  Protestant  ecclesiastical  historians  say  nothing  concern- 
ing these  traditions,  from  which  it  is  evident  they  did  not  con- 
sider them  as  deserving  any  credit  or  consideration. 

Christianity  was  early  established  in  Egypt,  and  the  church  in 
Alexandria  gloried  in  having  been  founded  by  St.  Mark,  and 
having  him  for  her  first  bishop.  There  was.  then  much  com- 
merce between  Europe  and  India  through  Egypt,  and  many 
Christians  would  in  this  way  visit  the  countries  on  the  Red  Sea 
and  India.  The  people  engaged  in  this  commerce  would  soon 
become  acquainted  with  the  gospel,  and  considering  the  ear- 
nestness and  ardor  which  then  pervaded  Christians  generally, 
many  would  be  likely  soon  to  embrace  it.  At  the  Council  of 


CnmSTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


499 


Nice,  in  A.  D.  325,  Johannes,  one  of  the  bishops,  signed  his  name 
as  Bishop  of  Persia  and  India.  There  is  not  sufficient  reason 
for  believing  that  Christianity  had  made  any  considerable  pro- 
gress at  that  time  in  India ; probably  the  territory  designated  by 
this  name  was  the  country  adjoining  Persia,  perhaps  on  the  In- 
dus. There  is  evidence  that  the  Syrian  or  Nestorian  churches 
in  Malabar  were  commenced  as  early  as  the  5th  or  Gth  centu- 
ries, and  perhaps  before  that  time.  The  Mohammedan  religion 
had  its  origin  in  the  7th  century,  and  Mohammedans  soon  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  countries  separating  India  from  Europe, 
and  for  a long  period  little  was  definitely  known  in  Europe  con- 
cerning the  state  of  Christianity  in  the  southern  countries  of  Asia. 
In  the  9th  century  there  was  an  Armenian,  some  accounts  de- 
scribe him  as  a merchant  and  some  describe  him  as  a bishop, 
perhaps  he  united  the  business  of  the  former  with  the  dignity 
and  office  of  the  latter,  who  lived  somewhere  on  the  Malabar 
coast.  He  was  a man  of  “immense  wealth,”  and  obtained 
large  privileges  from  the  kings  of  the  country  for  the  Christians. 
From  this  time  they  had  some  govenunent  of  their  own.  Their 
chief  is  called  Raja  in  the  history  of  the  country.  This  title 
would  not  necessarily  imply  that  he  was  not  dependent  upon,  or 
subordinate  to,  some  king  or  prince  of  the  country,  though  in- 
vested with  power  over  the  Christian  population,  somewhat  like 
the  state  in  which  Christian  communities  have  often  been  in 
IMohammedan  countries,  and  now  are  in  the  Turkish  dominions. 

The  Portuguese  were  surprised  to  find  on  their  aniving  in  In- 
dia a large  body  of  people  professing  the  Christian  religion,  and 
on  inquiring  into  the  state  and  faith  of  these  Christians  they 
were  yet  more  surprised  to  find  they  were  so  heretical  in  their 
doctrines  and  discipline.  They  had  never  heard  of  the  Pope, 
they  knew  nothing  of  the  Latin  language,  and  could  trace  their 
history  for  1,300  years  to  the  patriarch  of  Babylon,  Seleucia,  or 
JMosul,  probably  a succession  of  patriarchs,  only  having  their 
residence  in  different  places.  At  that  time  the  Popes  claimed  to 
be  the  spiritual  head  of  aU  the  world,  nor  were  they  at  aU  scru- 
pulous in  respect  to  means  for  enforcing  obedience  to  their 
supremacy.  The  purpose  of  the  court  of  Rome,  as  soon  as  the 
state  and  character  of  the  Syrian  Christians  became  known,  was 
formed  to  bring  them  into  subjection.  The  court  of  Lisbon  and 


500 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


all  the  Portuguese  ecclesiastics  were  expected  to  cooperate  as 
good  Catholics  in  using  means  in  bringing  about  this  great  end. 
The  Portuguese  bishop  and  aU  his  ecclesiastics  said  to  the  Mal- 
abar Christians,  “ Your  church  belongs  to  the  Pope,  and  you 
must  acknowledge  him  for  your  spiritual  head.”  The  Malabar 
Christians  replied,  “ We  never  before  heard  of  any  Pope,  and 
we  have  no  need  of  him  to  govern  us.”  StUl  they  were  dis- 
posed to  treat  the  Romanists  with  kindness  and  in  the  sphit  of 
Christian  fellowship.  They  permitted  them  to  preach  in  their 
churches,  and  they  hoped  to  derive  benefit  in  various  ways  from 
intercourse  with  them  and  from  their  power  and  influence  with 
the  princes  of  the  country.  The  Romanists  had  only  one  object 
to  accomplish,  namely,  to  bring  the  Syrians  into  subjection  to 
the  Pope ; and  aU  their  mtercourse,  and  influence,  and  efforts 
were  directed  to  this  end.  An  ecclesiastic  called  Father  Vincent 
opened  a school  called  a college  at  Cranganore  to  spread  the 
doctrines  of  his  church.  A similar  school  was  subsequently 
opened  at  Voipecotta.  These  efforts  very  much  disturbed  and 
alarmed  the  Syrians,  while  yet  they  did  not  produce  the  effects 
which  the  Romanists  expected.  So  soiue  more  decisive  meas- 
ures were  deemed  necessary,  and  various  schemes  were  consid- 
ered. As  the  Syrian  bishop  was  the  principal  obstacle  to  their 
success,  the  Romanists  resolved  to  remove  him.  He  was  arrested 
at  Cochin,  carried  a prisoner  to  Goa,  and  thence  sent  to  Portu- 
gal. It  was  their  intention  to  send  him  to  Rome.  But  soon 
after  arriving  in  Lisbon,  finding  himself  in  a strange  country 
and  a prisoner  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  his  fortitude  began 
to  fail.  He  had  an  interview  with  one  of  the  cardinals,  to  whom 
he  so  far  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope  and  prom- 
ised to  reform  the  churches  under  his  spiritual  jurisdiction  that 
it  was  deemed  expedient  to  send  him  back  to  India.  The  Ro- 
manists were  fearful  of  the  consequences  of  his  being  removed 
in  the  manner  he  was,  and  of  his  long  absence  from  his  people. 
Nor  were  their  fears  without  some  reason.  The  Syrians,  de- 
prived of  their  spiritual  head,  and  fearful  that  yet  more  violent 
means  would  be  used,  took  measures  to  procure  another  bishop 
from  Mosul,  and  he  arrived  among  them  and  entered  upon  the 
duties  of  his  office  before  his  predecessor  returned  from  Portu- 
gal. A schism  now  took  place  among  the  Syrians.  One  party 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


501 


was  supported  by  all  the  power  and  influence  of  the  Portu- 
guese, and  the  other  contained  the  greater  part  of  the  Syrian 
Christians.  In  the  progress  and  continuance  of  this  schism,  one 
SjTian  bishop  was  seized  and  sent  to  Portugal  and  thence  to 
Rome.  Tills  bishop  appears  to  have  been  a man  of  weak  char- 
acter, if  not  of  corrupt  principles,  and  he  is  accused  of  having 
been  sometimes  guilty  of  much  duplicity  and  Iiypocrisy.  Another 
bishop  was  carried  to  Lisbon,  and  there  died  in  prison.  Ills 
only  crime  appears  to  have  been  a determination  not  to  acknowl- 
edge the  Pope’s  supremacy,  nor  to  change  the  creed  of  his 
church  to  make  it  agree  with  the  church  of  Rome.  And  for  the 
same  reasons  another  bishop  was  carried  a prisoner  to  Goa  and 
perished  ui  the  Liquisition.  These  aggressive  measures  were 
continued  on  the  part  of  the  Portuguese,  and  at  a Provincial 
Council  held  in  Goa  in  1585,  which  the  Syrians  were  summoned 
to  attend,  several  decrees  were  passed  concerning  the  state  and 
doctrines  of  their  church. 

In  1599,  Archbishop  Menezes,  having  been  for  some  time 
making  previous  arrangements  among  the  Romanists  and  the 
Syrians,  convoked  the  great  synod  of  Diamper.  At  this  synod 
the  Archbishop  presided,  and  among  the  decrees  one  was  that 
“ all  the  Syrian  books  on  ecclesiastical  subjects,  that  could  be 
found,  should  be  burned.”  This  decree  was  immediately  carried 
into  effect,  and  even  to  this  day  “ the  Syrians  say  that  while  the 
books  were  burning,  the  Archbishop  went  round  the  church  in 
procession  chanting  a song  of  triumph.”  Concerning  the  coun- 
cil at  Diamper  and  other  means  used  to  bring  these  churches 
into  subjection  to  the  Pope,  ISIosheim  in  his  history  of  the  16th 
century,  says,  “ The  Christians  of  St.  Thomas  who  inhabited 
the  coasts  of  India,  suffered  much  from  the  methods  employed 
by  the  Portuguese  to  engage  them  to  embrace  the  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to  abandon  the  religion 
of  their  ancestors,  which  was  much  more  simple  and  infinitely 
less  absurd.  The  finishing  stroke  was  put  to  the  violence  and 
brutality  of  these  attempts  by  Don  Alexis  de  Menezes,  Arch- 
bishop of  Goa,  who  about  the  conclusion  of  this  century,  call- 
ing the  Jesuits  to  his  assistance,  obliged  this  unhappy  and  reluc- 
tant people  to  embrace  the  religion  of  Rome  and  to  acknowledge 
the  Pope’s  supreme  jurisdiction,  against  both  of  which  acts  they 


502 


INDIA.,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


had  always  expressed  the  utmost  abhorrence.  These  violent 
councils  and  arrogant  proceedings  of  Menezes  and  his  associates 
were  condemned  by  such  of  the  Roman  Catholics  as  were  most 
remarkable  for  their  equity  and  wisdom.”  * 

The  Spian  Christians  appeared  for  a while  to  be  astonished 
and  bewdldered  by  the  violence  of  these  proceedings,  and  the 
power  apparently. arrayed  against  them  and  liable  to  fall  upon 
them,  if  they  should  incur  its  further  displeasure.  Some  of  the 
priests  and  churches  continued  in  connection  with  Rome,  using 
their  liturgy  in  the  Syrian  language  but  altered  and  expurgated 
by  Menezes.  These  have  been  called  “the  Syrio-Roman 
Christians,”  and  are  chiefly  near  the  sea-coast.  But  many  of  the 
priests  and  churches  refused  to  conform  to  this  new  order  of  doc- 
trine and  discipline,  and  have  retained  their  ancient  liturgy, 
rites,  and  ministry.  These  are  called  by  their  former  name,  “ the 
Syrian  Christians  of  Malabar.” 

For  a long  time  little  was  known  concerning  these  Christians 
in  Europe  or  in  America,  and  many  yet  living  can  remember 
the  feelings  of  deep  interest  which  were  excited  by  Buchanan’s 
account  of  them  in  1807.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  sub- 
sequently commenced  a mission  among  them  in  the  hope  of 
effecting  a reformation  of  doctrine  and  discipline.  These  efforts, 
however,  have  not  produced  the  good  results  which  were  expected, 
these  churches  still  retaining  their  long  cherished  forms,  doctrines, 
rites,  etc.  Gibbon,  near  the  close  of  the  last  century  estimated 
the  whole  population  of  the  Syrian  Christians  at  200,000.  The 
Abbe  Dubois  was  of  the  opinion  they  did  not  exceed  100,000 
of  whom  two  thirds  were  Romish  Syrians.  The  Annals  of  the 
Propagation  Society  in  a late  No.  say,  that  the  Romish  Syrio- 
Christians  amount  to  nearly  100,000.  The  number  of  the  ori- 
ginal churches  is  about  50,000. 

The  liturgies  of  the  Syrian  Christians  and  their  formularies  of 
worship,  and  of  their  rites  and  ordinances,  are  in  the  ancient 
Syriac  language,  which  very  few  among  them  understand,  and 
it  is  not  strange  that  early  travellers  among  them  should  be  mis- 
taken in  some  matters,  and  so  publish  accounts  of  their  doc- 

* A particular  account  of  these  violent  measures  of  Menezes  is  given  by  La 
Croze  in  his  Ilistoiredu  Christianisme  aux  Indes.  Also  by  Hough  in  his  History 
of  Christianity  in  India,  who  has  given  the  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Diamper. 


ClIUISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


003 


trines,  etc.,  which  further  inquiry  and  research  have  shown  to  be 
in  some  respects  incorrect.  Their  liturgies,  formularies,  etc., 
have  been  carefully  examined  and  translated  into  English,  by 
Dr.  Mill,  of  Bishops  College,  and  by  Rev.  J.  Feet,  who  for  many 
years  lived  among  them.  The  following  is  given  as  a summary 
of  the  errors  they  contain. 

“ The  principal  errors  of  the  Syrian  Church  may  be  enumera- 
ted under  the  following  heads : — 

1.  Transubstantiation. 

2.  The  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  in  which  it  is  said  that  the 
priest  offers  Christ  for  the  quick  and  the  dead  to  give  remission 
of  pam  and  guilt. 

3.  Prayers  for  the  dead. 

4.  Purgatory,  or  the  possibility  of  transition  from  an  unpar- 
doned to  a pardoned  state  between  the  period  of  death  and 
judgment. 

5.  Worshipping  the  virgin  Mary,  supplicating  her  interces- 
sion, and  observing  a fast  in  her  honor. 

6.  Worship  of  saints. 

7.  Prayers  ui  an  unknown  tongue. 

8.  Extreme  unction. 

9.  Attributing  to  the  clergy  the  power  to  curse  and  destroy 
men’s  bodies  and  souls. 

10.  The  having  pictures  in  their  churches  representing  God 
the  Father. 

11.  Prayers  to  the  altar  and  to  the  chancel. 

Connected  with  these  are  the  elevation  of  the  host,  the  burn- 
ing of  incense  and  ringing  of  bells  at  the  time  of  elevation, 
the  priest  receiving  the  host  alone,  etc.” 

These  are  certainly  all  very  grave,  and  some  of  them  funda- 
mental errors,  and  they  have  formed  a part  of  their  doctrines, 
and  been  incorporated  in  their  rules  and  worship  of  their 
church  for  some  centuries,  probably  from  their  first  settlement 
in  India.  Great  changes  are  required  to  reform  such  errors,  and 
to  restore  such  a church  to  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  Gos- 
pel. ^ 


504 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  MISSIONS  AND  CHLTICH  IN  INDIA. 

To  spread  a knowledge  of  the  Romish  faith,  was  one  of  the 
avowed  objects  of  the  Portuguese  in  prosecuting  their  voyages 
of  discovery,  and  making  their  conquests  in  heathen  countries. 
For  this  purpose  missionaries  of  different  orders,  as  Jesuits,  Do- 
minicans, etc.,  went  out  in  their  ships  to  remain  in  the  countries 
discovered,  and  to  convert  the  inhabitants  to  Christianity. 
Many  people  also  of  different  trades  and  professions  went  out 
in  these  ships,  and  became  permanent  residents  in  the  places 
of  which  the  Portuguese  took  possession.  Thus  numerous 
colonies  were  formed.  “ Immediately  on  their  taking  posses- 
sion of  Goa,  a church  was  dedicated  to  St.  Catharine,  who 
was  solemnly  chosen  to  be  the  patroness  of  the  city,  and  the 
protectress  of  the  Portuguese  in  India.”  Marriages  between  the 
Portuguese  and  the  native  inhabitants  were  encouraged  by  the 
Portuguese  authorities,  and  they  became  frequent.  It  is  said 
by  one  of  the  Portuguese  historians  in  praise  of  Albuquerque, 
the  greatest  of  all  their  viceroys  in  India,  that  he  did  much  to 
promote  intermarriages  between  his  countrymen  and  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  country,  and,  as  in  aU  such  cases  the  native  party 
was  always  required  to  profess  the  Romish  faith,  the  nominally 
Christian  population  in  the  Portuguese  settlements  was  by  these 
means  greatly  increased. 

In  1542,  the  celebrated  Francis  Xavier  reached  Goa.  He  had 
acquired  a high  reputation  for  piety  in  Europe,  and  had  long 
felt  a strong  desire  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  heathen  countries. 
His  conduct,  on  reaching  the  long-desired  field  of  his  futiue  la- 
bor, was  in  accordance  with  his  profession  and  character.  He 
passed  the  first  night  alone  in  one  of  the  churches  that  he  might 
have  all  the  time  for  undisturbed  meditation  and  prayer.  There 
were  many  priests  and  monks  then  in  Goa,  and  all  were  under 
the  superintendence  of  a bishop,  but  the  state  of  religion  was 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


505 


very  low.  Xavier’s  zeal  and  labors  soon  excited  attention,  and 
he  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  some  reformation  of  manners, 
and  better  attendance  upon  the  sacraments.  Having  spent 
a few  months  in  Goa,  he  proceeded  into  the  districts  near  Cape 
Comorin.  The  peojde  here  were  pariars  and  fishermen.  Some 
of  them  had  been  baptized  by  missionaries  who  had  previously 
been  among  them,  but  the  greater  part  were  still  heathen  in 
profession,  and  all  were  much  alike  in  practice.  In  a letter  to 
some  of  his  friends  he  A\Tote  : — “ You  may  judge  what  manner 
of  life  I lead  here  by  what  I relate  to  you.  I am  wholly  igno- 
rant of  the  language  of  the  people,  and  they  know  as  little  of 
mine,  and  I have  no  interpreter.  All  I can  perform  is  to  bap- 
tize the  children  and  serve  the  sick,  an  employment  easily  un- 
derstood without  the  help  of  an  interpreter,  by  only  minding 
what  they  want.”  It  appears  from  a further  account,  that  he 
afterwards  got  the  Lord’s  Prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and 
some  passages  of  Scripture  translated  into  the  language  of  the 
people,  and  these  lessons  he  committed  to  memory.  He  says, 
“ I went  about  with  my  bell  in  my  hand  and  gathered  all  I met, 
both  men  and  children,  and  instructed  them  in  Christian  doc- 
trine as  well  as  I could.”  His  zeal  and  earnest  affection  towards 
them,  so  unlike  any  thing  they  had  ever  before  seen,  excited 
their  attention  and  sympathy,  and  according  to  his  views  of 
conversion,  his  labors  were  accompanied  with  great  success. 
In  his  account  of  his  labors,  he  says  that  “ in  one  month  he 
baptized  with  his  own  hand  10,000  idolaters,  and  that  not  unfre- 
quently  in  one  day  he  baptized  a weU-peopled  village.”  Having 
pursued  his  labors  for  some  months  in  these  districts,  he  returned 
to  Goa,  and  wote  several  very  earnest  letters  to  Europe,  en- 
treating that  more  missionaries  might  be  sent  to  India.  He 
preached  in  several  places  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  penin- 
sula, when  some  events  occurred  which  he  thought  were  intima- 
tions from  God  that  it  was  his  duty  to  visit  some  countries 
further  east.  So  he  proceeded  to  Alalacca,  Amboyna,  Ternate, 
and  Japan,  everywhere  exhibiting  his  accustomed  zeal.  He 
continued  his  missionary  labors  in  different  places  till  his  death 
in  1552,  nearly  10  years  from  liis  arrival  in  India.  He  died  in 
the  island  of  Sancian,  near  the  coast  of  China,  but  his  body 

43 


506 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


was  brought  to  Goa,  and  inclosed  in  a shrine  in  the  church  of 
Bom  Jesus.* 

In  1560,  only  8 years  after  the  death  of  Xavier,  the  Inquisition 
was  established  in  Goa.  The  institution  was  on  a large  scale, 
having  cells  in  the  prison  part  of  it  sufheient  for  200  criminals. 
It  continued  for  more  than  2 eenturies,  and  its  seeret  proceed- 
ings and  pubhc  exhibitions  showed  a sphit  of  intolerance,  perse- 
cution, and  cruelty,  to  which  heathenism  can  scarcely  furnish 
any  parallel.!  1775  it  was  suppressed  by  royal  edict  from 
the  king  of  Portugal.  But  in  a few  years  it  was  restored, 
though  in  a somewhat  modified  form,  and  continued  till  1812, 
when  it  was  finally  suppressed  through  the  influence  of  the 
British  government.  The  edifiee  soon  fell  to  ruins,  which  have 
since  been  removed  to  be  used  for  other  purposes,  so  that  only 
the  place  where  the  Inquisition  onee  stood  is  now  pointed  out  to 
the  inquiring  traveller. ! 

There  is  no  part  of  the  history  of  Romish  missions  m India, 
which  exhibits  scenes  of  more  interest  than  some  which  occurred 
at  Delhi.  Aeber,  the  greatest  of  all  the  Mogul  emperors  of 
India,  and  at  that  time  the  greatest  monarch  in  the  world,  hav- 
ing become  dissatisfied  with  Mohammedanism,  the  rehgion  of 
his  ancestors  and  of  his  eountry,  sent  a letter  to  the  governor  of 

* In  1774,  nearly  200  years  after  Xavier’s  death,  Pope  Benedict  XIV. 
caused  his  name  to  be  enrolled  in  the  calendar  of  the  saints,  and  gave  him  the 
title  of  “ Protector  of  the  Indies.”  From  that  time  he  has  been  regarded  as  the 
tutelar  saint  of  Goa.  When  Dr.  Buchanan  was  there  in  1806,  the  Archbishop, 
referring  to  the  long  quiet  the  city  had  enjoyed,  while  most  cities  in  India  had 
been  besieged,  and  many  of  them  plundered,  “ascribed  the  preservation  of 
Goa  to  the  prayers  of  St.  Xavier.”  — “ There  is  an  old  idol  of  Xavier  near  Cape 
Comorin,  to  which  many  Hindus  as  well  Roman  Catholics  go  on  pilgrimage.” — 
Thus  Xavier  has  a place  among  the  saints  of  the  Romish  Church  and  the  gods 
of  the  heathen. 

f The  learned  Mosheim  says,  “ It  may  be  alTirmed  from  records  of  the  high- 
est credit  and  authority  that  the  Inquisition  erected  by  the  Jesuits  at  Goa,  and 
the  penal  laws  they  employed  so  freely  in  the  propagation  of  the  gospel,  contrilj- 
uted  much  more  than  their  arguments  and  exhortations,  which  were  but  spar- 
ingly used,  to  engage  the  Indians  to  embrace  Christianity.” 

f Buchanan  in  his  Christian  Researches  has  given  an  account  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion at  Goa,  as  it  was  in  1807.  Tlie  best  account  I have  seen  is  Dellon’s  Rela- 
lion  <Je  I’ Inquisition  de  Goa.  Dr.  Dcllon  was  confined  in  the  Inquisition  for  more 
than  2 yeans. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


507 


Goa,  requesting  that  some  qualified  Christian  teachers  would 
come  to  him,  assuring  them  of  a safe  journey  and  an  honorable 
reception.  lie  also  requested  that  they  would  bring  with  them 
all  the  books  of  the  law  and  the  gospel,  meaning  complete  copies 
of  the  Christian  Scriptures.*  This  letter  from  the  emperor  natu- 
rally excited  great  attention  at  Goa.  Three  Romish  priests 
were  selected  for  this  important  mission,  and  they  soon  em- 
barked for  Surat.  On  arriving  at  Surat,  the  governor,  who  had 
received  instructions  from  the  emperor  concerning  them,  received 
them  with  great  respect  and  furnished  them  with  an  escort  of 
cavalry  to  proceed  to  Delhi.  The  emperor  received  them  with 
much  honor,  and  offered  them  every  thing  they  might  require. 
“ When  an  image  of  the  crucifixion  was  exhibited,  he  showed  his 
reverence  for  it  by  successively  bowing,  kneeling,  and  falling 
prostrate  before  it,  thus  conforming  to  the  respective  modes  of 
the  Mohammedan,  Christian,  and  Hindu  modes  of  worship.  A 
richly  ornamented  image  of  Mary  was  then  exhibited,  and  gaz- 
. ing  upon  it  he  declared  it  to  be  indeed  a worthy  representation 
of  the  Queen  of  Heaven.  A book  purpoiding  to  be  the  Bible  in 
four  different  languages  was  then  presented  to  him,  which  he  re- 
ceived with  great  reverence,  and  kissing  it  placed  it  upon  his 
head.”  Thus  the  Jesuits  describe  their  first  religious  interview 
with  him.  They  were  greatly  encouraged  by  these  favorable  in- 
dications, and  requested  the  emperor  to  make  arrangements  for 
them  to  have  a public  discussion  with  the  Moolahs  upon  the 
comparative  merits  of  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism.  The 
request  was  soon  granted,  and  the  Jesuits  and  the  IMoolahs  had 
their  discussion  before  the  emperor  and  his  court.  The  Jesuits 
in  their  accounts  of  this  discussion  describe  their  arguments  as 
convincing  and  unanswerable,  and  probably  the  Moolahs  said 
the  same  concerning  their  side  of  the  cause.  The  emperor  as- 
sured the  priests  privately  that  he  was  much  pleased  with  their 
reasons  and  arguments,  which  encouraged  them  to  hope  that  he 
would  soon  declare  his  conviction  of  the  truth  of  Christianity. 
Considerable  time  passed  wdthout  any  thing  more  being  said  on 
the  subject,  and  when  the  emperor  again  adverted  to  it  he  told 
them  that  one  of  the  Moolahs  had  offered  to  bring  their  argu- 


* For  some  account  of  Acber’s  religious  principles,  see  p.  109  and  110. 


508 


INDIA,  ANCIEN-T  AND  MODERN. 


merits  for  the  truth  of  Christianity  and  against  Mohammedanism, 
namely,  that  their  religion  was  at  first,  confirmed  by  miracles, 
and  that  these  had  never  ceased  to  take  place  in  their  church, 
while  no  miracles  were  wrought  at  first  to  confirm  the  truth  of 
the  Koran,  and  none  now  took  place  among  its  followers  — all 
such  arguments  and  objections  tliis  hloolah  offered  to  bring  at 
once  to  a practical  issue  thus  : — He  would  himself  take  the  Ko- 
ran in  his  hands,  and  calhng  upon  Mohammed  he  would  leap 
into  a furnace,  and  either  of  the  priests  might  take  the  Bible  in 
his  hands,  and  caUing  upon  Jesus  or  Mary  might  leap  into  the 
furnace  — both  to  do  it  at  the  same  time  before  the  emperor  and 
his  court.  — The  party  whose  rehgion  was  true,  would  come 
out  of  the  furnace,  himself  and  book  safe  and  uninjured,  and 
the  party  whose  rehgion  was  false,  would  be  consumed.  — And 
then  the  emperor  and  his  court  would  be  satisfied  whether 
Christianity  or  IMohammedanism  is  the  true  faith,  and  wliich 
wiU  secure  the  salvation  of  manldnd. 

The  Jesuits  were  much  perplexed  by  this  proposal,  and  they 
endeavored  to  satisfy  the  emperor  that  such  a ti’ial  was  not  a 
proper  way  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  a rehgion  which  had  al- 
ready abundant  evidence  in  its  favor,  if  men  would  only  ex- 
amine it,  that  they  had  exhibited  the  evidence  once  and  were 
ready  to  do  it  again,  and  they  sohcited  another  pubhc  discus- 
sion. It  was  at  length  arranged  that  there  should  be  another 
pubhc  discussion  between  the  Jesuits  and  the  IMoolahs.  This 
second  discussion,  hke  the  former,  took  place  before  the  empe- 
ror and  his  court.  The  Jesuits  thought  they  had  the  advantage 
in  reason  and  argument,  but  the  result  was  no  more  satisfactory 
to  the  other  party  than  the  former  discussion.  The  IMoolahs  aU 
now  declared  that  any  further  discussion  or  controversy  was  use- 
less, and  that  it  only  remained  to  bring  the  great  question  in  dis- 
pute at  once  to  the  practical  issue  which  they  formerly  proposed, 
or  for  the  priests  to  acknowledge  the  truth  of  the  Koran.  The 
emperor  also  intimated  to  the  Jesuits  that  the  offer  of  the  Moo- 
lah appeared  to  be  reasonable,  especially  as  they  believed  that 
miracles  still  continued  to  take  place  in  their  church.  The 
priests,  however,  were  of  a different  opmion  and  declined  accept- 
ing the  offer. 

These  priests  made  a long  sojourn  at  the  court  of  Acber.  He 


CHEISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


509 


treated  them  with  much  respect  and  gave  them  liberty  freely  to 
propagate  their  religious  sentiments,  assui'ing  them  of  his  protec- 
tion of  themselves  and  their  proselytes.  He  had  frequent  con- 
versations with  them  on  religious  subjects,  but  he  gave  them  less 
and  less  reason  to  hope  he  would  ever  embrace  Christianity.  At 
length  some  public  affairs  required  the  emperor  to  proceed  to 
Bengal,  and  the  priests  took  leave  of  him  and  returned  to  Goa, 
having  lived  in  Delhi  for  12  years. 

After  an  interval  of  8 years,  Acber  again  wrote  to  the  governor 
of  Goa,  requesting  that  some  Christian  teachers  might  be  sent 
to  him.  The  request  was  answered  and  some  priests  proceeded 
to  his  court  and  were  received  with  great  respect.  They  were 
at  first  much  encouraged  by  his  inquiries  and  the  spirit  he  man- 
ifested. But  after  a few  interviews  and  conversations  with  them, 
the  interest  he  manifested  in  religion  diminished,  and  he  appar- 
ently became  indifferent  on  the  subject.  As  they  now  seldom 
saw  him,  and  their  situation  at  court  was  becoming  unpleasant, 
they  left  Delhi  and  returned  to  Goa.  Still  the  emperor  appears 
not  to  have  continued  in  a state  of  indifference  to  religion,  for 
after  another  interval  of  4 years  he  again  A\Tote  to  Goa  for 
Christian  teachers  so  earnestly  and  expressed  such  sentiments 
on  the  subject  that,  notwithstanding  their  former  painful  experi- 
ence, another  mission  was  sent  to  him.  The  members  of  this 
mission  were  at  first  more  encouraged  than  either  of  their  prede- 
cessors. But  after  a while  on  becoming  more  intimately  ac- 
quainted ''A'ith  his  habits  and  sentiments,  they  were  disheartened 
and  returned  to  Goa.  This  great  emperor’s  religious  principles 
have  been  the  subject  of  much  inquiry  and  doubt.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  life  he  appears  to  have  been  a sincere  believer  in  the 
creed  of  his  family  and  nation  ; then  for  some  years  to  have  been 
in  doubt  between  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity,  and  in  the 
last  years  of  his  life,  excepting  now  and  then  seasons  of  doubt 
and  anxiety  concerning  his  own  religious  state,  he  was  a deist, 
tolerating  all  the  systems  of  religion  professed  in  his  empire,  but 
not  believing  in  the  divine  origin  of  any  of  them.  These  scep- 
tical sentiments  and  the  equal  protection  he  extended  to  aU 
classes  of  people  x^dthout  regard  to  their  religious  sentiments  so 
long  as  they  were  good  subjects,  gave  great  offence  to  Moham- 

43* 


510  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

medans,  but  made  his  government  popular  among  all  his  other 
subjects. 

We  cannot  but  admire  the  moral  courage,  the  zeal  and  the 
perseverance  of  these  Jesuits  at  the  court  of  Acber.  Had  aU  the 
means  and  arguments  they  used  for  the  conversion  of  the  empe- 
ror and  the  introduction  of  Christianity  at  his  court,  been  of  a 
corresponding  character,  it  appears  not  unhkely  they  might  have 
witnessed  very  different  results.  Acber  requested  these  Jesuits 
to  prepare  for  his  use  a true  history  of  Christ,  and  they  prepared 
and  presented  to  him  a work  which  they  declared  in  the  preface 
was  such  as  he  had  requested.  They  declared  that  the  work 
“ had  been  compiled  from  the  Holy  Gospels  and  other  books  of 
the  prophets,”  such  are  their  words.  This  work  has  been  pre- 
served, and  it  is  as  far  from  being  a true  History  of  Christ  as 
the  traditions  and  principles  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  Church  are 
Rom  being  the  doctrines  contained  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
strange  stories  and  foolish  legends  contained  in  this  work  con- 
cerning Peter  and  Mary  indicate  that  the  Jesuits  who  compiled 
it,  were  more  anxious  to  recommend  Mary  as  the  object  of  rehg- 
ious  homage,  and  Peter  and  consequently  the  Pope,  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  Christ,  than  they  were  to  exhibit  the  dignity,  the  grace, 
and  the  glory  of  the  Redeemer  and  Saviour  of  sinners.  Need 
we  wonder  that  this  great  emperor  and  his  learned  Moolahs,  af- 
ter becoming  acquainted  with  the  traditions  and  doctrines,  and 
the  rites  and  usages  of  these  Jesuits  and  their  church,  and  sup- 
posing that  this  wmrk  was  a true  exhibition  of  Christianity,  and 
that  it  showed  only  what  was  contained  in  the  word  of  God,  — 
need  we  wonder  that  such  men  should  lose  aU  respect  for  Chris- 
tianity and  manifest  no  desire  for  further  inquiry  ? 

The  conversion  of  the  natives  to  Christianity  wms  pursued 
with  vigor  for  more  than  200  years  from  the  arrival  of  the  Por- 
tuguese in  India.  In  all  places  subject  to  their  power  this  work 
was  favored  by  legislative  enactments,  and  all  in  authority  were 
enjoined  and  expected  to  use  their  influence  in  promoting  it. 
Of  Albuquerque,  who  was  governor  of  all  the  Portuguese  pos- 
sessions in  India,  it  is  said  that  “ he  greatly  favored  intermar- 
riages between  the  European  settlers  and  the  natives.”  The  na- 
tive party  in  aU  such  cases  must  previously  profess  Christianity, 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


511 


nnd  the  offspring  of  all  such  connections  would  belong  to  the 
Christian  community.  The  government  appears  to  have  been 
of  the  opinion  that  there  would  be  no  seciurity  for  the  continu- 
ance of  their  power,  if  their  people  did  not  embrace  Christianity, 
and  so  come  under  the  influence  of  the  hierarchy.*  Cottineau 
says,  that  “ Mohammedans  and  Hindus  were  allowed  to  sojourn 
in  Goa,  but  to  exercise  no  public  act  of  their  religion.”  Another 
Roman  Catholic  historian  says,  that  “ no  Hindu  or  Mohamme- 
dan was  allowed  to  practise  the  rites  of  his  religion  publicly  in 
any  Portuguese  settlement  in  India  under  pain  of  death.”  Prob- 
ably the  laws  differed  at  different  times.  The  same  policy  was 
probably  pursued  in  their  other  possessions.  He  also  says,  that 
when  “ the  Jesuits  had  converted  a great  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Salsette,f  in  order  the  better  as  they  thought  to  detach  the 
remainder  of  the  inhabitants  from  the  worship  of  idols,  they  de- 
stroyed all  the  temples  and  the  pagodas.”  — “ Nearly  1,200  tem- 
ples were  thus  demolished,  and  the  idols  were  broken  to  pieces.” 
The  same  course  was  pursued  in  other  places  where  it  could 
prudently  be  done.  Great  numbers  of  priests,  monks,  and 


* “ Albuquercjue  viewed  it  as  an  essential  object  to  attach  the  natives  to  his 
government,  for  which  purpose  he  adopted  a somewhat  singular  expedient. 
Having  numerous  female  captives,  some  belonging  to  the  first  families  in  the 
country,  he  treated  them  in  the  most  honorable  manner ; but  not  satisfied  with 
this,  he  proceeded  to  arrange  matrimonial  connections  between  them  and  his 
Portuguese  followers,  without  leaving  them  much  choice  on  either  side.  It  was 
made  an  absolute  condition  of  the  brides  that  they  should  embrace  Christianity, 
an  obstacle  which  was  not  found  insurmountable,  the  prejudices  of  caste  and  relig- 
ion being  less  deeply  rooted  there  than  in  other  parts  of  the  East.  A few  such 
marriages  being  formed,  the  viceroy  showed  the  parties  peculiar  favor,  and  be- 
stowed upon  the  husbands  some  of  his  best  appointments.  The  principal  fami- 
lies finding  themselves  aggrandized  by  these  connections,  so  far  from  objecting 
to  them,  gave  their  countenance  to  new  matches.  An  odd  story  is  told  of  a 
great  number  of  wedilings  being  eelebrated  at  once  wnth  a splendid  festival, 
when  the  lights  being  prematui’cly  extinguished,  it  became  difficult  for  the  parties 
to  recognize  each  other,  and  they  fell  into  many  mistakes.  Next  morning  an 
investigation  was  proposed,  but  on  mature  reflection  it  was  judged  best  that  each 
should  remain  contented  with  the  wife  that  had  accidentally  fallen  to  his  lot, 
though  different  from  the  one  to  whom  the  church  had  united  him,  and  the  affair 
furnished  to  the  army  only  an  occasion  of  mirth.”  — Murrains  History  of  British 
India,  p.  127. 

f An  Island  or  district  near  Goa,  and  not  the  one  of  this  name  near  Bombay. 


512 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


friars,  as  Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Capuchins,  etc.,  engaged  in  this 
work.  Money  was  freely  expended  in  this  cause,  and  thousands 
spent  their  lives  in  self-denying  labors  and  sufferings  to  promote  it. 
In  aU  places  subject  to  the  Portuguese  they  could  rely  on  the 
government  for  protection  for  themselves  and  their  converts,  and 
the  power  of  government  was  often  exerted  to  assist  them  in  the 
dominions  of  the  native  princes.  Of  this  influence  the  pro- 
ceedings of  ^Yrchbishop  Menezes,  in  his  aggressive  measures 
upon  the  Syrian  Church  affords  a striking  example.  Such  was 
understood  to  be  his  connection  with  the  Portuguese  authorities 
and  such  was  the  support  he  was  then  receiving  from  them,  that 
to  resist  him  in  any  way  appeared  certain  to  incur  their  displeas- 
ure and  all  its  dreaded  consequences. 

But  the  missionaries  did  not  limit  their  labors  for  the  conversion 
of  the  native  population  to  the  Portuguese  possessions,  nor  to 
places  where  they  could  rely  upon  the  protection  and  influence 
of  government.  They  went  into  the  territories  of  the  native 
princes,  but  here  they  pursued  a different  course  in  carrying  on 
the  work  of  converting  the  people.  The  foUowdng  extract  is  from 
the  works  of  one  who  was  himself  a Roman  Catholic  mission- 
ary for  more  than  30  years  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  peninsula, 
and  must  have  been  well  informed  on  all  such  matters.  Refer- 
ring to  the  Jesuits,  he  says  : — 

“ By  degrees  those  missionaries  introduced  themselves  into 
the  inland  country.  They  saw  that  in  order  to  fix;  the  attention 
of  these  people,  gain  their  confidence  and  get  a hearing,  it  was 
indispensably  necessary  to  respect  their  prejudices  and  even  to 
conform  to  their  dress,  their  manner  of  living,  and  forms  of  soci- 
ety ; in  short,  scrupulously  to  adopt  the  costumes  and  practices 
of  the  country.  With  this  persuasion  they  at  their  first  outset 
announced  themselves  as  European  brahmins,  come  from  a dis- 
tance of  5,000  leagues  from  the  western  part  of  the  Djamboodi/, 
for  the  double  purpose  of  imparting  and  receiving  knowledge 
from  their  brother  brahmins  in  India.  Almost  all  these  first  mis- 
sionaries were  more  or  less  acquainted  with  astronomy  and  med- 
icine, the  two  sciences  best  calculated  to  ingratiate  them  with 
the  natives  of  every  description.  After  announcing  themselves 
as  brahmins  they  made  it  their  study  to  imitate  that  tribe.  They 
put  on  a Hindu  dress  of  cavy  or  yellow  color,  the  same  as  that 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


513 


used  by  the  Indian  religious  teachers  and  penitents.  They  made 
frequent  ablutions.  "Whenever  they  showed  themselves  in  pub- 
lic, they  applied  to  their  foreheads,  paste  made  of  sandal-wood,* 
as  used  by  the  brahmins.  They  scrupulously  abstained  from 
every  kind  of  animal  food  as  well  as  from  intoxicating  liquors, 
entirely  faring  like  brahmins,  on  vegetables  and  milk.  It  was 
by  such  a life  of  almost  incredible  privations  and  restraints  that 
they  insinuated  themselves  among  these  people.  Fully  aware 
of  the  unalterable  attachment  of  the  natives  to  their  own  usages 
and  practices,  they  made  it  their  principal  study  not  to  hurt  then- 
feelings  by  attacking  all  at  once  the  superstitions  with  which 
most  of  their  customs  are  infected.  They  judged  it  more  pru- 
dent at  the  beginning  to  overlook  many  of  them,  and  wait  for  a 
more  favorable  time  to  put  the  converts  right  on  these  subjects. 
Their  color,  their  talents,  their  virtues,  and  above  all  their  perfect 
disinterestedness  rendered  them  acceptable  even  to  the  Hindu 
princes,  who  astonished  at  the  novelty  and  singularity  of  these 
circumstances,  bestowed  their  protection  on  these  extraordinary 
men,  and  gave  them  full  freedom  to  preach  their  religion  and 
made  proselytes  to  it.”  f 

Of  the  missionaries  thus  engaged  in  propagating  the  Romish 
system  in  India,  Robert  de  Nobili,  who  was  a near  relative  of 
the  Pope  and  a nephew  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  was  the  most 
remarkable.  He  and  his  companions  assumed  heathen  and 
significant  names,  and  did  not  scruple  to  add  forgery  and  even 
perjury  to  their  hypocrisy.  In  his  History  of  Christianity  in 
Lidia,  Hough  says  : — “ Robert  de  Nobili  pretended  to  belong 
to  the  highest  order  of  brahmins,  and  to  stop  the  mouths  of  his 
opposers,  and  particularly  of  those  who  treated  his  character  of 
brahmin  as  a deception,  he  produced  an  old  dirty  parchment,  on 
which  he  had  forged  in  the  ancient  character,  a deed  showing 
that  the  brahmins  of  Rome  were  of  much  older  date  than  those 
of  India,  and  that  the  Jesuits  of  Rome  descended  in  a direct 
line  from  the  god  Brahma.  And  when  the  authenticity  of  this 
smoky  parchment  was  called  in  question  by  some  Indian  unbe- 
lievers, Robert  de  Nobili  declared  upon  oath  before  the  assembly 
of  brahmins  at  Madura  that  he  reaUy  derived  his  origin  from 
the  god  Brahma.” 

* One  of  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  Hindu  religion. 

f Abbe  Dubois,  on  the  State  of  Christianity  in  India,  p.  5 and  6. 


514  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

Nobili  and  his  associates  used  yet  other  means  to  establish 
their  character  as  brahmins  and  the  divine  origin  of  the  rehgion 
they  taught.  All  the  Hindus  believe  then*  Vedas  to  be  the  old- 
est and  most  sacred  of  aU  their  religious  books.  These  works 
are  commonly  reckoned  4 in  number,  and  copies  are  very  scarce. 
They  are  held  in  great  veneration,  only  the  brahmins  being  al- 
lowed to  possess  them,  to  read  them,  or  even  to  hear  them  read. 
The  Jesuits,  finding  that  these  books  were  regarded  as  the  foim- 
tain  of  aU  divine  knowledge,  composed  a work  which  they  de- 
clared was  one  of  the  Vedas,  in  which  they  interwove  an  ac- 
count of  Christianity,  its  origin  and  doctrines,  with  much  matter 
of  a different  character.  The  work  exhibited  much  knowledge 
of  the  native  language,  and  in  the  opinion  of  a distinguished 
orientalist,  “ it  was  written  with  consummate  skill.”  It  was 
composed  in  a style  so  closely  resembling  the  true  Vedas  that 
many  learned  brahmins  did  not  discover  the  forgery.  The 
authors  hoped  in  this  way  to  show  the  truth  of  the  Gospels  and 
the  divine  origin  of  Christianity.  This  work  was  not  known  in 
Europe  for  many  years.  In  1761  it  became  known  to  Voltaire, 
who  believing,  or  to  affecting  to  believe,  that  it  was  a genuine 
Hindu  Veda,  and  of  contemporaneous  origin  with  the  other 
Vedas,  used  it  to  disprove  the  truth  of  the  Scriptures,  as  though 
some  of  the  facts,  etc.,  contained  in  the  Gospels  concerning  Jesus 
Christ  were  reaUy  contained  in  a heathen  work  WTitten  several 
centuries  before  Christ  appeared  in  the  world.  Voltaire’s  argu- 
ments against  Christianity  excited  much  attention,  and  this  pre- 
tended Veda  was  soon  published  at  Paris.  It  was  examined  by 
M.  Sonnerat,  who  satisfied  the  public  that  it  was  only  a Veda  in 
pretence,  being  in  reality  a work  of  recent  origin,  composed  by 
some  of  the  Jesuits  in  some  of  their  missions  in  India.  It  was 
subsequently  examined  with  much  care  by  IMr.  EUis  * of 
Madras,  a distinguished  orientalist,  who  showed  the  object  and 
character  of  the  work  ; — “ that  the  Ezour  Veda  was  purely  a 
literary  forgery,  or  rather  as  the  object  of  the  author  or  authors 
was  not  fiterary  distinction  — that  it  was  a work  of  religious 
imposition  without  any  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  world.” 

Concerning  Nobili  and  the  measures  he  and  his  associates 


* Asiatic  Researches,  14th  vol.  Art.  1st. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


515 


used  to  propagate  Christianity  in  India,  Mosheim,  in  his  Eccle- 
siastical History,  says : — “ Considering  on  the  one  hand  that 
the  Indians  beheld  with  an  eye  of  prejudice  and  aversion  all 
Europeans,  and  on  the  other  that  they  held  in  the  highest  ven- 
eration the  order  of  brahmins  as  descended  from  the  gods,  and 
that  impatient  of  their  rulers  they  paid  an  implicit  and  unlimited 
obedience  to  them  alone,  Nobili  assumed  the  appearance  and 
title  of  a brahmin  that  had  come  from  a far  country,  and  by  be- 
smearing his  countenance  and  imitating  the  most  austere  and 
painful  methods  of  living  that  the  siinyasees  (devotees)  ob- 
served, he  at  length  persuaded  that  credulous  people  that  he 
was  in  reality  a member  of  the  venerable  order  of  brahmins. 
By  this  stratagem  he-  gained  over  to  Cliristianity  12  eminent 
brahmins,  whose  example  and  influence  engaged  a prodigious 
number  of  the  people  to  hear  the  instructions  and  receive  the 
doctrine  of  the  famous  missionary.” 

These  accounts  show  that  these  Romish  missionaries,  instead 
of  converting  the  Hindus  to  Christianity,  had  themselves  become 
Hindus  and  brahmins  in  profession  and  practice,  and  it  would 
not  be  reasonable  to  expect  that  while  they  continued  to  sustain 
this  character,  they  could  effect  any  change  by  their  labors  or 
influence  beyond  some  modification  of  liinduism.  And  such 
was  the  result.  When  their  conduct,  the  doctrines  they  taught, 
and  the  character  of  their  proselytes  became  known,  much  dis- 
satisfaction was  felt  among  the  Portuguese,  “ who  accused  these 
Jesuits  of  the  most  culpable  indulgence  in  tolerating  and  wink- 
ing at  aU  kinds  of  idolatrous  superstitions  among  their  prose- 
lytes, and  with  having  themselves  rather  become  converts  to  the 
idolatrous  worship  of  the  Hindus,  by  conforming  to  many  of 
their  practices  and  superstitions,  than  making  the  Indians  con- 
verts to  the  Christian  religion.”  These  complaints  were  made 
to  the  Pope,  who  was  earnestly  requested  to  interpose  his  au- 
thority. The  Jesuits  also  sent  deputations  to  Rome  to  explain 
their  conduct  and  vindicate  the  comrse  they  had  pursued.  “ This 
disgusting  contest,”  says  the  Abbe  Dubois,  “ which  was  carried 
on  in  several  instances  with  much  acrimony,  lasted  more  than 
40  years  before  it  came  to  an  end.”  The  result  o'f  this  contro- 
versy was  that  the  Jesuits  were  censured  by  the  Pope,  who  re- 
quired them  to  refrain  from  certain  specified  rites  and  practices, 


516 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


and  to  carry  out  this  reform  among  all  their  prosel)rtes.  The 
Jesuits  complied  wdth  the  decree  of  the  Pope  in  respect  to  their 
own  conduct,  but  they  were  able  to  effect  only  a partial  refor- 
mation among  their  proselytes,  of  whom  a large  part  preferred  - 
to  continue  as  they  were  — a class  of  the  Hindu  population. 

The  great  struggle  between  the  English  and  the  French  for 
ascendency  in  India  occurring  just  at  this  time,  many  Europe- 
ans found  their  way  into  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  the 
Hindus  discovered  to  their  great  astonishment,  “ that  those  mis- 
sionaries whom  their  color,  their  talents,  and  other  quahties  had 
induced  them  to  regard  as  extraordinary  beings,  as  men  coming 
from  another  world,  were  in  fact  nothing  else  but  disguised  Fe- 
ringas  (Europeans),  and  that  their  country,  their  religion,  and 
original  education,  were  the  same  wdth  those  of  the  vile  and 
contemptible  Feringas,  who  had  lately  invaded  their  country. 
This  event  proved  the  last  blow  to  the  interests  of  the  Romish 
religion  in  those  provinces.  No  more  conversions  were  made, 
and  apostasy  became  almost  general  in  several  districts.” 
Another  important  event  also  occurred  at  that  time.  The  order 
of  the  Jesuits  was  suppressed  and  the  proselytes  became  dejren- 
dent,  to  a great  extent,  upon  native  priests  who  had  been  edu- 
cated in  India,  who  in  education  and  Christian  character  were 
very  inferior  to  their  predecessors,  who  had  but  httle  influence 
over  their  countrymen  that  had  assumed  a Christian  profession, 
and  stiU  less  respect  among  those  who  still  adhered  to  the  Hindu 
system. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  the  Romish  Christians  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  peninsula  were  severely  persecuted  by 
the  Mohammedan  sovereign  of  JMysore.  The  following  account 
is  from  the  Abbe  Dubois’  Letters  on  Christianity  in  India : — 

“ When  the  late  Tippoo  Sultan  sought  to  extend  his  own  re- 
ligious creed  aU  over  his  dominions,  and  make  by  little  and 
little  all  the  inhabitants  in  Mysore  converts  to  Islamism,  he 
wished  to  begin  this  fanatical  undertaking  with  the  native 
Christians  living  in  his  country,  as  the  most  odious  to  him  on 
the  score  of  their  religion.  In  consequence,  in  the  year  1784, 
he  gave  secret  orders  to  his  officers  in  the  different  districts 
to  make  the  most  diligent  imiuiries  after  the  places  where 
Christians  were  to  be  found,  and  to  cause  the  whole  of  them  to 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


517 


be  seized  on  the  same  day,  and  conducted  under  strong  escorts 
to  Scringapatam.  This  order  was  punctually  carrh^d  into  exe- 
cution. Very  few  of  them  escaped,  and  I have  it  from  good 
authority,  that  the  aggregate  number  of  persons  seized  in  this 
manner  amounted  to  more  than  60,000. 

“ Some  time  after  their  arrival  at  Seringapatam,  Tippoo  or- 
dered the  whole  to  undergo  the  rite  of  circumcision  and  be 
made  converts  to  Mohammedanism.  The  Christians  were  put 
together  during  the  several  days  that  the  ceremony  lasted ; and 
O shame ! O scandal ! — wiU  it  be  believed  in  the  Christian 
world  ? — no  one,  not  a single  individual  among  so  many  thou- 
sands, had  courage  enough  to  confess  in  these  trying  circum- 
stances, and  become  a martyr  to  his  religion.  The  whole  apos- 
tatized en  masse,  and  without  resistance  or  protestation,  tamely 
underwent  the  operation  of  circumcision ; no  one  among  them 
possessing  resolution  enough  to  say,  ‘ I am  a Christian,  and  wiU 
die  rather  than  renounce  my  rehgion.’  So  general  a defection, 
so  dastardly  an  apostasy  is,  I believe,  unexampled  in  the  annals 
of  Christianity. 

“ After  the  faU  of  Tippoo  Sultan,  most  of  those  apostates 
came  back  to  be  reconciled  to  their  former  religion,  saying  that 
their  apostasy  had  been  only  external,  and  that  they  always 
kept  in  their  hearts  the  true  faith  in  Christ.  About  2,000  of 
them  feU  in  my  way,  and  nearly  20,000  returned  to  the  Manga- 
lore district,  from  whence  they  had  been  carried  away,  and  re- 
built there  their  former  places  of  worship.  God  preserve  them 
aU  from  being  exposed  in  future  to  the  same  trials,  for  should 
this  happen,  I have  every  reason  (notwithstanding  their  solemn 
protestations  when  again  reconciled  to  Christianity,)  to  appre- 
hend the  same  sad  results,  that  is  to  say,  a tame  submission  and 
a general  apostasy.” 

The  Romish  missionaries  did  not  require  their  proselytes  to 
renounce  caste  when  they  were  baptized,  nor  to  do  any  thing 
afterwards  which  was  contrary  to  the  rules  and  usages  of  caste. 
Indeed,  some  of  these  missionaries,  as  we  have  seen,  pretended 
themselves  to  be  brahmins,  and  they  observed  aU  the  rules  of 
caste  wliich  were  necessary  to  sustain  their  assumed  character. 
They  refused  to  enter  the  houses  of  Hindus  of  low  caste,  or  to 
administer  to  them  the  rites  of  the  church.  And  to  suit  their 

44 


518 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


system  of  proselyting  to  the  prejudices  of  the  Hindus,  they  had 
some  missionaries  who  pretended  to  be  of  lower  caste,  and 
these  could  consistently  associate  with  the  Hindus  and  prose- 
lytes of  low  caste.  In  this  way  the  new  commmuty  formed 
under  the  teaching  of  the  missionaries,  appeared  hke  a counter- 
part of  brahminism,  the  proselytes  retaining  what  they  regarded 
as  the  most  important  and  essential  part  of  their  national  rehg- 
ion.  Father  Manduit,  one  of  the  missionaries,  says : — “ The 
catechist  of  low  caste  can  never  be  employed  to  teach  any  of 
a caste  above  him.  We  must  have  pariar  catechists  to  teach 
pariars,  brahmin  catechists  to  teach  brahmins,  etc.”  He  de- 
scribes his  own  conduet  thus : — “ Some  time  ago  a catechist 
from  the  Madura  mission,  begged  me  to  go  to  Poulour,  there  to 
baptize  some  pariar  catechumens,  and  to  hear  the  confession  of 
some  new  neophytes  of  that  caste.  The  fear  that  brahmins  and 
shudras  might  come  to  learn  the  step  I had  taken,  and  thence 
look  upon  me  as  infamous  and  unworthy  ever  after  of  holding 
any  intercourse  with  them,  hindered  me  from  going.  The  words 
of  the  holy  Apostle  Paul,  which  I had  read  that  morning  at  the 
mass,  determined  me  to  take  this  resolution,  — ‘Giving  no 
offence  to  any  one,  that  your  ministry  be  not  blamed.’  2 Cor. 
6 : 3.  ^ I therefore  made  these  poor  people  go  to  a retired  place 
about  3 leagues  from  here,  where  I myself  joined  them  dur- 
ing the  night,  and  with  the  most  careful  precautions  there  I bap- 
tized 9 of  them.”  — “ The  poor  pariars  had  not  only  separate 
catechists,  but  separate  churches ; and  if  they  presumed  to  enter 
the  church  of  a higher  caste,  they  were  driven  out  and  well 
whipped.  Even  when  they  were  dying,  the  Christian  sunyasees 
(priests)  refused  to  enter  their  dwellings ; and  the  expiring  per- 
son in  nature’s  last  agony,  was  dragged  from  his  couch  into  the 
open  air,  or  to  a distant  church  that  the  sunyasee  (priest),  un- 
contaminated by  entrance  into  the  house,  might,  without  con- 
tact, administer  to  him  the  last  rites  of  the  church.” 

These  distinctions  of  caste  have  not  been  equally  preserved  in 
all  parts  of  the  country.  In  Bombay  and  its  vicinity,  a regard 
to  caste  among  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Hindu  origin,  is  chiefly 
limited  to  marriage  connections.  But  in  the  southern  parts  of 
the  peninsula,  the  distinctions  of  caste  are  nearly  or  quite  as 
great  and  as  rigidly  adhered  to,  as  they  are  among  the  Hindus. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


519 


They  observ’^e  the  rules  of  caste  in  respect  to  eating  and  drinking 
and  social  intercourse.  The  Christians  of  high  caste  must  have 
preachers  and  catechists  of  high  caste.  They  will  not  attend 
nor  admit  among  them  the  instructions  of  any  man  of  low 
caste,  however  weU  qualified  he  may  be  in  learning,  ability,  and 
piety.  The  preacher  and  catechist  of  the  pariars  must  himself 
be  of  the  same  caste,  for  no  one  of  a higher  caste  will  associate 
with  them.  In  some  places  the  churches  are  divided  into  two 
or  three  parts  with  separate  doors  for  the  different  castes  to 
enter  and  come  out.  In  other  places  they  have  separate  houses 
of  worship,  and  if  any  man  of  low  caste  should  enter  a church 
of  the  high  castes,  the  place  would  be  regarded  as  polluted,  and 
he  would  be  at  once  expelled  and  severely  punished. 

In  the  southern  part  of  India,  I was  several  times  in  company 
with  a large  number  of  natives,  who  I supposed  from  their 
dress  and  appearance,  were  heathen  and  idolaters,  but  found  on 
inquiry,  that  most  of  them  were  Roman  Catholics.  I learned 
in  answer  to  my  inquiries,  that  in  their  marriage  connections, 
their  eating  and  drinking,  and  in  all  their  social  and  religious  in- 
tercourse, they  observed  the  rules  of  caste  as  much  as  the  Hin- 
dus did.  I asked  them  how  they  could  all  participate  in  the 
same  sacraments,  and  yet  preserve  their  rules  of  caste.  They 
replied,  that  “ their  padre  (priest)  put  his  hands  upon  what  was 
to  be  eaten  and  consecrated  it,  and  then  it  became  prusad,  and 
could  be  taken  and  eaten  by  persons  of  different  castes  without 
their  losing  caste.  This  word  prusad  is  the  name  given  to  food 
cooked  in  heathen  temples,  and  then  offered  to  the  idols  and 
consecrated  with  such  rites  that  people  of  different  castes  can 
handle  it  and  eat  it  and  yet  preserve  their  caste. 

In  other  matters  also  they  retain  much  of  their  former  heathen 
customs.  The  Hindus  are  very  fond  of  show  and  noise  in  their 
religion,  and  it  is  a frequent  custom  in  some  districts  to  put  the 
idols  of  their  gods  on  a car  or  carriage  of  some  kind  on  festival 
days  and  then  draw  it  about  in  procession.  This  usage  has 
been  retained  by  the  Roman  Catholics  only  substituting  the 
images  of  their  saints  for  the  idols  of  the  gods.  In  some  places 
the  same  car  is  used  on  Hindu  festival  days  for  the  idols  of  the 
gods,  and  on  Romish  festivals  for  the  images  of  the  saints.  The 
Abbe  Dubois  in  describing  how  Roman  Cathohcs  imitated  the 


520 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  ilODERN. 


heathen  in  such  things  says: — “This  Hindu  pageantry  is  chiefly 
seen  in  the  festivals  celebrated  by  the  native  Christians.  Their 
processions  in  the  streets,  always  performed  in  the  night  time, 
have  indeed  been  to  me  at  all  times  a subject  of  shame.  Accom- 
panied with  hundreds  of  tomtoms  (small  dmms),  trumpets,  and 
all  the  discordant  noisy  music  of  the  country,  with  number- 
less torches  and  fireworks  — the  statue  of  the  saint  placed  on  a 
car  which  is  charged  with  garlands  of  flowers  and  other  gaudy 
ornaments  according  to  the  taste  of  the  country  — the  car  slowly 
di-agged  by  a multitude  shouting  aU  along  the  march  — the  con- 
gregation surrounding  the  car,  aU  in  confusion,  several  among 
them  dancing  or  playing  with  small  sticks  or  with  naked  swords — 
some  wrestling,  some  playing  the  fool,  aU  shouting  or  conversing 
with  each  other  without  any  one  exhibiting  the  least  sign  of 
respect  or  devotion.  Such  is  the  mode  in  which  the  Hindu 
Christians  in  the  inland  country  celebrate  their  festivals.  They 
are  celebrated  however  with  a Uttle  more  decency  on  the  coast. 
They  are  all  exceedingly  pleased  with  such  a mode  of  worship, 
and  any  thing  short  of  such  pageantry,  such  confusion  and  such 
disorder  would  not  be  liked  by  them.  I at  several  times  strove 
to  make  those  within  my  range  sensible  of  the  unreasonable- 
ness of  so  extravagant  a worship,  and  how  opposite  it  was  to 
true  piety ; but  my  admonitions  proving  everywhere  a subject 
of  scandal  rather  than  of  edification  among  my  hearers,  who  in 
several  instances  went  so  far  as  to  suspect  the  sincerity  of  my 
faith,  and  to  look  upon  me  as  a kind  of  freethinker  and  a dan- 
gerous innovator  merely  on  account  of  my  free  remarks  on  the 
subject,  I judged  it  more  prudent  to  drop  the  matter  and  to 
overlook  abuses  it  was  out  of  my  power  to  suppress.”  * 

The  Annals  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  a Romish  mis- 
sionary magazine,  contains  many  similar  accounts  in  the  jour- 
nals and  communications  of  the  missionaries  employed  in  Lidia. 

The  facts  which  have  been  mentioned,  and  the  extracts  mostly 
from  Roman  Catholic  WTiters,  which  have  been  given,  show  the 
kind  of  means  used  by  the  Romish  missionaries  to  propagate 
Christianity  in  India,  their  example  among  the  people,  the  doc- 
trines they  taught,  and  the  superstitions  they  originated  or  toler- 
ated. It  must  be  obvious  that,  whatever  might  be  the  success 

* Letters  on  Christianity  in  India,  pp.  G9,  70. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


521 


in  the  number  of  reported  conversions,  we  could  not  expect  a 
pure  form  of  Christianity,  or  any  enlightened  religious  commu- 
nity to  be  the  result  of  such  operations.  The  number  of  Roman 
Catholics  in  all  India  according  to  a late  No.  of  the  Annals  of 
the  Society  for  propagating  the  Faith  is  nearly  1,000,000.  A 
small  part  of  these  are  the  descendants  of  Europeans  settled  in 
India,  but  the  great  body  of  them  are  the  descendants  of  the 
mixed  marriages  of  Europeans  and  natives,  and  the  descendants 
of  Hindus  who  became  proselytes.  The  greater  part,  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  population  in  India  are  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  peninsula,  which  contain  the  Portuguese  possessions 
and  the  Romish  S}Tian  Christians.  The  number  of  these  last 
mentioned  is  stated  to  be  nearly  100,000.  The  number  who 
stiU  adhere  to  the  ancient  order,  rites,  etc.,  of  the  Syrian  Church 
in  India  has  been  stated  to  be  50,000. 

Goa,  though  now  of  little  political  or  commercial  importance, 
yet  stiU  retains  much  religious  influence.  There  is  here  an  Arch- 
bishop, always  from  Europe,  and  under  him  a large  number  of 
clergy,  most  of  whom  are  persons  born  in  the  country  and  edu- 
cated in  Goa.  There  are  7 or  8 bishops  or  Apostolic  Vicars  in 
India,  namely,  1 in  Agra,  1 in  Bombay,  1 in  Calcutta,  1 in  Ma- 
dras, 1 in  Pondicherry,  1 in  Cochin  or  Verapoly,  and  1 in  Ceylon. 
These  are  always  from  Europe  and  have  generally  been  Italians. 
A few  of  the  priests  are  from  Europe  and  live  in  the  large  cities, 
but  the  great  part  of  them  are  natives  and  educated  in  the  coun- 
try. The  education  of  this  latter  class  is  very  limited.  In  Cal- 
cutta, Madras,  Bombay,  Pondicherry,  and  Goa,  the  Roman 
Catholic  population  includes  many  Europeans  or  descendants 
of  Europeans  and  Indo-Britons,  and  the  congregations  in  the 
churches  exhibit  every  shade  of  complexion  and  every  style  of 
dress.  But  leaving  the  cities  and  large  towns,  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, in  complexion,  dress,  and  personal  appearance  generally 
resemble  the  native  population  among  whom  they  live.  This  is 
especially  true  of  those  living  in  the  southern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula. 

To  a devout  Romanist  the  history  and  present  state  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  in  India,  must  be  full  of  painful  and 
melancholy  interest.  The  first  Portuguese  ships  that  reached 
India,  carried  missionaries  to  communicate  a knowledge  of  the 

44* 


522 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Gospel  to  the  inhabitants.  For  50  years  the  Portuguese  power 
and  possessions  in  India  increased  faster  than  those  of  any  other 
European  power.  Indeed,  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  India 
were  greater  in  20  years  from  their  first  sailing  round  the  Cape  . 
of  Good  Hope,  than  those  of  the  English  were  at  the  end  of 
100  years  from  their  first  reaching  India.  It  was  a professed 
object  and  leading  policy  of  the  Portuguese  to  bring  aU  the  na- 
tive population  in  these  possessions  to  embrace  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  In  some  of  these  possessions,  and  probably  in 
aU  of  them  as  soon  as  such  a course  could  be  safely  pursued, 
when  “ the  missionaries  had  converted  the  greater  ]^art  of  the 
inhabitants,  in  order  to  detach  the  remainder  from  the  worship 
of  idols,  they  destroyed  all  the  temples  and  pagodas.”  In  some 
of  these  places,  and  probably  in  aU  as  soon  as  such  a law  could 
be  prudently  enforced,  “ Mohammedans  and  Hindus  were  al- 
lowed to  sojourn,  but  were  not  permitted  to  perform  any  public 
acts  of  their  religion.”  By  such  means  the  inhabitants  generally 
became  Christian  in  profession.  Churches  were  erected,  and 
colleges,  monasteries,  and  nunneries  were  endowed.  With  the 
decline  of  the  Portuguese  power  and  the  loss  of  their  possessions, 
the  population  in  such  places  dispersed.  The  churches,  colleges, 
and  monasteries  were  then  generally  neglected  and  fell  to  ruin. 
Many  large  ruins  of  such  edifices  I have  seen  in  different  parts 
of  India.  I have  more  than  once  seen  the  ruins  of  several  large 
churches,  where  not  a single  Roman  Catholic  could  be  found, 
and  their  history  could  be  learned  only  from  the  Hindu  or  Mo- 
hammedan inhabitants. 

Great  numbers  of  missionaries,  as  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Do- 
minicans, Capuchins,  etc.,  engaged  in  the  work  of  converting 
the  inhabitants  to  the  Romish  faith  in  the  Portuguese  posses-’ 
sions  and  in  the  territories  subject  to  the  native  princes.  In 
some  places  the  doctrines  they  inculcated  and  the  jjolicy  they 
pursued,  produced  rather  a modified  form  of  heathenism  than 
the  pure  and  simple  Christianity  of  the  primitive  churches.* 

*Thc  Abbe  Dubois  makes  the  following  remarks,  etc.:  “During  the  long 
period  I lived  in  India  in  the  capacity  of  a missionary,  I have  made,  with  the 
assistance  of  a native  missionary,  in  all  between  200  and  300  converts  of  both 
sexes.  Of  this  number  two  thirds  were  pariars  or  beggars,  anil  the  rest  were 
composed  oi'  shudi-as,  vagrants,  and  outcastes  of  several  tribes,  who  being  with- 
out resources,  turned  Christians  in  order  to  form  new  connections  chiefly  for 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


523 


And  whether  such  people  are  really  in  a more  favorable  state  for 
embracing  the  truth  than  the  heathen  around  them,  remains  to 
be  seen.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  Abbe  Dubois,  who  was  a mis- 
sionary among  the  Roman  Catholics  in  India  for  more  than  30 
years,  that  the]^  are  not  so  numerous,  or  so  intelligent,  or  so 
respectable  now,  as  they  were  a century  ago.  The  causes  of 
their  conversion  and  early  increase,  their  decline  and  decrease, 
(if  they  have  really  decreased  in  number,)  and  their  present  igno- 
rant and  degraded  state,  are  deserving  the  consideration  of  all 
professing  Christians  and  philanthropists. 

The  great  and  besetting  sin  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  India 
is  intemperance,  and  for  this  vice  they  are  often  and  justly  re- 
proached by  the  Hindus  and  ^Mohammedans.  It  is  probable 
that  some  of  their  ancestors  were  intemperate  before  they  pro- 
fessed Christianity',  as  they  belonged  to  low  castes  who  indulge 
more  or  less  in  this  practice.  And  those  who  were  previously 
Mohammedans  or  high  caste  Hindus,  and  so  not  allowed  by  the 
principles  of  their  religion  to  use  spirituous  liquors  of  any  kind 
before  their  conversion,  would  be  almost  compelled  by  the 
usages  of  society  to  use  them  afterwards.  Whatever  the  causes 
may  be,  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Lidia  are  very  intemperate, 
and  they  have  suffered  much  from  this  vice.  StiU  there  is  more 
domestic  happiness  among  them  than  among  the  Hindu  or  Mo- 
hammedan population  in  corresponding  circumstances.  Polyg- 
amy is  never  allowed.  The  women  dress  more  decently  and 
have  more  their  appropriate  place  in  their  famihes.  More  of 
them  are  educated,  and  they  generally  appear  with  more  propri- 
ety and  better  manners  in  their  intercourse  wnth  strangers  and 
among  their  own  people. 

the  purpose  of  marriage,  or  ■with  some  other  interested  riews.  Among  them 
also  are  to  be  found  some  ■who  believed  themselves  to  be  possessed  with  the 
devil,  and  who  turned  Christians  after  having  been  assured  that  on  receiving 
baptism  the  unclean  spirits  would  leave  them  and  never  jeturn;  and  I will  de- 
clare it  ■with  shame  and  confusion  that  I do  not  remember  any  one  who  may  be 
said  to  have  embraced  Christianitj’  from  conviction  and  from  quite  disinterested 
motives.  Among  these  new  comers  many  apostatized  and  relapsed  into  pagan- 
ism, finding  that  the  Christian  religion  did  not  afford  them  the  temporal  advan- 
tages they  had  looked  for  in  embracing  it ; and  I am  very  ashamed  that  the  res- 
olution I have  taken  to  tell  the  whole  truth  on  this  subject,  forces  me  to  make 
the  humiliating  avowal  that  those  who  continued  Christians  are  the  very  worst 
among  my  flock.” 


524 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


One  great  defect,  as  all  Protestants  wall  believe,  among  the 
means  which  these  missionaries  used  for  the  conversion  of  the 
native  population  and  then  for  the  instruction  of  their  converts 
and  churches  in  Christian  doctrine,  was  the  withholding  from 
them,  or  rather  not  supplying  them  with,  the  Scriptures  in  their 
vernacular  languages.  No  part  of  the  Scriptures,  so  far  as  is 
now  known,  was  ever  published  by  the  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries in  any  of  the  languages  of  India.  They  were  here 
able  to  carry  out  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Romish  Church, 
of  not  allowing  the  common  people  (the  laity)  to  have  the  word 
of  God  in  their  own  language,  and  this  not  supplying  them  with 
the  Scriptures  has  contributed  in  part  to  keep  them  in  ignorance 
of  Christian  history,  doctrine,  and  duty.  Their  ancestors  re- 
tained the  belief  and  the  use  of  many  of  their  heathen  supersti- 
tions and  rites  when  they  professed  Christianity,  and  their  pos- 
terity now  through  several  generations  have  never  learned  that 
these  things  are  contrary  to  the  precepts  and  the  spirit  of  the  re- 
ligion they  profess. 

And  yet  the  Roman  Catholic  population  in  India,  even  in  their 
present  ignorant  and  degraded  state,  present  a very  interesting 
view  to  the  Christian  and  the  philanthropist.  They  are  nearly 
1,000,000  in  number,  and  though  the  greater  part  of  them  live 
in  the  peninsula,  yet  there  are  small  communities  of  them  scat- 
tered over  all  the  country  from  Cape  Comorin  to  Cashmere,  and 
from  the  Indus  to  the  Brahmaputra.  These  communities  are 
made  up  of  all  the  different  nations,  and  some  of  them  using  all 
the  different  languages  of  India.  They  have  all  been  baptized, 
they  all  bear  the  Christian  name,  they  have  some  knowledge  of 
Christian  doctrines,  as  the  Trinity,  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  a 
future  resurrection  and  judgment,  and  they  hope  for  salvation 
through  Christ,  though  with  only  vague  and  indefinite  views  of 
his  work  and  character.  This  profession  and  this  knowledge, 
vague  and  obscure  as  it  is,  yet  put  them  on  very  different 
ground  from  the  Hindus  and  the  Mohammedans.  Should  a 
Reformation  lilce  what  occurred  in  Germany  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, take  place  among  the  Roman  Catholics  in  India,  should 
many  of  the  priests  and  of  the  people  be  truly  converted  to 
God,  the  Scriptures  in  their  own  languages  be  fieely  supplied 
to  them,  and  they  all  be  stirred  up  to  read,  great  indeed  would 


CnniSTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


525 


be  the  effect  not  only  through  the  1,000,000  Roman  Catholics, 
but  through  the  150,000,000  of  Hindus  and  Mohammedans. 
And  how  soon  in  this  way  might  hundreds  of  native  missiona- 
ries be  raised  up  to  preach  each  in  his  own  language  the  won- 
derful works  and  the  yet  more  wonderful  love  of  God.  In  this 
view  of  the  Roman  Catholic  population  of  India  I believe  they 
have  not  received  the  attention  from  Protestants  which  their 
number,  their  circumstances,  their  character,  and  their  relation 
to  the  native  population  of  the  country  generally  require. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

EARLY  PROTESTANT  MISSIONS. 

The  earliest  Protestant  mission  in  India  was  at  Tranquebar 
on  the  Coromandel  Coast.  Baldaeus  and  some  others  of  the 
Dutch  missionaries  in  Ceylon  now  and  then  visited  the  Dutch 
possessions  of  Tuticofin  and  Nagapatam  on  this  coast ; but  their 
ministrations  appear  to  have  been  limited  to  their  countrymen 
and  the  native  Christians  in  these  places.  Tranquebar  became 
a Danish  possession  in  1621,  but  it  was  not  till  80  years  after 
this  time  that  any  measures  were  taken  to  convert  the  natives  to 
the  Christian  rehgion.  Dr.  Lutkins,  one  of  the  chaplains  of  the 
king  of  Denmark,  set  before  his  Majesty  the  duty  of  converting 
the  heathen  in  his  eastern  possessions  to  the  Christian  faith,  and 
the  king  at  once  instructed  him  to  take  measures  for  doing  it. 
After  some  inquiry,  Ziegenbalg  and  Plutscho,  two  students  at 
Halle,  in  Germany,  were  engaged  and  embarked  for  India  in 
1705.  The  manner  in  which  they  at  first  considered  and  en- 
gaged in  this  cause,  and  the  spirit  they  everywhere  manifested 
on  the  subject,  showed  their  eminent  qualifications  for  such  an 
enterprise.  They  found  much  difficulty  for  a while  in  learning 
the  Tamul  language,  as  the  natives  there  showed  a jealousy  of 
any  European  acquiring  more  than  a colloquial  use  of  it.  Their 
brahmin  teacher  was  much  persecuted,  “ his  enemies  pursuing 
him  from  place  to  place,  and  persecuting  him  with  great  violence. 
At  last  they  succeeded  in  getting  him  to  Tanjore,  where  they 
accused  him  to  the  Raja  of  having  betrayed  their  religion  and 


526  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

revealed  its  most  sacred  mysteries  to  the  missionaries.  The 
Raja  immediately  loaded  him  with  irons  and  threw  him  into 
prison  where  he  lay  for  some  months.”  The  spiritual  state  of 
their  own  countrymen  in  India  excited  their  sympathy,  and  they 
had  one  service  a week  with  them,  which  some  esteemed  a great 
privilege.  Seeing  that  some  of  the  Europeans  owned  slaves, 
the  missionaries  obtained  the  consent  of  the  masters  that  “ these 
poor  outcasts  might  meet  for  2 hours  daily  for  instruction.” 
Thus  it  could  again  be  said,  “ To  the  poor  the  gospel  is 
preached.”  Nor  did  they  hear  in  vain,  for  in  less  than  a year 
from  their  arrival  in  India,  “ the  missionaries  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  baptizing  five  adult  heathen  slaves  belonging  to  Danish 
masters.  The  services  were  publicly  performed  in  the  Danish 
church  at  Tranquebar  after  the  candidates  had  been  examined 
in  all  the  Articles  of  the  Christian  Faith.  They  gave  their  an- 
swers with  such  readiness  of  mind  as  to  put  to  shame  many  old 
persons  who  were  present.”  In  two  years  after  their  arrival  they 
erected  a church,  and,  at  its  dedication,  “ they  preached  both  in 
Tamul  and  Portuguese  to  a crowded  congregation  of  Christians, 
Hindus,  and  Mohammedans.”  The  next  month  they  baptized 
9 adult  Hindus,  and  again  in  less  than  a year  several  more 
were  baptized.  The  native  Christians  were  soon  enough  to  form 
a respectable  community.  The  missionaries  were  greatly  en- 
couraged with  these  indications  of  the  blessing  of  God  upon 
their  labors.  But  the  work  of  conversion  did  not  proceed  with- 
out exciting  much  persecution.  “ Some  of  the  converts,  like 
the  primitive  Christians,  suffered  the  loss  of  aU  tilings,  being 
turned  out  of  their  estates  and  banished  from  the  society  of 
kindred  and  friends.  They  were  regarded  as  outcasts  and  the 
dregs  of  mankind.  They  were  beaten  with  violence  and  in  a 
few  instances  were  put  to  death.” 

In  1708,  Ziegenbalg  visited  Nagapatam,  and  “the  Dutch 
magistrate  sent  through  the  country  in  all  directions,  inviting 
the  most  learned  brahmins,  sunyasees,  etc.,  to  a friendly  confer- 
ence with  the  missionary  on  religious  subjects.  A great  assem- 
bly convened ; the  conference  or  discussion  lasted  for  5 days,  and 
much  information  concerning  the  origin,  history,  doctrines,  etc., 
of  Christianity  was  diffused  among  the  native  population.”  In 
1711  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Tamul  was 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


527 


completed.  Td  print  the  Scriptures  and  other  works  they  pro- 
cured a press  and  types  from  Germany,  but  these  types  were 
found  to  be  unsuitable  and  a font  was  cast  at  Tranquebar.  The 
press  proved  a great  help,  and  the  New  Testament  and  32  Ta- 
mul  works  were  printed  in  2 or  3 years.  Ziegenbalg’s  health 
having  failed,  in  1815  he  embarked  for  Europe.  His  account 
of  their  missionary  labors  and  the  religion,  etc.,  of  the  Hindus 
excited  great  attention  in  England  and  through  Germany. 
Kings,  princes,  and  prelates  manifested  an  interest  in  the  cause, 
and  gave  liberally  to  support  it.  The  king  of  Denmark  may  be 
said  to  have  originated  the  mission,  and  his  weU-known  liberal- 
ity and  favor  were  in  many  ways  of  much  advantage  to  them. 
In  England  Ziegenbalg  had  an  interview  with  the  king,  with 
the  prince  of  Wales,  and  several  of  the  bishops  and  nobil- 
ity.* The  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel,  and  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  assisted  the  mission  with 
money  and  materials  for  printing  the  Scriptures  and  other  works. 
These  things  occurred  nearly  150  years  ago,  and  show  that  the 
Spirit  of  3Iissio?is  is  not  of  so  recent  origin  as  many  have  sup- 
posed.! 

Ziegenbalg  returned  to  India  and  resumed  his  labors  as  soon 
as  his  health  would  admit.  The  operations  of  the  mission  were 
carried  on  prudently  and  vigorously  during  his  absence.  M. 
Plutscho  had  some  time  previously  returned*  to  Europe  in  feeble 
health,  but  his  place  was  well  supplied  by  M.  Grundler,  who 
was  every  way  a worthy  associate  of  Ziegenbalg.  But  Ziegen- 
balg did  not  long  survive  his  return.  He  died  after  an  illness  of 
a few  weeks  in  Feb.  1719,  at  the  early  age  of  36  years,  of  which 

* George  I.  wrote  to  the  missionaries  in  1717  and  again  in  1727,  acknowledg- 
ing letters  from  them,  and  assuring  them  of  the  great  interest  he  felt  in  their 
work.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  also  wrote  them  several  letters. — See 
Christian  Researches,  p.  120-T25. 

t The  king  appears  to  have  taken  a continued  interest  in  this  mission.  Many 
years  after  Ziegenbalg  was  in  England,  3 German  missionaries  remained  a few 
days  in  London  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  embark  for  India.  ‘■'While  in 
London  they  were  introduced  to  the  king,  who  discoursed  with  them  for  some 
time  about  the  present  state  of  the  mission,  the  stipend  of  the  missionaries,  the 
languages  they  had  learned,  and  other  interesting  matters  relating  to  the  work 
they  had  undertaken.  'When  they  took  leave  his  Maje.sty  ordered  180  crowns 
to  be  given  to  them.” 


528 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


he  had  spent  13  in  India.  The  state  of  his  mind  in  his  sickness 
and  death  corresponded  to  his  life.  In  view  of  the  state  of  the 
mission  and  of  the  heathen  he  had  a desire  to  live,  but  for  him- 
self only  his  desire  was  “ rather  to  depart  that  he  might  be  with 
Christ.”  In  the  full  assurance  of  faith,  says  his  biographer,  he 
could  adopt  the  language  of  the  apostle,  “ I have  fought  a good 
fight,  I have  finished  my  course,  I have  kept  the  faith ; hence- 
forth there  is  laid  up  for  me  a crown  of  righteousness  which  the 
Lord  the  righteous  Judge,  shall  give  me  at  that  day.”  At  the 
time  of  Ziegenbalg’s  death,  aU  the  New  Testament  and  the  Old 
Testament  to  Ruth  had  been  translated  and  printed  in  Tamul, 
the  language  there  generally  used  by  the  natives.  A Dictionary 
and  Grammar  had  been  prepared  in  the  same  language,  and  32 
works  on  Christian  doctrine  and  duties  for  distribution  and  for  use 
in  the  schools  had  been  printed.  Two  churches  had  been  erected. 
A seminary  had  been  commenced  for  the  education  of  catechists, 
and  a native  Christian  community  of  350  souls  * had  been  con- 
verted from  heathenism.  The  history  of  the  propagation  of 
Christianity  shows  few  such  men  as  Ziegenbalg ; few  have  la- 
bored with  such  singleness  of  purpose,  and  seen  their  labors  so 
much  blessed ; few  were  ever  more  beloved  in  life  or  lamented 
in  death.  And  when  the  great  Head  of  the  church  on  earth  was 
pleased  to  remove  him  to  higher  service  in  the  temple  above,  the 
converts  he  had  baptized,  the  seminary  and  schools  he  had  es- 
tablished, the  Scriptures  he  had  translated,  the  dictionary,  gram- 
mar, and  numerous  other  works  he  had  made,  long  continued  to 
be  witnesses  of  his  ability,  industry,  zeal,  and  devotedness.  By 
all  these,  though  dead,  he  long  continued,  yea  even  to  the  pres- 
ent time  has  continued,  to  speak. 

This  mission  after  the  death  of  Ziegenbalg  was  supplied  with 
able  laborers  from  Germany,  and  though  subject  to  persecution 
from  Romanists,  Mohammedans,  and  Hindus,  yet  it  continued 
to  increase  in  the  number  of  its  converts  and  the  general  efficiency 
of  its  operations.  Some  of  the  catechists  having  become  quali- 
fied for  the  ministry,  were  ordained  and  proved  to  be  useful  assist- 
ants. From  some  accounts  of  the  schools  it  appears  that  a part 
of  the  scholars,  at  one  time  nearly  half,  were  girls.  Probably 


* The  number  of  these  who  were  communicants  is  not  given. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


529 


these  belonged  to  the  native  Christian  community.  In  1750, 
three  missionaries  arrived,  one  of  whom  was  Christian  Frederick 
Schwartz,  afterwards  so  celebrated  for  his  long  and  successful 
labors  in  the  missionary  cause.  In  1756,  at  the  celebration  of 
the  jubilee  or  50th  anniversary  of  the  mission,  it  is  stated  that 
more  than  11,000  persons  had  been  baptized,  of  whom  many 
had  adorned  their  profession,  and  died  in  the  comfort  of  a good 
hope  through  grace.  The  state  of  piety  in  the  Christian  com- 
munity at  that  time  is  described  as  very  gratifying.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  mission  which  had  several  stations,  suffered  much 
from  the  wars  between  the  English  and  the  French,  and  between 
these  powers  and  the  native  princes.  The  Europeans  engaged 
in  these  wars,  by  their  drinking,  fighting,  and  generally  immoral 
conduct,  (for  so  it  appeared  to  the  native  population,)  excited 
strong  prejudice  against  Christianity  in  the  minds  of  many 
Hindus  and  INIohammedans.  An  uncommon  proportion  of  the 
German  missionaries  in  India  lived  to  be  aged  men,  aged  for 
Europeans  in  that  climate,  and  this  circumstance  contributed 
much  to  promote  the  missionary  cause.  Schwartz  was  in  the 
48th  year  of  his  missionary  labor  when  he  died.  Several  of  the 
native  preachers  and  catechists  lived  to  be  aged.  Some  labored 
in  the  cause  more  than  50  years.* 

Tranquebar  was  the  original  seat  of  the  Protestant  missions 
in  India,  and  for  20  years  or  more  the  missionaries  made  that 
city  their  home.  But  the  conversion  of  so  many  natives  in 
Tranquebar,  the  visits  of  the  missionaries  to  other  cities,  their 
tours  through  the  provinces,  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures 
and  tracts,  and  the  labors  of  their  native  helpers,  excited  atten- 
tion and  inquiry  in  other  places,  and  opened  the  way  for  enlarg- 
ing their  operations.  In  1716,  the  missionaries  of  Tranquebar, 
encouraged  by  the  English  residents  in  Madras,  opened  a 
Tamul  school  there  for  native  children,  which  was  visited  and 
examined  frpm  time  to  time,  “ when  they  never  failed  to  preach 
to  the  heathen  of  the  place.  On  these  occasions  they  were  al- 
ways welcomed  by  the  English.”  M.  Schultze,  one  of  them, 

* In  1833,1  became  acquainted  with  a German  missionary  who  was  for  some 
years  a companion  and  fellow-laborer  with  Schwartz.  When  I last  saw  him  he 
had  been  a missionary  in  India  for  5 7 years,  and  he  lived  some  years  after  that 
time. 


45 


530 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


mentions  being  at  Madras  in  1726,  when  “ he  was  greatly  en- 
couraged by  the  governor  and  other  gentlemen  in  authority,  and 
preached  to  aU  classes,  English,  Germans,  Portuguese,  and 
Hindus.”  Circumstances  were  so  favorable  at  Madras  that 
Schultze,  with  the  concurrence  of  his  associate  at  Tranque- 
bar,  soon  removed  to  Madras,  which  then  became  a station 
of  the  Danish  mission.  The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge  took  him  and  the  station  under  their  patronage,  and 
the  governor,  the  members  of  council,  and  others  liberally  as- 
sisted in  purchasing  mission  premises.  In  a few  years  2 or  3 
more  missionaries  joined  him ; their  schools  were  prosperous ; 
their  catechists  were  diligent  and  zealous ; and  in  1736,  only  9 
years  from  the  commencement  of  the  mission,  they  had  baptized 
415  persons. 

This  Mission  in  Madras  has  continued  under  the  charge  of  a 
succession  of  missionaries  to  the  present  time,  and  is  now 
known  as  the  Vepery  Mission.  In  1743  the  health  of  Schultze 
became  so  much  impaired  that  he  was  compelled  to  embark  for 
Europe.  The  native  Christian  community  then  connected  with 
the  Mission,  consisted  of  619  souls,  of  whom  123  were  com- 
municants. This  mission  in  its  early  history  was  much  assisted 
by  the  English  residents  in  Madras,  and  at  one  time  the  govern- 
ment gave  them  500  pagodas  or  nearly  $1,000  “ by  way  of  in- 
demnity for  what  they  had  suffered  in  the  war,  and  as  a further 
benevolence  towards  relieving  their  present  distresses,  and  the 
thorough  reestablishment  of  their  mission.”  In  1761,  a printing 
press  was  established  in  connection  with  the  mission,  which 
was  in  various  ways  of  great  advantage.  A very  considerable 
proportion  of  their  converts  had  been  previously  Romanists. 
Among  these  was  a priest,  of  the  order  of  Dominican,  a native 
of  Portugal,  whose  name  was  De  Costa.  He  held  fast  his 
Christian  confession  till  his  death,  which  occurred  some  years 
afterwards  at  Calcutta.  In  1772,  the  journals  of  tlje  missiona- 
ries contain  the  first  mention  that  I have  seen  of  the  cholera  in 
any  history  of  India.  In  that  year  “it  appeared  first  at 
Tripetty,  a place  among  the  hills  north-west  of  Madras,  whither 
innumerable  multitudes  went  annually  on  pilgrimage  from  all 
parts  of  the  Carnatic,  especially  from  IMadras.  The  great  fes- 
tival was  held  in  the  month  of  September,  and  this  year  one 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


531 


half  of  the  vast  concourse  was  swept  away  by  this  awful 
scourge.” 

An  account  of  this  mission  published  some  years  ago,  stated 
that  the  whole  number  baptized  since  its  origin  was  nearly 
5,000,  that  many  hundred  children  had  received  a good  Chris- 
tian education  in  its  schools,  and  that  its  printing-press  had 
been  very  useful  in  furnishing  the  Scriptures  and  other  relig- 
ious works  in  the  native  languages.  The  Christian  community 
fonned  originally  by  this  mission  is  now  divided  into  2 or  3 re- 
ligious societies,  each  under  the  charge  of  different  missionaries. 
Some  are  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  England,  and  some 
are  in  connection  with  the  Lutheran  Church. 

Among  the  German  and  Danish  missionaries  to  whom  India 
is  so  much  indebted,  were  many  men  of  great  ability,  zeal,  and 
piety.  Ziegenbalg,  who  commenced  the  Tranquebar  mission, 
deserves  to  be  had  in  everlasting  remembrance.  Grundler  was 
every  way  a worthy  fellow-laborer  and  successor.  The  life  and 
labors  of  Schwartz  are  well  known.  The  English  government 
in  India  employed  him  in  important  political  transactions  with 
the  native  princes.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Hyder  Ali, 
then  in  the  height  of  his  power.  This  powerful,  haughty,  and 
tyrannical  prince,  though  himself  a Mohammedan,  had  yet  so 
great  respect  for  Schwartz  that  he  gave  orders  to  aU  his  offi- 
cers to  let  the  “ venerable  padre  Schwartz  go  wherever  he 
pleased  in  his  army,  his  encampments,  and  the  country  around, 
when  the  war  was  raging  with  the  English,  and  any  European 
not  in  the  prince’s  service  found  there,  would  have  been  in- 
stantly killed.”  Li  the  political  affairs  of  Tanjore,  Schwartz  acted 
an  important  part,  rendering  great  services  to  the  Raja,  his 
family,  and  his  subjects ; and  also  to  the  English,  and  obtaining 
the  approbation  of  all  parties.  The  Raja  showed  his  respect  for 
him  in  various  ways.  “ The  funeral  of  Schwartz  was  delayed 
a little  beyond  the  appointed  time  in  consequence  of  Suifojee 
Raja  wishing  to  look  on  him  once  more  before  the  coffin  was 
closed.  Deeply  was  the  prince  affected  at  the  sight  of  his  guar- 
dian’s corpse.  He  bedewed  it  with  tears,  covered  it  with  a cloth 
of  gold,  and  accompanied  it  to  the  grave.”  The  Raja  also 
erected  a monument  with  a suitable  inscription  upon  it,  in  the 
church  at  Tanjore,  where  Schwartz  had  so  long  and  so  success- 


532 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


fully  preached  the  gospel.  The  East  India  Company  also 
showed  their  estimation  of  Schwartz’s  character  and  services  by 
erecting  a marble  monument  for  him,  in  St.  Mary’s  church,  in 
Madras. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  the  sources  of  support 
from  Denmark  and  Germany  gradually  failed,  and  these  mis- 
sions became  mostly  dependent  upon  England.  Of  the  original 
Danish  and  German  missions  there  are  now  7 stations  connected 
with  the  Leipsic  Missionary  Society,  which  has  6 missionaries 
who  have  under  their  care  about  3,000  native  Christians.  The 
Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  and  the 
Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  (both  Societies  of 
the  Church  of  England)  assisted  the  Danish  and  German  mis- 
sions at  different  times.  And  when  the  original  sources  of  sup- 
port for  these  missions  faded,  the  districts  where  they  were,  hav- 
ing in  the  mean  time  become  subject  to  the  English,  it  was  nat- 
ural these  Societies  should  assume  charge  of  these  missions  so 
far  as  was  necessary  for  their  support.  So  most  of  the  native 
Christians  formerly  connected  with  the  Danish  and  German 
missions,  are  now  connected  with  the  English  Society  for  Prop- 
agating the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts. 

Calcutta  was  not  a place  of  any  political  or  commercial  im- 
portance under  any  native  government.  So  there  were  no  tem- 
ples or  mosques  of  any  peculiar  sanctity  or  antiquity  in  the 
city,  or  in  its  vicinity.  Such  a place  and  the  population  natu- 
rally gathered  there,  would  in  some  respects  be  favorable  for 
introducing  Christianity.  In  1732,  some  Dutch,  Germans,  and 
other  foreigners,  settled  in  Calcutta,  applied  to  the  missionaries 
in  Tranquebar,  to  send  them  one  or  two  missionaries,  not  only 
for  the  benefit  of  the  natives,  but  also  of  themselves  and  their 
families,  as  they  were  destitute  of  the  preaching  and  ordinances 
of  the  Gospel.  The  missionaries  in  Tranquebar,  unable  to  spare 
any  of  their  own  number,  sent  the  application  to  Germany,  but 
no  suitable  persons  inclined  to  this  work  could  then  be  found. 
In  1753,  the  French  under  Count  de  Lady,  having  taken  pos- 
session of  Cuddalore,  the  Rev.  John  Kiernander,  who  had  been 
a missionary  in  that  place  for  some  years,  was  compelled  to 
leave,  and  seeing  no  prospect  of  being  able  to  resume  his  labors, 
he  proceeded  to  Calcutta.  lie  found  Lord  Clive,  then  governor. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


533 


and  the  members  of  the  council  cordially  disposed  to  take  him 
under  their  protection  and  to  patronize  his  mission.  He  was 
also  kindly  received  by  the  East  India  Company’s  chaplains, 
who  obtained  large  donations  and  subscriptions  for  carrying  on 
his  missionary  operations.  lie  found  in  Calcutta  several  native 
Protestants  from  the  southern  provinces  of  India,  and  he  had 
soon  very  considerable  congregations  in  the  Fort  Church,  which 
the  governor  and  chaplains  allowed  him  to  use  when  it  was  not 
required  for  the  religious  services  of  the  Europeans.  Kiernander 
was  soon  joined  by  a Roman  Catholic  priest,  who,  renouncing 
the  errors  of  his  church,  became  a useful  assistant  in  the  mis- 
sionary work.  The  congregation  increased,  and  “during  the 
first  year  he  had  15  baptisms,  among  whom  was  one  learned 
brahmin.”  The  mission  was  encouraged  and  assisted  by  the 
European  residents  far  beyond  what  was  expected.  Among 
those  who  supported  it  liberally,  was  Governor  Vansittart,  who 
had  succeeded  Lord  Clive  in  this  office.* 

IMr.  Kiernander’s  labors  appear  to  have  embraced  different 
classes  of  people,  but  aU  equally  in  need  of  the  Gospel.  In 
1766,  only  8 years  from  his  arrival  in  Calcutta,  his  church  con- 
sisted of  189  communicants,  of  whom  more  than  half  were 
originally  Romanists.  Having  acquired  considerable  property 
by  his  marriage  in  Calcutta,  he  began  to  erect  a church,  expect- 
ing it  would  cost  about  <£2,500.  But  some  unexpected  diffi- 
culties occurred,  and  it  was  found  when  completed,  that  the 
cost  had  exceeded  £7,000.  This  large  and  unexpected  expense 
greatly  embarrassed  him,  and  deranged  aU  his  plans.  At  the 
dedication  of  this  mission-church,  the  governor,  the  members  of 
council,  and  many  other  Europeans  liigh  in  authority  were  pres- 
ent, thus  showing  their  respect  for  Mr.  Kiernander,  and  the 
interest  they  felt  in  the  cause.  In  1767,  of  36  converts  in  that 
year,  20  were  previously  Romanists,  among  whom  was  one 
priest,  who  proved  to  be  a valuable  assistant  to  Mr.  K.  in  his 

* Mr.  Vansittart  ■was  Governor  of  Bengal  for  5 years,  ■when  he  returned  to 
England.  On  returning  to  India,  the  ship  in  which  he  embarked,  and  aU  on 
board  were  lost ; no  tidings  of  them  were  ever  heard  after  they  sailed.  Mr.  V. 
was  the  father  of  the  late  Lord  Bexley,  who  was  for  many  years  President  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

45* 


534 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  JIODERN. 


work.  Li  the  course  of  a few  years,  many  more  Romanists 
joined  him,  among  whom  were  two  more  priests.  One  of  these 
also  became  a useful  fellow-laborer  with  Mr.  K.  This  mission 
continued  for  many  years  in  a prosperous  state,  and  in  1778,  the- 
native  Christian  community  embraced  many  families,  and  the 
communicants  amounted  to  200. 

From  this  time  the  operations  of  the  mission  were  less 
efficient,  and  its  state  began  to  decline.  Unfavorable  feelings 
towards  all  means  for  the  introduction  and  propagation  of 
Christianity  in  India,  as  dangerous  to  the  stability  and  perma- 
nency of  the  English  power  in  the  country,  now  became  more 
common,  and  for  a while  had  much  influence  in  Bengal.  Mr. 
K.  became  too  infirm  from  age  to  engage  in  active  labors,  or  to 
superintend  efficiently  the  operations  of  his  mission.  He  also 
became  pecuniarily  involved,  and  so  was  unable  to  support,  as 
he  formerly  did,  the  expenses  of  the  mission. 

In  this  view  of  the  state  of  the  mission,  the  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christian  linowledge,  which  had  at  different  times  made 
some  donations  for  the  expenses  of  the  mission,  though  nothing, 
so  far  as  I can  learn,  for  Mr.  K.’s  personal  support,  sent  out  the 
Rev.  A.  J.  Clark,  to  take  charge  of  it  in  1787.  IMr.  C.  was 
the  first  English  missionary  sent  to  India,  and  he  soon  left  the 
missionary  work  and  became  one  of  the  chaplains.  From  this 
time  for  several  years  there  was  no  English  missionary  in  Cal- 
cutta, or  in  any  part  of  Bengal.  Several  chaplains  superin- 
tended the  mission  in  Calcutta,  administering  the  ordinances, 
and  superintending  and  directing  the  catechists  and  teachers. 
Among  these  chaplains  were  D.  Brown,  C.  Buchanan,  H.  Mar- 
ty n,  T.  Thomason,  D.  Corrie,  and  others,  to  whom  the  cause  of 
religion  among  the  European,  as  well  as  the  native  population 
in  India  is  greatly  indebted.  Through  the  labors  of  these  men, 
the  cause  of  Christianity  was  sustained  among  the  native  popu- 
lation in  Calcutta,  and  communities  of  native  Christians  were 
formed  in  Agra,  Meerut,  Cawnpore,  Chunar,  and  other  places, 
so  that  when  the  first  missionaries  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  arrived  in  India,  they  found  that  in  these  places  much 
preparatory  work  had  been  done,  and  good  foundations  had 
been  already  laid  for  them  to  build  upon.  The  labors  of  these 
good  men  are  the  more  to  be  admired,  as  they  were  not  required 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


535 


by  any  regulations  of  the  government,  and  formed  no  part  of 
their  prescribed  duty.  And  not  only  were  these  labors  volun- 
tary, and  performed  without  any  remuneration,  but  they  re- 
quired expenses  for  pundits  and  books  to  learn  the  native  lan- 
guages, and  money  for  the  support  of  catechists,  school-teachers, 
and  other  operations.  In  the  whole  history  of  the  propagation 
of  Christianity  in  modern  times,  I know  not  where  we  can  find 
more  noble  examples  of  Christian  effort,  liberality,  and  benevo- 
lence, than  the  names  which  have  been  mentioned,  and  some 
others  like  them  among  the  East  India  Company’s  chaplains  in 
India. 

The  first  Protestant  mission  in  Bombay  was  commenced  by 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions. 
In  1812,  five  missionaries,  namely,  IMessrs.  Hall,  Judson,  Newell, 
Nott,  and  Rice  proceeded  from  the  United  States  to  Calcutta, 
with  the  intention  to  commence  a mission  somewhere  in  the 
East  Indies.  The  governor-general  of  India  would  not  allow 
them  to  remain  in  any  part  of  the  territory  subject  to  the  East 
India  Company,  and  ordered  them  to  leave  the  country  immedi- 
ately. In  consequence  of  these  peremptory  orders  they  aU  left 
Calcutta,  and  Messrs.  Hall  and  Nott  proceeded  to  the  western 
coast  of  India.  On  arriving  in  Bombay  they  found  that  the 
same  peremptory  orders  from  the  governor-general  had  preceded 
them.  Sir  Evan  Nepean,  the  governor  of  Bombay,  was  person- 
ally well  disposed  to  them  and  to  the  missionary  cause,  but  said 
that  he  did  not  feel  he  had  any  discretionary  power  to  allow 
them  to  remain.  But  various  causes  delayed  their  departure, 
and  they  at  length  obtained  permission  to  continue  and  pursue 
their  missionary  work.  In  1813,  some  alterations  favoring  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  India  were  made  in  the 
East  India  Company’s  charter,  and  some  other  missionary  so- 
cieties soon  commenced  missions  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay. 

It  has  appeared  proper  to  give  this  somewhat  extended  notice 
of  the  early  missions  in  India,  in  the  belief  that  they  are  not  so 
well  known  as  is  desirable,  and  to  show  that  modern  missionary 
efforts  commenced  longer  ago,  and  were  prosecuted  with  more 
vigor  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  history  and  operations 
of  the  missionary  societies,  European  and  American,  which  are 
now  engaged  in  propagating  Christianity  in  India,  are  so  well 


536 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


known  that  any  detailed  account  of  them  here  appears  to  be 
unnecessary.  A brief  statement  of  them,  and  a tabular  view, 
showing  the  times  when  they  were  commenced,  their  stations, 
the  number  of  their  missionaries,  schools,  converts,  etc.,  will  be 
given.  Also  the  results  of  the  missionary  enterprise,  and  some 
remarks  and  suggestions  concerning  ways  and  means  of  pro- 
moting the  cause. 


PRESENT  STATE  OF  PROTESTANT  MISSIONS  IN  INDIA. 

The  first  Protestant  missions  in  the  southern  countries  of 
Asia,  were  commenced  by  the  Dutch  in  Amboyna  and  Ceylon, 
and  the  next  in  the  order  of  time,  were  the  Danish  and  German 
mission,  on  the  Coromandel  Coast.  These  last-mentioned 
missions  were  assisted  at  different  times  by  the  Society  for 
Propagating  the  Gospel  and  the  Society  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  in  England.  The  first  English  missiona- 
ries who  proceeded  to  India,  were  Dr.  Carey  and  his  asso- 
ciates in  1793.  The  exclusive  policy  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany for  some  time  prevented  the  English  missionary  societies 
from  engaging  vigorously  in  propagating  Christianity  in  India. 
The  restrictions  of  this  Company  were  removed  by  changes  in 
the  charter,  when  renewed  by  Parliament  in  1813.  From  that 
time  there  has  been  a gradual  increase  in  the  missionary  force 
in  India.  Missions  have  been  commenced  by  societies  of  differ- 
ent denominations  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The 
stations  of  these  missions  were  so  much  scattered  over  the 
country,  and  their  operations,  though  communicated  to  their  re- 
spective societies  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and  pub- 
lished in  their  reports,  were  yet  often  so  little  known  to  the 
Christian  public  in  India  that  a collection  of  their  statistics 
and  more  knowledge  of  their  particular  state  became  very  de- 
sirable. This  work  was  undertaken  by  the  Rev.  J.  Mullens,  in 
connection  with  the  Calcutta  Missionary  Conference,  and  was  ac- 
complished to  the  satisfaction  of  all  connected  with  the  mission- 
ary cause.  The  statistics  included  Ceylon,  as  its  missions  are 
closely  connected  with  those  of  India.  The  results  were  of  a 
very  encouraging  character,  and  showed  more  progress  and 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


537 


success  than  was  generally  expected.  The  statistics  collected 
were  published  in  tables  which  exhibited  the  names  of  the  soci- 
eties, the  stations,  and  the  missionaries,  and  the  number  of 
churches,  communicants,  catechists,  schools,  etc.,  connected  ■w.dth 
each  mission.  These  tables  show  that  in  1852,  Lidia  (including 
Ceylon,)  contained;  — 


Tlie  Agents  of  . . . 

These  Soeleties  had . 

Of  whom .... 
They  had 

There  were  .... 

And  .... 
Tliese  Churches  contained  . 
At  these  stations  were 
The  Missionaries  had  . 
These  Schools  contained  . 
They  had 

And  these  Schools  contained 
They  also  superintended 
In  which  were 
They  had  also 
MTiich  contained  . 

And  they  had  . 

Which  contained  . 

They  also  maintained 


22  IMissionarj’  Societies. 

413  IMissionaries ; 

48  were  Ordained  Natives. 

G98  Native  licensed  Preachers  and 
Catechists. 

313  Missionary  Stations. 

331  Native  Churches. 

18,410  Communicants. 

112,191  Native  Christians. 

1,347  Vernacular  Day  Schools, 
47,504  Boys. 

93  Boarding  Schools, 

2,414  Christian  Boys. 

126  Superior  English  Day  Schools. 
14,562  Young  Men  and  Boys. 

347  Day  School  for  Girls. 

11,549  Scholars. 

102  Boarding  Schools  for  Girls  ; 
2,779  Christian  Girls. 

. 71  Regidar  Meetings  in  English 

for  Europeans. 


The  tables  are  too  numerous  and  extended  to  be  all  inserted 
here.  Of  the  tw'O  following  tables,  the  first  exhibits  the  force  of 
the  prLicipal  missionary  societies,  and  the  second  exhibits  the 
summary  of  the  missions  in  each  Presidency  and  Ceylon.  In 
the  fuU  tables  of  statistics,  the  missions  of  Ceylon  are  printed 
separately.  In  the  first  of  these  tables  they  are  included.  In 
the  second  table  they  appear  by  themselves. 


PRINCIPAL  MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES  IN  INDIA  AND  CEYLON. 


538 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


CnmSTIANITY  IN  INDIA 


539 


SUMMARY  OF  MISSIONS  IN  INDIA  AND  CEYLON. 


540 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Dr.  W.  Bro^^Ti  in  his  History  of  Missions,  published  in  1854, 
has  given  some  later  statistics  and  refers  to  numerous  Reports, 
Journals,  etc.,  for  authority.  He  makes  the  whole  number  of 
communicants  21,299  which  is  a very  considerable  increase. 
Probably  the  catechists,  schools,  etc.,  had  increased  in  equal  pro- 
portion. 

The  22  Missionary  Societies  engaged  in  propagating  Chris- 
tianity in  India  compose  a part  of  nearly  every  Protestant 
church  and  denomination  in  Emrope  and  America.  They  show 
an  amount  of  talent,  learning,  wealth,  and  influence  vastly  ex- 
ceeding what  is  generally  supposed  to  be  engaged  in  this  cause. 
They  show  what  a strong  hold  the  cause  of  foreign  missions  has 
acquired  upon  the  feehngs  of  Christians.  They  show  not  only 
a conviction  of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  but  of  the  duty  of  com- 
municating a knowledge  of  it  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  coun- 
tries who  have  hitherto  remained  ignorant  of  it.  In  the  extent 
of  their  organization  as  well  as  in  the  learning,  talent,  wealth, 
influence,  and  piety  they  comprehend,  they  show  that  a late  dis- 
tinguished author  had  well  considered  this  cause  when  he  de- 
clared “ the  Spirit  of  Missions  to  be  the  Glory  of  the  Age.”  * 

Of  the  443  missionaries,  48  (the  number  is  greater  now)  were 
natives,  born  and  most  of  them  edueated  in  the  country.  These 
have  been  ordained  and  are  now  laboring  for  the  conversion  of 
their  countrymen.  It  must  be  obvious  to  all  who  have  any  ac- 
quaintance with  India,  that  its  population  of  150,000,000  can 
never  be  evangehzed  by  the  direct  labors  of  missionaries  sent 
from  Europe  and  America.  The  principal  work  of  these  mis- 
sionaries must  be  to  raise  up  and  superintend  a native  agency. 
To  prepare  a suitably  qualified  ageney  to  preach  the  gospel  must 
require  much  time  as  well  as  great  labor.  Such  agents  must  be 
converted  from  heathenism  to  Christianity,  as  well  as  be  edu- 
cated for  the  ministry.  They  must  give  evidence  of  having 
been  called  by  God  and  renewed  by  his  Spirit  before  they  en- 
gage in  this  work.  Now  no  human  means  can  impart  to  them 
this  essential  part  of  their  qualifications ; God  alone  can  give  it. 
For  this  qualification  in  native  agency,  missionaries  must  look 
to  Him  who  has  commanded  his  Gospel  to  be  preached  to  all 
the  human  family. 


* John  Foster. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


541 


Considering  the  time  and  labor  necessary  for  preparing  a 
native  agency  and  the  peculiar  qualifications  required  for  it,  all 
must  acknowledge  that  missionaries  have  made  a good  begin- 
ning. But  they  have  done  far  more  than  to  prepare  these  48 
ordained  native  missionaries.  The  course  of  preparation  gen- 
erally includes  two  previous  states.  When  missionaries  find 
young  men  who  give  evidence  of  piety  and  apparently  possess 
natural  talents  for  usefulness  in  the  missionary  work,  they  are 
first  prepared  for  the  class  of  assistants  called  catechists.  This 
class  contained  698  or  more  than  14  times  the  number  of  the 
ordained  native  missionaries.  In  this  state  they  generally  con- 
tinue for  some  time,  and  some  of  them  on  account  of  their  age 
or  deficiency  in  strength  of  Christian  character,  or  natural  and 
acquired  ability,  continue  in  this  class  through  life.  But  others, 
having  approved  themselves  to  the  satisfaction  of  their  teachers 
and  employers  for  sufficient  time,  are  licensed  to  preach.  And 
such  persons  after  sufficient  trial  and  progress  in  Christian  char- 
acter and  education  are  generally  ordained.  In  the  views  of  the 
missionary  agency  and  operations  which  have  been  given,  the 
licensed  preachers  are  aU  included  in  the  number  of  catechists. 
How  large  a part  of  these  are  licensed  preachers,  we  have  not 
the  means  of  ascertaining.*  While  some  of  these  are  every 
year  admitted  into  the  class  of  ordained  missionaries,  their 
places  are  supplied,  and  more  than  supplied,  by  others  admitted 
into  the  class  of  catechists. 

In  estimating  the  influence  of  the  missionary  stations  in  India 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  their  situation  in  respect  to  each  other, 
and  also  to  the  whole  country.  These  331  stations  are  not  like 
townships  or  parishes  in  America,  where  all  might  be  included 
in  a few  districts  or  counties,  but  they  are  generally  in  large  cit- 
ies, where  they  are  surrounded  with  a dense  population,  or  in 
towns  and  villages  20,  30,  and  often  100  miles  distant  from  each 
other.  Thus  situated,  each  becomes  a centre  of  influence  on 
the  heathen  population  aroimd  it,  and  shedding  their  light  on 

* Since  wTiting  the  above  I have  seen  a statement  that  “ the  number  of  native 
preachers  now  in  India  is  551.”  If  this  number  included  the  ordained  native 
missionaries  (as  it  probably  did)  it  would  still  include  a large  proportion  of  those 
commonly  called  catechists  in  the  class  or  division  of  licensed  preachers. 

46 


542 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  surrounding  darkness,  as  they  increase  in  number  and  influ- 
ence they  will  gradually  enlighten  all  the  country. 

These  331  churches  are  all  in  connection  with  the  different 
Protestant  missions.  They  are  missionary  churches,  and  do  not 
include  the  churches  composed  of  Europeans  and  under  the 
pastoral  care  of  the  chaplains.  Some  of  these  mission  churches 
are  large,  containing  200  or  300  members,  but  others  are  small, 
having  been  recently  formed.  If  the  whole  number  of  com- 
municants in  the  latest  accounts  (21,299)  were  divided  by  the 
number  of  churches,  it  would  give  an  average  of  64  members  for 
each  church.  This  number  may  appear  small  to  people  con- 
nected with  the  large  churches  in  our  cities.  But  there  are  more 
than  this  number  of  Congregational  churches  in  New  England, 
not  one  of  which  has  so  many  members,  though  in  some  of  these 
churches  the  Gospel  has  been  preached  and  its  ordinances  ad- 
ministered for  more  than  100  years  past,  while  in  some  of  our 
States  not  half  the  Presbyterian  churches  have  64  members. 

In  most  places  where  there  is  a church,  there  is  a community 
of  native  Christians,  who  are  not  members  of  the  church.  Some 
of  these  are  the  children  of  pious  parents,  who  have  grown  up 
and  not  yet  given  sufficient  evidence  of  personal  piety  to  be  ad- 
mitted members  of  the  church.  In  some  instances  a man  has 
become  a member  and  his  wife  has  not,  and  then  a woman  has 
become  a member  and  her  husband  has  not.  Some  are  candi- 
dates for  admission,  and  aU  have  withdrawn  from  heathenism 
and  belong  to  the  native  Christian  community.  Tliis  class  of 
people  generally  ’attend  upon  the  means  of  grace.  They  are 
nominally  Christians,  that  is,  they  are  Christians  in  the  lower 
but  not  in  the  higher  sense.  StiU  compared  with  the  heathen 
they  are  in  an  encouraging  and  hopeful  state,  and  the  number 
of  them  is  yearly  increasing.  The  number  of  this  class  at  the 
beginning  of  1852  was  112,191,  and  it  is  now  probably  much 
larger.  In  comparing  the  results  of  missionary  operations  with 
the  number  of  agents  employed,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
a large  part  of  this  agency  has  been  engaged  in  the  cause  but  a 
few  years.  Some  of  them  are  yet  occupied  in  learning  the  na- 
tive languages,  and  others  have  just  commenced  their  active  la- 
bors. Some  of  the  missions  and  many  of  the  stations  have 
been  but  recently  commenced. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


543 


Another  important  fact  is  that  a large  part  of  these  results 
have  been  realized  within  a few  years  past.  And  this  is  what 
might  be  expected  in  view  of  the  state  and  character  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  circumstances  of  the  missionaries.  Christianity,  as 
offered  to  the  people  of  India,  does  not  appear  to  be  accompa- 
nied with  those  advantages  of  civilization  which  have  often 
gained  for  it  a favorable  hearing,  and  to  some  extent  a nominal 
and  general  reception  among  the  aborigines  of  Ameriea,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Africa  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  They  have 
believed  that  the  difference  they  saw  betw^een  their  own  state 
and  circumstances,  and  those  of  Christian  nations,  was  to  be  as- 
cribed to  their  different  religions,  and  that  the  way  to  become 
like  Christian  nations  was  to  renounce  their  owm  religion  and  be- 
come Christians  — that  in  this  w’^ay  they  might  become  civilized, 
learned,  rich,  and  pow’^erful.  Every  person  who  is  well  read  in 
missionary  history,  knows  that  view's  of  this  nature  have  often 
had  much  influence  at  first  in  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  the 
countries  and  places  above  referred  to.  And  it  is  proper  and 
right  for  missionaries  to  show  to  the  people  of  such  countries 
the  advantages  of  Christian  civilization.  But  the  people  of 
India  are  in  such  a state  of  civilization  now  that  missionaries 
can  show  them  no  such  advantages  in  connection  with  em- 
bracing Christianity.  It  is  true  that  Christianity,  if  truly 
embraced,  would  gradually  by  its  influence  upon  their  moral 
and  intellectual  character,  produce  great  and  important  changes 
in  their  social  state  and  w'orldly  circumstances.  But  these  ad- 
vantages wmuld  be  realized  slowly,  and  in  a manner  which  they 
cannot  now  understand. 

To  some  persons  the  number  of  native  Christians  in  India 
may  appear  to  be  small.  But  let  such  remember  that  it  is 
larger  than  the  entire  population  of  all  the  Enghsh  territories 
in  India  was  at  the  close  of  the  first  century  of  the  East  India 
Company,*  w^hich  has  always  embodied  the  English  power  in 
India.  But  now’’  the  population  in  the  territories  subject  to  the 
Enghsh  in  Lidia  amount  to  100,000,000,  while  their  power  ex- 
tends indirectly  over  50,000,000  more.  Now  w^hile  Christianity  is 
in  no  way  responsible  for  the  means  or  the  progress  of  the  Brit- 

* The  East  India  Company  commenced  in  A.  D.  1600.  So  the  close  of  its 
first  century  was  the  year  1700. 


541 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

ish  power  in  India,  yet  all  Christians  who  take  any  part  or  feel 
any  interest  in  the  propagation  of  Christianity  in  that  country, 
beheve  that  these  great  political  changes  are  preliminary  and 
preparatory  to  the  spread  of  the  gospei.  INIay  we  not  therefore 
expect,  since  God  has  thus  prepared  the  way  in  his  providence, 
to  see  as  much  increase  in  the  same  time  in  the  subjects  of  the 
kingdom  of  his  grace  ? as  much  progress  in  the  same  time  in 
the  conversion  of  the  people  of  India  to  Christianity  ? 

The  opinion  is  sometimes  expressed  that  the  missionary 
enterprise  in  India  has  proved  to  be  a failure.  Now  in  respect 
to  all  such  assertions  and  opinions,  two  things  may  be  ob- 
served : — First,  they  are  made  in  a spirit  of  unfriendliness  to 
this  work,  and  of  hostility  to  the  cause.  These  opinions  come 
from  persons  who  have  never  given  to  the  foreign  missionary 
cause  their  sympathy,  or  their  money,  or  their  prayers.  They 
have  never  cordially  wished  to  see  it  in  a prosperous  state, 
or  to  hear  of  its  success.  They  are  wisliing  to  find  something 
to  say  against  it.  Secondly,  when  the  authors  of  such  asser- 
tions and  opinions  have  given  any  facts  or  reasons  for  their  sup- 
port, it  has  been  apparent  that  they  were  not  sufficiently  ac- 
quainted with  the  origin,  history,  and  state  of  the  different  mis- 
sions in  India,  to  entitle  their  opinions  to  any  confidence  or  con- 
sideration. The  spirit  of  their  remarks  and  opinions  show  the 
feelings  in  which  they  originated,  and  the  errors  in  their  state- 
ments show  that  they  never  looked  for  facts  sufficient  to  verify  or 
to  correct  them.  Controversy  with  such  persons  and  authors,  so 
far  as  producing  any  conviction  of  their  errors,  or  gaining  their 
good-wiU  and  support  of  the  cause,  is  of  little  use.  They  are 
generally  incorrigible  in  their  prejudices. 

There  is  another  class  in  the  commimity  who  feel  an  interest 
in  the  foreign  missionary  cause,  who  contribute  means  liberally 
to  promote  it,  who  pray  earnestly  for  its  success,  and  who  yet 
sometimes  think  the  progress  is  very  slow,  and  who  not  seeing 
the  results  they  expected,  are  rather  in  a discouraged  and  dissat- 
isfied than  in  a hopeful  and  thankful  state  of  mind.  For  the  en- 
couragement of  such  and  of  all  who  may  read  this  work,  let  us 
take  a view  of  what  has  been  done  for  the  evangelization  of 
India.  And  we  cannot  well  appreciate  what  has  been  done 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


545 


without  considering  the  state  of  India  when  the  modern  mis- 
sionary operations  were  commenced  there. 

Results  of  the  missionary  enterprise  include  obstacles  and 
difficulties  which  have  been  removed,  as  well  as  ground  which 
has  been  acquired.  Let  us  then  look  at  some  of  the  obstacles 
which  formerly  existed  in  India  to  the  introduction  and  spread 
of  Christianity,  but  which  have  been  removed.  Some  of  them 
will  now  be  mentioned. 


INDIA  HAS  BEEN  OPENED  FOR  THE  PROPAGATION  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  only  missionaries  in 
India  were  Dr.  Carey  and  his  associates  at  Serampore,  then  re- 
cently arrived  in  the  country,  and  struggling  with  many  difficul- 
ties, and  a few  German  or  Danish  missionaries  on  the  Coro- 
mandel Coast.  The  general  sentiment  of  the  Europeans  in 
India  at  that  time  was  opposed  to  any  interference  with  the  re- 
ligion of  the  native  population.  The  governing  authorities  in 
India  and  in  England  partook  largely  of  this  spirit,  and  they 
were  determined  to  exclude  all  missionaries  from  the  territory 
subject  to  the  East  India  Company,  so  that  Dr.  Carey  and  his 
associates  were  compelled  to  live  under  the  protection  of  the 
king  of  Denmark,  to  whom  Serampore  then  belonged.  The 
first  missionaries  who  went  from  America  to  India  in  1812, 
foimd  the  country  shut  against  them,  and  they  were  ordered  by 
the  governor-general  of  India  to  return  home  in  the  same  ship 
which  had  brought  them  there.  This  order  was  avoided  by  one 
of  them  (Dr.  Judson)  proceeding  to  Burma,  then  beyond  the 
power  of  the  English  government,  and  two  others  escaping  to 
Bombay,  where  a similar  order  was  at  once  given  to  them 
to  leave  India  as  soon  as  possible.  It  was  not  tiU  the  renewal 
of  the  East  India  Company’s  charter  in  1813,  that  the  Christian 
public  in  England,  who  had  long  been  washing  to  send  mission- 
aries to  India,  succeeded  after  a severe  struggle  in  the  Court  of 
Directors  and  in  Parliament,  in  opening  India  for  the  free  prop- 
agation of  the  gospel.  Thus  only  about  40  years  ago  not  only 
were  the  inhabitants  of  India  throughout  almost  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  country  enveloped  in  the  darkness  of  heathenism, 
but  there  was  the  determination  of  their  rulers  that  they  should 

46* 


546 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


continue  in  this  state.  But  now  the  English  government  in 
India,  instead  of  interposing  its  power  to  exclude  missionaries 
from  this  country,  permits  them  to  proceed  to  any  part  of  its 
territories  which  they  may  select  for  their  residence  and  opera- 
tions. All  parts  of  India  which  are  subject  to  the  English  (and 
these  contain  100,000,000  of  inhabitants),  are  as  open  for  the 
free  propagation  of  Christianity,  by  any  proper  means,  as  the 
United  States  are.  In  all  these  territories  missionaries  can  cir- 
culate the  Scriptures  and  any  other  religious  books,  and  can 
preach  aU  the  principles  of  the  gospel  and  against  the  rites  and 
practices,  and  the  superstitions  and  doctrines  of  Mohammedans 
and  Hindus  as  much  as  they  please,  and  yet  be  under  the  pro- 
tection of  English  laws  and  English  magistrates.  Thus  so 
far  as  the  government  is  concerned,  all  external  obstacles  and 
internal  restrictions  are  removed,  the  inhabitants  of  aU  classes 
are  accessible,  and  missionaries  are  protected  in  the  use  of  all 
proper  ways  and  means  in  the  prosecution  of  their  work. 
Surely  this  is  great  progress.  It  is  one  of  the  triumphs  of  the 
missionary  enterprise,  and  it  has  not  been  achieved  without 
much  effort  and  perseverance. 

THE  ENGLISH  GOVERNMENT  HAS  WITHDRAWN  ITS  SUPPORT  OF  THE 
RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA. 

The  East  India  Company  on  assuming  the  possession  of  the 
country  from  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  kings  and  princes,  who 
had  long  supported  their  respective  systems  of  religion  and  su- 
perstition, continued  the  policy  of  those  governments,  confirm- 
ing their  acts  and  administering  their  laws.  Thus  for  some 
years  the  English  government  in  India  exhibited  the  strange  and 
anomalous  appearance  of  supporting  Christianity  for  their  coun- 
trymen, Hinduism  for  the  Hindus,  and  Mohammedanism  for  the 
Mohammedans.  They  erected  churches  and  supported  chaplains 
for  Christians ; they  repaired  mosques  for  Mohammedans,  and 
temples  for  Hindus ; and  they  had  several  thousands  of  these 
with  their  moolahs  and  brahmins,  their  festivals,  ceremonies,  and 
worship  under  their  care  and  superintendence.*  These  proceed- 


* See  pages  331-337. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


547 


ings  were  understood  by  the  native  population  to  show  the  ap- 
probation of  the  English  government  to  each  of  these  systems 
of  religion,  and  that  it  was  right  for  each  class  of  people  to  fol- 
low their  own  religion.  I have  often  heard  brahmins  and  others 
argue  earnestly  from  these  proceedings  that  the  English  believed 
the  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  religions  to  be  true,  and  to  be  good 
religions  for  those  who  practise  them.  I have  seen  brahmins 
in  a time  of  drought  spend  a part  of  each  day  in  prayers  and 
ceremonies  before,  around,  and  over  their  idols  to  procure 
rain,  and  at  the  end  of  the  drought  they  would  make  up  their 
account  for  these  idolatrous  services  and  obtain  payment  for 
them  at  the  English  magistrate’s  office. 

Now  it  often  appeared  to  be  of  little  use  for  missionaries  to 
try  to  convince  people  of  the  falsehood  of  their  religious  systems, 
and  the  folly  and  iniquity  of  their  idolatrous  rites  and  worship, 
while  they  had  before  them  such  proceedings  of  the  government, 
and  obtained  payments  of  money  for  their  idolatrous  rites  and 
ceremonies.  Happily  these  difficulties,  long  so  embarrassing 
and  discouraging  and  dishonorable  to  a Christian  government, 
have  been  in  a great  degree  removed,  and  there  is  reason  to  hope 
that  the  exceptionable  things  of  this  character  which  stiU  con- 
tinue, will  erelong  cease.  And  this  great  change  in  the  policy 
of  the  government  of  India,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  repeated  and 
long-continued  exertions  of  missionaries  and  others  connected 
with  the  missionary  cause  in  India  and  England.  This  change 
is  one  of  the  results  of  the  missionary  enterprise,  and  its  impor- 
tance cannot  well  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  not  seen  the 
magnitude  of  the  evil,  the  iniquity  of  various  kinds  connected 
with  these  systems  of  superstition,  and  the  obstacles  which  they 
created  in  various  ways  to  the  spread  of  Christianity. 

RECENT  LAWS  ON  RELIGIOUS  LIBERTY  AND  PROTECTION. 

Another  important  change  in  favor  of  Christianity  is  in  the 
laws  securing  liberty  of  conscience  to  all  classes  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. Some  account  of  the  peculiar  laws  or  institution  of  the 
Hindus,  called  Caste,  has  been  given  in  another  part  of  this  work.* 

* Page  465-473. 


548 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

If  any  Hindu  violated  the  rules  of  caste,  he  was  to  be  expelled 
from  his  house  and  his  home,  to  be  disowned  by  his  family  and 
his  fi-iends,  and  to  lose  aU  right  to  his  property,  hereditary  or  ac- 
quired. He  was  to  be  regarded  as  dead,  and  funeral  ceremonies 
were  to  be  performed  for  him.  These  rules  of  caste  were  the 
laws  of  the  Hindu  governments  in  India,  and  the  English  in 
succeeding  to  their  power  administered  the  laws  which  they 
found  already  estabhshed  and  in  force.  Thus  the  English  courts 
administered  the  Hindu  laws,  and  among  them  the  rules  of  caste, 
for  the  Hindus.  According  to  these  laws,  if  any  Hindu  should 
become  a Christian  he  was  expelled  from  his  caste  and  was  ex- 
posed to  the  evils  of  being  an  out-caste.  Many  Plindus  who 
became  Christians  suffered  all  the  losses  and  evils  of  this  unrea- 
sonable and  unrighteous  law.  In  such  cases  the  law  was  regarded 
as  so  plain  and  its  meaning  as  so  explicit  that  the  converts  gen- 
erally without  any  formal  and  judiciary  proceedings  submitted 
voluntarily  to  their  losses  and  sufferings. 

Such  a law  must  necessarily  be  a great  obstacle  to  the 
progress  of  Christianity.  Missionaries  and  others  who  wished 
for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  used  what  means  they  could 
to  effect  some  change.  But  the  Hindus  and  Mohamme- 
dans were  satisfied  with  these  laws;  not  1 among  100  of 
them  wished  for  any  change.  In  1832  in  the  administration  of 
Lord  Wfiliam  Bentinck,  a law  was  passed  which  was  designed 
to  secure  liberty  of  conscience  in  Bengal.  This  law  was  limited 
in  its  operations  to  Bengal,  and  even  there  did  not  produce  all 
the  good  effects  expected  from  it.  No  further  laws  affecting 
caste  were  enacted  till  1850,  when  the  legislative  council  of  India 
passed  the  following  law : — “So  much  of  any  law  or  usage  in 
force  within  the  British  territories,  as  inflicts  on  any  person  for- 
feiture of  rights  or  property,  or  may  be  held  in  any  way  to  im- 
pair or  affect  any  right  of  inheritance,  by  reason  of  his  or  her 
renouncing  or  having  been  excluded  from  the  communion  of  any 
religion  or  being  deprived  of  caste,  shall  cease  to  be  enforced  as 
law  in  the  courts  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  the  courts 
established  by  the  Royal  Charter  within  the  said  territories.” 
This  law  was  designed  to  secure  full  liberty  of  conscience  to  all 
classes  of  people,  to  place  Christians,  Jews,  Mohammedans,  and 
Hindus  on  c<iual  ground,  permitting  every  man  to  profess  what 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


549 


religion  he  pleases  and  to  change  Ms  religion  when  he  pleases, 
and  yet  enjoy  the  full  protection  of  the  laws.  And  yet  the  law 
gave  great  offence  to  the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans,  and  they 
made  vigorous  and  persevering  but  unavailing  efforts  to  get  it 
repealed.* 

This  law  does  not  interfere  wdth  the  caste  of  any  class  of 
people.  Caste,  with  its  social  distinctions  and  religious  observ- 
ances, wdU  continue  just  as  long  as  the  Hindus  please  to  retain 
them.  They  wdU  long  continue  to  be  a great  obstacle  to  the 
progress  of  Christianity  and  civihzation.  But  the  rules  of  caste 
and  the  decisions  of  its  members  are  no  longer  to  be  recognized 
as  the  laws  of  the  land,  and  so  no  one  can  suffer  so  far  as  the 
law  can  protect  him  in  his  civil  rights  by  disregarding  them. 
The  evils  of  caste  will  still  be  many,  and  the  sufferings  occa- 
sioned by  it  win  be  great,  because  they  will  be  of  such  a nature 
that  no  law  can  remove  them  nor  apply  any  remedy  for  them, 
any  more  than  laws  can  provide  a remedy  for  many  social  evils 
in  the  compheated  relations  of  famihes  and  society. 

The  interpretation  of  the  object  and  spirit  of  this  law  and  the 
appheation  of  its  principles  by  the  courts,  appear  to  have  been 
very  satisfactory  to  the  friends  of  religious  freedom.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  law,  applicable  as  it  was  at  once  to  100,000,000  of 
people  in  the  Enghsh  territory,  and  to  be  applied  to  50,000,000 
more  as  fast  as  they  come  under  the  English  government,  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated.  The  whole  history  of  legislation  does 
not  contain  a law  which  has  produced  more  important  conse- 
quences than  will  result  from  this  enactment.  And  this  law 
is  one  of  the  results  of  the  missionary  enterprise  in  India. 

No  one  would  expect,  after  considering  the  origin,  nature, 
and  influence  of  castes,  to  hear  it  had  ever  become  an  acknowl- 
edged and  cherished  feeling  and  usage  in  any  Christian  com- 
munity. And  yet  the  history  of  Christianity  in  India  contains 
some  painful  chapters  upon  this  subject.  Unhappily  there  have 
been  some  mistaken  opinions  in  respect  to  the  existence  and 
prevalence  of  caste  in  the  mission  churches  of  India,  and  so  it 
appears  expedient  to  give  some  account  of  it.  The  manner  in 
which  the  distinctions  of  caste  were  treated  by  the  Romish  mis- 


* See  page  473. 


550 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

sionaries,  and  how  they  were  admitted  into  their  churches  and 
communities  of  native  Christians,  has  been  described.*  The 
first  Protestant  missionaries  appear  to  have  had  connect  views  of 
the  nature  of  caste,  and  to  have  pursued  a proper  course  in  re- 
spect to  it.  Their  rule  was,  “when  any  heathen  embraced 
Christianity,  he  must  renounce  aU  superstitions  connected  with 
caste,  for  we  admit  no  such  distinctions,  but  teach  them  that  in 
Christ  they  are  aU  one,  none  having  any  preference  before 
another.”  In  the  course  of  two  or  three  generations  the  native 
Christian  communities  at  some  of  their  stations  consisted 
chiefly  of  the  descendants  of  their  early  converts,  and  many  of 
these,  though  attending  upon  the  instructions  of  the  missiona- 
ries, yet  not  giving  evidence  of  personal  piety  were  not  commu- 
nicants ; just  as  it  is  in  many  religious  societies  and  congrega- 
tions in  America.  From  such  communities,  surrounded  as 
they  were  by  Hindus  and  Roman  Catholics  all  carefully  observ- 
ing the  rules  of  caste  and  attaching  much  importance  to  their 
observance,  the  missionaries  formd  it  difficult  to  exclude  all  the 
prejudices  of  caste.  In  their  journals  and  correspondence  they 
often  spoke  of  their  difficulties  on  this  subject.  These  difficul- 
ties continued  gradually  to  increase  till  they  resulted  in  the  ob- 
servance and  toleration  of  some  distinctions  among  these  Chris- 
tian communities,  corresponding  somewhat  to  some  of  the  rules 
of  caste  among  the  Hindus  and  Roman  Cathohcs.  But  these 
distinctions  observed  in  the  Protestant  communities,  were  re- 
garded at  first  as  merely  of  a civil  and  social  character,  and 
not  as  having  their  origin  and  observance  in  religion  and  mo- 
rality. 

These  distinctions  among  the  native  Christians  in  the  course 
of  time  became  more  and  more  hke  the  distinctions  of  caste 
among  the  Hindus,  and  exerted  a very  unhappy  influence.  They 
regarded  these  distinctions  as  involving  their  personal,  family, 
and  social  respectability  in  their  own  communities  and  in  the 
view  of  the  Hindus.  Vigorous  and  persevering  efforts  have 
been  made  to  reform  these  churches  and  to  eradicate  these  dis- 
tinctions from  the  native  Christian  communities,  but  the  evils  of 
admitting  them,  and  then  tolerating  them  so  long,  are  found  to 

* See  page  517-519. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


551 


be  great,  and  not  easily  removed.  Far  the  greater  part  of  the 
native  Christians  formerly  connected  with  Schwartz,  and  his  pre- 
decessors and  fellow-laborers,  are  now  under  the  superintendence 
and  care  of  English  missionaries,  and  they  are  all  agreed  in  re- 
garding caste  in  all  its  principles,  its  spirit  and  its  observances, 
as  inconsistent  with  Christianity  and  not  to  be  tolerated  in 
Christian  churches.  In  a few  small  communities  of  native 
Christians  on  the  Coromandel  Coast  which  have  always  been 
vmder  German  missionaries,  some  distinctions  of  caste  are  still 
tolerated.  These  communities  contain  in  aU  about  3,000  souls, 
and  they  are  chiefly  the  deseendants  of  those  who  embraced 
Christianity  2 or  3 generations  ago.  They  are  connected  with 
the  Leipsic  Missionary  Society. 

Ameriean  missionaries  in  India  have  always  required  a renun- 
ciation of  caste  from  their  converts  before  admitting  them  to  a 
profession  of  Christianity.  And  if  at  any  time  afterwards  the 
spirit  of  caste  became  apparent  in  any  of  them,  as  it  sometimes 
did,  the  missionaries  have  treated  such  members  in  the  way  of 
instruction,  admonition,  suspension,  and  excommunication,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  and  aggravation  of  their  offences.  The 
American  missionaries  in  India  can  no  more  be  justly  charged 
with  admitting  and  tolerating  caste  in  their  churches,  than  the 
ministers  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Pliiladelphia  can  be  justly 
charged  with  admitting  and  tolerating  drunkenness. 

POLYGAMY. 

Polygamy  is  practised  in  India  among  the  Hindus,  the  Mo- 
hammedans, the  Zoroastrians,  and  the  Jews.  It  is  allowed  and 
recognized  by  the  Institutes  of  Menu,  by  the  Koran,  by  the 
Zendavesta,  and  the  Jews  believe  by  their  Scriptures — the  Old 
Testament,  It  is  recognized  by  aU  the  courts  in  India  — Na- 
tive and  English.  The  laws  of  the  British  Parliament  recognize 
polygamy  among  all  these  classes,  when  the  marriage  connec- 
tion has  been  formed  according  to  the  principles  of  their  re- 
ligion and  to  their  established  laws  and  usages.  The  marriage 
of  a Hindu  or  a Mohammedan  with  his  second  or  his  third  wife, 
is  just  as  valid  and  as  legally  binding  on  aU  parties,  as  his  mar- 
riage with  his  first  wife,  just  as  valid  as  the  marriage  of  any 
Christian  in  the  Church  of  England. 

O 


552 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


Polygamy  then  is  one  of  the  obstacles  in  India  to  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity,  and  as  it  is  not  only  part  of  the  religion 
of  the  inhabitants,  but  is  also  recognized  and  protected  by  the 
legislative  acts  and  legal  decisions  of  the  government,  it  be- 
comes an  important  question  in  what  way  this  obstacle  can  be 
met  and  the  evil  be  removed. 

Supposing  now  that  any  Hindu  or  Mohammedan  or  Jew, 
who  has  several  wives  to  whom  he  has  been  legally  married, 
should  give  evidence  of  piety  and  wish  to  make  a public 
profession  of  Christianity,  what  shall  be  done  in  respect  to 
his  polygamy?  In  contracting  these  marriages  he  violated 
no  laws  of  the  country  and  no  laws  of  God  as  he  under- 
stood them,  any  more  than  Jacob  or  Elkanah  did  in  marry- 
ing two  wives,  or  than  David  did  in  marrying  a yet  larger 
nmuber.*  This  man  cannot  divorce  any  of  his  wives,  if  he 
would;  and  it  would  be  great  injustice  and  cruelty  to  them 
and  to  theii-  children,  if  he  should.  He  cannot  annul  his  legal 
obhgations  to  provide  for  them.  He  is  bound  morally  and 
legally  to  support  them  and  to  protect  them  while  professing  the 
Hindu  or  Mohammedan  or  Jewish  religion,  and  his  having  be- 
come a Christian  and  embraced  a purer  faith,  will  not  release 
him  from  these  obligations  in  view  of  the  English  government 
and  courts,  or  of  the  native  population.  Should  he  put  them 
away  or  aU  but  one,  they  will  still  be  legally  his  wives  and  can- 
not be  married  to  any  other  man.  And  further,  they  have  done 
nothing  to  deserve  such  unldndness,  cruelty,  and  disgrace  at  his 
hands. 

There  are  other  difficulties  connected  with  native  marriages. 
It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  such  marriages  are  generally 
contracted  by  the  parents  and  celebrated  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  and  usages  of  the  country  when  the  parties  are  young, 
often  when  they  are  mere  children.  But  such  marriages,  though 
wholly  the  work  of  the  parents,  are  yet  valid  and  of  legal  obli- 
gation. Suppose  a boy  or  a man  who  has  been  thus  married, 
should  become  a Christian  before  the  marriage  is  consummated, 
and  the  girl  to  whom  he  has  been  married  remains  a heathen, 

* See  Gen.  29  and  30  chap.  1 Sam.  1:2.  2 Sam.  2:2.  3:  2-5.  5:  12,  13. 
12:  8,  24,  25.  2 Chron.  24  : 3. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


553 


must  he  ucknowletlge  Ihe  marriage  to  be  morally  bin<ling  and 
take  his  wife?  Suppose  the  woman  becomes  a Christian  and 
the  man  continues  to  be  a heathen,  and  on  her  arriving  at  a state 
of  puberty  he  claims  her  to  live  with  him.  W^hat  shall  she  do  ? 
AVhat  shall  her  parents  do,  if  they  also  have  become  Christians? 
Suppose  again  a man  or  a woman  becomes  a Christian  and  the 
other  party  refuses  to  fulfil  the  marriage  contract,  is  the  Chris- 
tian party  freed  from  the  marriage  obligation  and  at  liberty  to 
marry  again  ? And  supposing  a man  or  a woman  while  living 
in  the  married  state  should  become  a Christian,  and  the  other 
party  for  this  reason  abandons  them  or  expels  them  and  posi- 
tively refuses  to  live  any  more  with  them,  what  is  the  innocent 
and  suffering  party  to  do  ? • Must  they  continue  single  ? Or  are 
they  at  liberty  to  marry  again  ? How  far  is  1 Cor.  7 ; 15,  appli- 
cable to  such  cases  ? 

Some  people  in  this  country  appear  to  be  of  the  opinion  that 
polygamy  being  contrary  to  the  Christian  dispensation,  and  con? 
trary,  as  they  think,  to  the  well-being  of  families,  as  well  as  of 
general  society  and  of  nations,  must  be  classed,  wherever  found, 
with  theft,  adultery,  murder,  etc.,  and  that  people  in  any  country 
who  have  entered  into  this  state,  must  have  as  clearly  seen  and 
known  that  they  were  doing  wrong,  as  if  they  had  been  violat- 
ing any  of  the  Ten  Commandments.  But  such  were  not  the 
views  of  pious  Jews  in  ancient  times,  as  the  cases  of  Jacob,  El- 
kanah,  and  David  clearly  show,  nor  are  such  the  views  of  Jews 
in  modern  times  when  they  live  in  countries  where  they  can  fol- 
low their  own  usages  and  laws.  Indeed,  so  far  from  viewing 
polygamy  as  morally  -wnrong,  they  not  unfrequently  take  a second 
or  a third  wife  wuth  much  reluctance,  and  from  a painful  sense  of 
duty  to  perpetuate  their  name,  their  family,  and  their  inheritance. 

Now  what  shall  be  done  in  respect  to  such  persons  when  they 
give  credible  evidence  of  personal  piety  and  seek  admission  into 
the  Christian  church  ? No  case  of  this  kind  occurred  in  my  own 
missionary  experience.  But  some  cases  have  occurred  in  India, 
and  this  difficulty  ^^■ill  occur  in  numerous  instances  in  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Gospel.  The  subject  will  also  have  the  considera- 
tion and  decision  of  the  highest  authority,  ecclesiastical  and 
judiciary,  in  India  and . in  England.  IMy  opinion  is  that  the 
general  practice  in  missions  in  respect  to  such  cases  will  be  as 

47 


554 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

follows  : — When  any  man  who  has  more  than  one  wife  to  whom 
he  has  been  legally  married,  wishes  to  be  admitted  into  the 
Christian  church,  he  wiU  be  required  to  make  a tree  and  full 
statement  of  his  domestic  relations.  He  wall  be  permitted  to 
retain  his  marital  connection  with  aU  his  wives  and  his  parental 
relation  to  all  his  children,  subject  to  the  discipline  of  the  chnrch 
for  the  proper  government  of  his  household.  Whether  he  may  or 
may  not,  cohabit  with  his  different  wives,  will  be  left  I beheve  en- 
tirely to  him  and  to  them  to  act  according  to  their  views  of  duty. 
At  the  same  time  the  nature  of  the  married  relation  accorchng  to 
the  Christian  dispensation  and  the  usage  of  the  church,  and  the 
reason  why  such  cases  are  for  a while  tolerated,  wiU  be  fully  ex- 
plained. No  man  thus  admitted  wliile  a polygamist  can  be 
ordained  a Christian  teacher.*  In  this  way  polygamy  will  have 
the  testimony  of  the  church  against  it,  and  as  no  Christian  man 
can  ever  become  a polygamist,  all  such  cases  will  cease  with  the 
lives  of  those  thus  admitted.f 

PREACHING. 

There  has  seldom  been  mueh  difference  of  opinion  among 
missionaries  and  other  Christians  who  reside  in  India  in  respect 
to  the  first  and  most  important  kind  of  agency  to  be  employed 
in  the  propagation  of  the  gospel  in  that  country.  This  agency 
is  acknowledged  to  be  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  — communi- 
cating a knowledge  of  the  way  of  salvation,  and  of  the  doctrines 
and  duties  of  Christianity  by  the  voice  of  the  living  preacher. 
This  is  believed  to  be  the  divinely  appointed  means  for  convinc- 
ing and  converting  sinners,  whether  they  are  Hindus  and  Mo- 
hammedans in  India,  or  infidels  and  unconverted  men  in  Chris- 
tian countries.  It  must  not,  however,  be  understood  that  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  to  a heathen  population  consists  in  delivering 
formal  discourses  on  particular  doctrines  and  duties  to  well- 
ordered  and  listening  assemblies  as  in  Christian  lands.  Preach- 
ing to  the  heathen  of  India  has  much  more  resemblance  to  the 
labors  of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  as 
these  are  described  in  the  New  Testament.  And  no  one  will 


* 1 Tim.  3 : 2. 


f Appendix  C. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


555 


deny  that  their  manner  of  preaching  was  good,  was  the  very 
best  for  the  circumstances  and  character  of  the  people,  and  that 
the  manner  as  well  as  the  matter  of  their  teaching  was  properly 
called  “ preaching  the  gospel.”  The  preaching  of  our  Saviour 
was,  in  conversations,  discussions,  exhortations,  parables,  and 
sometimes  in  extended  discourses  in  the  synagogues.  It  was 
suited  to  the  state,  circumstances,  capacity,  and  character  of  the 
people.  Sometimes  he  spoke  to  only  a few  individuals  and 
even  to  only  one  person  as  to  Nicodemus  and  the  woman  of 
Samaria,  and  at  other  times  he  addressed  great  multitudes.*  He 
pursued  his  ministry  in  private  houses,  in  the  open  fields,  by  the 
sea-side,  in  the  synagogues  and  in  the  temples  on  the  great  fes- 
tivals. His  disciples  proceeded  in  a similar  manner  while  he  was 
with  them  and  also  after  his  ascension  to  heaven. 

So  the  missionary  in  India  strives  to  communicate  a knowl- 
edge of  the  gospel  in  conversations  and  discussions,  in  his  own 
house,  in  school-houses,  in  the  houses  of  the  natives  when  he  can 
gain  admittance  into  them,  in  the  highways  and  the  byways,  at 
their  temples  and  to  the  multitudes  who  assemble  at  places  of 
pilgrimage.  He  endeavors  to  adapt  his  language,  his  manner 
of  illustration,  and  the  truth  he  inculcates,  to  the  capacities,  the 
prejudices,  and  the  errors  of  his  hearers.  Sometimes  when  ad- 
dressing a crowd  or  an  assembly  he  wiU  see  it  best  to  propose 
some  inquiry  to  awaken  their  attention,  and  then  perhaps  some 
discussion  wiU  ensue.  And  sometimes  he  will  be  interrupted 
by  cavils  and  objections  to  which  he  must  at  once  reply,  or  the 
hearers,  believing  he  cannot  reply,  or  is  opposed  to  free  discus- 
sion, win  disperse.  Of  such  trials  and  troubles,  such  hopes  and 
disappointments,  and  such  encouragements  and  discourage- 
ments, missionaries  in  India  have  abundant  experience. 

The  opinion  has  sometimes  been  expressed  that  preaching 
the  gospel  can  be  of  little  use  to  the  people  of  India  till  they 
are  educated  and  more  capable  of  understanding  moral  and  re- 
ligious truth.  But  to  suppose  that  education  must  precede  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  in  order  to  communicate  to  them  a ca- 
pacity to  understand  it,  such  an  opinion  is  contrary  to  the  gen- 
eral tenor  and  spirit  of  the  Scriptures,  to  the  practice  of  the 
Apostles,  and  to  the  experience  of  Christians  in  every  age  of 


* John  3-7  chapters. 


556 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


the  world.  The  Scriptui'es  always  speak  of  mankind,  whether 
heathen,  or  Jews,  or  nominal  Christians,  as  having  natural  ca- 
pacity to  understand  the  Divine  commands  and  to  feel  their  ob- 
ligations to  obey  them.  The  Hindus,  though  their  minds  are 
darkened  by  their  pantheism  and  mysticism,  and  their  moral 
sense  obscured  by  their  false  philosophy,  which  often  con- 
founds natural  appetites  wdth  moral  qualities,  and  substitutes 
rites  and  ceremonies  for  moral  duties,  yet  stdl  retain  power  to 
understand  the  gospel  and  to  feel  its  suitableness  to  their  state 
and  character.  They  can  see  and  understand  enough  of  the 
works  of  God  in  creation  and  providence,  if  they  would  only 
use  their  reason  and  obey  the  dictates  of  conscience,  to  con- 
vince them  of  the  sin  and  folly  of  worsliipping  such  beings  as 
their  deities  are  described  to  be  in  their  sacred  books.  And 
further,  they  are  conscious  of  being  sinners,  of  deserving  the  di- 
vine displeasure,  and  of  needing  mercy,  and  so  they  can  perceive 
the  suitableness  of  the  way  of  salvation  through  a Mediator. 

Some  have  supposed  that  the  Hindu  religion  with  its  panthe- 
ism, its  polytheism,  its  mysticism,  and  its  atheism,  its  cruel  and 
horrid  rites  under  the  name  of  virtue,  and  its  almost  endless  and 
absurdly  significant  ceremonies,  must  annilulate  the  natural 
perception  of  right  and  wrong,  and  leave  people  destitute  of 
conscience  till  it  could  be  supplied  or  resuscitated  by  instruc- 
tion. But  such  is  not  the  state  of  the  Hindus,  as  I know  from 
long  residence  among  them  and  much  intercoiuse  with  them. 
Nor  is  such  the  opinion  of  any  missionary  I have  ever  known, 
who  had  acquired  their  language  and  lived  among  them  enough 
to  form  any  opinion  of  their  moral  state  or  sense  from  his  own 
observation  and  experience.  If  they  cannot  understand  the  evi- 
dences, the  doctrines,  and  the  duties  of  Christianity  so  weU  in 
their  present  state  as  they  could  if  well  educated,  yet  they  can 
understand  enough  to  become  wise  unto  salvation  through  faith 
in  Jesus  Christ.  There  is  therefore  encouragement  to  preach 
the  gospel  to  them  as  soon  and  as  far  as  possible,  and  the  ques- 
tion in  each  mission  is  how  far  its  members  shall  devote  their 
time  to  this  work,  and  how  far  to  preparing  a native  agency  to 
do  it. 

The  opinion  I have  sometimes  heard  expressed  in  this  coun- 
try that  it  must  be  useless,  or  nearly  so,  to  try  to  make  the  peo- 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


557 


pie  of  India  understand  the  nature  of  Christianity,  the  force  of 
moral  obligation,  and  their  need  of  divine  mercy,  this  opinion 
is  not  founded  upon  facts.  If  any  system  of  error,  superstition, 
and  false  philosophy,  could  reduce  people  to  a state  of  mind  in 
wliich  they  would  become  incapable  of  understanding  the  gos- 
pel, that  system  appears  to  be  Hinduism.  But  constituted  as 
man  is,  with  the  capacities  and  powers  of  a moral  agent,  and 
conscious  as  he  is  of  being  a sinner  — of  having  done  many 
things  which  he  ought  not  to  have  done,  and  of  not  having  done 
many  things  which  he  ought  to  have  done,  and  of  often  seeing 
and  approving  the  better  course,  and  yet  following  the  worse, 
he  will  retain,  in  all  the  possible  states  and  circumstances  where 
he  has  the  free  and  voluntary  exercise  of  his  intellectual  and 
moral  faculties,  the  capacity  to  understand  the  gospel  enough  to 
feel  its  suitableness  to  his  spiritual  wants,  and  to  experience  its 
quickening  power.  In  no  part  of  the  world  is  any  portion  of 
the  human  family  so  ignorant,  so  degraded,  so  debased,  so  mys- 
tified by  error  and  superstition,  as  to  exclude  them  from  the 
“ all  nations  ” and  the  “ every  creature  ” contained  in  the  last 
command  of  our  Saviour  to  his  disciples.  — Matt.  28 : 19,  and 
Mark  16  : 15. 

The  very  singular  political  state  of  India  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  English,  the  governing  power  in  the  country, 
have  often  made  it  apparently  the  duty  of  missionaries  to  en- 
gage in  labors  and  duties  not  contemplated  in  their  original 
object,  and  not  maldng  a part  of  their  prescribed  operations. 
The  number  of  government  chaplains  would  be  sufficient  for  the 
spiritual  instruction  and  pastoral  care  of  all  the  European  popu- 
lation in  India,  if  they  were  so  situated  that  they  could  attend 
regular  services  and  stated  ordinances.  But  the  English  popu- 
lation is  so  scattered  over  the  country  that  many  of  them  are  to 
a great  extent  unsupplied  wdth  the  regular  ministration  of  the 
chaplains.  There  is  also  the  class  of  people  called  Indo-Brit- 
ons,  who  are  much  dispersed,  and  yet  more  imperfectly  supplied 
\ffith  religious  instruction  than  the  scattered  English  population. 
Nominal  Christians  thus  destitute  of  preaching  and  of  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  gospel,  surrounded  with  a heathen  population, 
and  often  setting  a bad  example  before  them,  have  appeared  to 
have  urgent  claims  upon  missionaries.  The  immoral  conduct 

47* 


558 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


of  nominal  Christians  early  produced  in  many  places  very  un- 
happy prejudices  against  the  doctrines  and  morality  of  Christian- 
ity; for  the  people  of  India  regard  all  who  come  from  Chris- 
tian countries  as  Christians,  and  their  conduct  and  character  as 
exhibiting  the  doctrines  and  spirit  of  Christianity,  just  as  we  look 
upon  all  Turks  as  Mohammedans,  and  their  conduct  and  charac- 
ter as  exhibiting  the  principles  and  spirit  of  the  Mohammedan 
religion.  So  strong  and  unhappy  were  these  prejudices  against 
Christianity  that  some  of  the  early  missionaries  often  expressed 
the  opinion  in  their  journals  and  correspondence  that  little  suc- 
cess could  be  reasonably  expected  from  efforts  to  convert  the 
native  population  to  Christianity  so  long  as  they  had  before 
them  the  unhappy  conduct  of  so  many  professing  Christians, 
and  that  the  first  duty  of  missionaries  appeared  to  be  to  labor 
for  the  reformation  of  their  own  countrymen  in  India. 

Motives  of  this  character  have  induced  missionaries  in 
many  places  to  engage  in  undertaking  religious  servdees  in 
the  English  language  for  Europeans  and  Indo-Britons,  some- 
times only  once  and  sometimes  twice  on  the  Sabbath.  In  a 
few  instances  preaching  in  English  has  become  their  principal 
work,  and  in  such  cases  those  for  whose  spiritual  good  they  la- 
bored, assumed  their  support.  These  labors  in  many  different 
places  in  the  English  language  have  been  very  useful,  and  have 
contributed  largely  to  the  improved  state  of  religious  principle 
and  moral  character  now  existing  among  these  classes  of  peo- 
ple. American  missionaries  have  engaged  less  in  labors  of  this 
kind  than  English  missionaries,  partly  because  they  have  not 
been  in  places  so  much  requiring  such  labors,  and  in  part  prob- 
ably because  such  labors  appeared  to  involve  more  departure 
from  the  object  of  their  mission  in  the  country. 

At  the  time  I left  India  in  1853,  religious  services  were  per- 
formed in  the  English  language  in  more  than  70  chapels  by 
missionaries,  on  the  Sabbath.  In  this  way  they  have  done  and 
are  doing  a great  and  good  work  ; a work  a])parcntly  necessary 
to  be  done  before  the  native  population  of  India  can  be  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  And  a work  in  respect  to  its  importance 
and  magnitude  which  cannot  be  estimated  by  any  who  are  not 
personally  acquainted  with  the  circumstances  and  character  of 
Europeans  in  India,  and  their  great  power  for  good  or  evil  over 
the  inhabitants  of  the  country. 


CDRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


559 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

The  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  made  no  translations  of  the 
Scriptures  in  any  of  the  languages  of  Lidia.  They  ^^^•ote  a 
work  which  they  called  Ezour  Veda,*  and  then  attempted  to 
obtain  for  it  the  honor,  the  confidence,  the  currency,  and  the 
authority  of  a genuine  ILndu  work  of  this  name.  They  ex- 
pended money  freely  in  erecting  churches,  colleges,  and  convents, 
but  they  made  no  versions  of  the  Scriptures  in  any  of  the  ver- 
nacular languages,  and  if  any  one  of  the  1,000,000  Roman 
Catholics  in  India  and  Ceylon  has  a copy  of  the  word  of  God, 
he  is  indebted  to  the  Protestants  for  it.  To  Protestants  the  ig- 
norance and  superstition  of  this  class  of  people  (so  great  that 
in  some  places  they  appear  to  be  only  one  of  the  ILndu  castes) 
do  not  appear  strange  in  view  of  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  assumed  the  Christian  profession,  and  in  which  they  have 
always  been  kept  by  their  spiritual  guides.  Their  bishops  and 
missionaries  in  India  stiU  pursue  the  same  course.  They  wiU 
not  supply  their  people  with  the  Scriptures,  and  forbid  them  to 
receive  copies  from  the  Protestants. 

The  Dutch  missionaries,  wherever  they  introduced  Christian- 
ity, translated  the  Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  language  of  the 
people.  They  appear  to  have  relied  more  on  catechetical  and 
less  on  biblical  instruction  than  English  and  American  mission- 
aries do.  But  the  Scriptures  were  not  withheld,  nor  concealed, 
nor  sparingly  and  reluctantly  supplied  to  the  converts.  In  this 
respect  the  Dutch  exhibited  the  genuine  spirit  of  Protestantism. 

In  the  Danish  and  German  missions,  which  were  the  first 
Protestant  missions  on  the  continent  in  India,  the  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  in  Tamul  was  commenced  as  soon  as  the  mis- 
sionaries had  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  language,  and  in  a few 
years  the  native  Christians  had  the  whole  Bible  in  their  own 
tongue.  AH  the  different  Protestant  missions  in  India  have  felt 
it  to  be  their  duty  to  furnish  the  people  of  aU  classes,  Hindus 
and  ^Mohammedans  as  well  as  Christians,  with  the  Scriptures  in 
their  own  language.  To  make  an  intelligible  and  faithful  trans- 


* See  p.  514. 


560 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


lation  of  the  Scriptures  into  any  language,  is  a work  of  great 
difficulty  and  requiring  much  labor.  The  history  of  our  Eng- 
lish version  clearly  shows  this  fact.  And  this  version  was  made 
into  the  language  of  a nation  who  had  professed  the  Christian 
rehgion  for  many  centuries,  in  the  course  of  which  their  lan- 
guage had  been  acquiring  the  words,  terms,  and  phrases  which 
are  necessary  for  describing  the  attributes  and  perfections  of  Je- 
hovah, the  doctrines  and  duties  contained  in  his  word,  and  the 
views  of  mind  and  affections  of  heart  which  constitute  the 
experience  and  character  of  his  sincere  worshippers.  No  one 
who  has  not  carefully  examined  our  English  version,  especially 
the  sacrifices,  rites,  and  ceremonies  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  sym- 
bols and  figures  of  the  prophets,  and  the  condensed  statements 
and  description  of  doctrines  and  Christian  affections  in  the  epis- 
tles, can  be  aware  how  aU  the  powers  of  the  language  were 
brought  into  requisition,  and  even  then  sometimes  it  became 
necessary  to  coin  new  terms  and  to  use  some  already  current  in 
new  senses  to  convey  the  meaning  required.  What  then  must 
be  the  difficulties  of  making  an  intelligible  and  faithful  version 
of  the  Scriptures  into  the  language  of  a heathen  and  idolatrous 
nation,  a language  comparatively  destitute  of  religious  words 
and  phrases,  and  in  which  the  few  words  and  terms  it  may  have, 
have  senses  and  uses  in  accordance  with  their  superstition  and 
false  religion.  The  words  which  suggest  one  meaning  or  idea 
to  a Christian,  will  often  suggest  a very  different  one  to  a heath- 
en ; and  language,  used  in  describing  the  actions  and  perfections 
of  Jehovah,  is  often  referred  to  some  heathen  god,  the  most 
odious  perhaps  among  aU  their  deities. 

I’he  difficulties  of  making  intelligible  and  faithful  versions  of 
the  Scriptures  into  the  languages  of  heathen  nations,  can  be 
known  only  from  experience.  When  missionaries  and  others 
living  in  India  see  how  the  meaning  of  language  apparently 
plain  and  intelligible  to  every  Christian,  is  yet  often  misunder- 
stood by  heathens,  on  account  of  their  erroneous  religious 
views,  it  becomes  obvious  that  the  language  of  heathen  nations, 
especially  if  they  are  idolaters  and  polytheists,  as  really  requires 
to  be  Christianized  before  it  can  become  a proper  medium  for 
describing  Christian  doctrines,  duties,  and  afl’ections,  as  their  con- 
duct requires  to  be  reformed,  their  minds  to  be  enlightened,  and 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


561 


their  hearts  to  be  purified  before  they  can  become  the  people  of 
God,  and  worship  him  in  spirit  and  in  truth.  But  these  difficul- 
ties have  not  deterred  missionaries  from  translating  the  Scrip- 
tures into  the  languages  of  India.  Nor  should  they,  for  they 
can  be  removed  only  by  encountering  them,  struggling  with 
them,  and  effecting  the  desired  changes  in  them,  and  in  the  state 
and  character  of  the  people  who  use  them.  In  this  work  the 
Bible  Societies  have  rendered  great  assistance.  There  are  6 
Bible  Societies  in  India,  (including  Ceylon,)  wliich  are  all  con- 
nected with  Bible  Societies  in  Europe  or  America,  and  obtain 
liberal  aid  from  them  in  money,  printing  materials,  and  Scrip- 
tures not  published  in  the  coimtry.  These  Bible  Societies  in 
Lidia  have  Committees  of  INIanagement,  and  also  Committees 
on  Translations,  consisting  of  men  well  acquainted  with  the 
native  languages  to  whom  aU  versions  or  revisions,  and  ques- 
tions affecting  translations  of  the  Scriptures,  are  referred,  and  by 
whose  opinions  on  such  matters  the  Committees  of  Manage- 
ment are  guided.  Thus  the  Bombay  Bible  Society*  has  a 
Translation  Committee  for  Scriptures  in  the  Mahratta  language, 
and  another  for  Scriptures  in  the  Gujerattee  language  — the 
two  languages  chiefly  used  in  the  Bombay  Presidency.  The 
Madras  Bible  Society  has  a Translation  Committee  for  Scrip- 
tures in  the  Tamul  language,  another  for  Scriptures  in  Can- 
arese,  and  another  for  Scriptures  in  Telugu,  the  three  lan- 
guages chiefly  used  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  So  the  Calcutta 
and  other  Bible  Societies  have  their  different  Translation  Com- 
mittees. These  Committees  consist  of  the  most  competent 
men  whose  services  can  be  engaged,  and  they  are  required  to 
examine  and  approve,  in  a manner  and  to  an  extent  satisfactory 
to  the  General  Committee,  aU  new  translations  and  revisions  of 
former  translations  before  they  can  be  printed.  In  this  way  aU 

* I was  connected  with  this  Society  for  25  years,  and  for  13  years  I was  one 
of  the  Secretaries.  I was  a member  of  the  Translation  Committee  for  20  years, 
and  for  10  years  I was  its  Secretary.  For  several  of  the  last  years  of  my  resi- 
dence in  India,  the  preparation  of  a revised  and  complete  edition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  Mahratta,  (a  language  used  by  8 or  10  millions  of  people,)  was  my 
principal  work.  In  none  of  my  labors  for  India  did  I ever  feel  a deeper  inter- 
est, and  upon  no  part  of  my  missionarj'  life  can  I look  back  with  more  satisfac- 


562  INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

the  means  which  the  nature  and  circumstances  of  such  works 
admit,  are  used  to  secure  the  correctness,  suitableness,  and  faith- 
fulness of  the  versions  of  the  Scriptures  printed  by  the  Bible 
Societies  in  India. 

Another  object  of  the  Bible  Societies  in  India,  is  to  keep  ‘ • 
each  depository  supplied  as  far  as  possible  with  the  Scriptures 
in  aU  the  different  languages  in  which  they  are  likely  to  be  re- 
quired. I know  of  no  sight  more  interesting  than  such  a deposi- 
tory, in  a city  of  half  a million  * of  heathen  and  Mohammedans, 
containing  the  Scriptures  in  aU  the  different  languages  in  use 
among  the  people ; such  Scriptures  to  be  sold  as  far  as  possible, 
and  where  this  is  not  practicable,  to  be  given  to  those  who  wiU 
preserve  and  read  them.  The  Bible  Societies  in  India  endeavor 
to  keep  their  depositories  thus  supplied,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  by  freely  cooperating 
with  each  other  in  printing  and  exchanging  the  Scriptures,  they 
are  able  in  a good  degree  to  accomplish  their  object.  Such  de- 
positories are  monuments  which  show  to  heathen,  Mohamme- 
dans, and  Romanists,  in  what  estimation  Christians  hold  their 
Scriptures,  while  they  invite  all  classes  of  people  to  search  the 
Word  of  God  that  they  may  learn  the  truth  and  become  “ wise 
to  salvation  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.” 

The  usual  way  of  making  a version  of  the  Scriptures  is  first 
to  translate  and  print  one  of  the  Gospels.  The  natives  who 
read  it,  naturally  inquire  what  the  disciples  of  Christ  did  after 
he  ascended  to  heaven ; whether  they  obeyed  his  last  command, 
and  if  so,  what  was  the  result.  To  such  inquiries  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  furnish  the  best  reply,  and  this  is  generally  the 
next  book  translated  and  printed.  In  India  the  next  part  to  be 
translated  would  be  Genesis,  and  perhaps  Exodus  to  the  ten 
commandments,  to  show  the  creation  of  the  world,  the  origin  of 
the  human  race,  etc.  The  Hindu  sacred  books  contain  most 
absurd  and  unreasonable  accounts  of  the  creation  of  the  uni- 
verse, of  the  origin  of  manldnd,  of  the  distinction  of  castes,  etc. 
Should  the  Scriptures  be  required  for  the  use  of  converts,  prob- 
ably the  book  of  Psalms,  which  is  the  great  repository  of  de- 
votional language  and  Christian  experience,  wiU  be  next  trans- 


* Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay  have  each  more  than  this  number. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


563 


lated  and  printed.  In  this  way  the  difierent  books  which  ap- 
pear to  be  most  needed  and  most  suitable,  are  translated  till  the 
whole  Bible  is  completed.  A considerable  part  of  what  is 
printed,  is  given  away  in  portions,  and  the  copies  of  the  New 
Testament  printed  and  used  are  far  more  than  of  the  whole 
Bible.  It  is  always  thought  to  be  best  to  translate  and  print  aU 
the  books  of  the  Scriptures,  and  supply  copies  to  aU  who  wish  for 
them.  The  Hindus  restrict  the  possession  and  use  of  the  Vedas 
to  the  brahmins.  They  alone  have  the  right  to  interpret  and 
explain  these  sacred  books ; and  they  are  strictly  forbidden  to 
give  them  or  to  teach  the  language  of  them  to  the  great  body  of 
the  people,  who  are  forbidden  to  possess  or  to  read  the  Vedas,  or 
even  to  hear  them  read.  The  Romish  priests  and  missionaries 
have  never  given  the  Bible  to  their  proselytes,  and  the  great 
body  of  the  native  Roman  Catholies  in  Lidia  are  almost  if  not 
quite  as  ignorant  of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  as  the  great  body 
of  the  Hindus  are  of  the  Vedas.  Protestant  missionaries  feel  it 
their  duty  to  translate  aU  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  and  though 
they  do  not  regard  all  the  different  books  as  equally  important, 
and  do  not  use  some  parts  separately,  yet  they  include  the 
whole  m aU  bound  copies  of  the  Bible,  and  present  these  to  aU. 
classes  of  people  who  wish  to  obtain  them. 

The  whole  Bible  has  been  translated  and  printed  in  10  differ- 
ent languages,  and  the  New  Testament  has  been  translated  and 
printed  in  5 more  languages  in  India.*  The  amount  of  talent 
and  learning  employed  and  of  labor  expended  upon  these  ver- 
sions, caimot  possibly  be  appreciated  nor  weU  understood  by 
persons  not  living  in  the  country,  or  who  have  no  experience  in 
work  of  this  kind.  No  one  pretends  that  any  of  these  versions 
are  perfect ; none  are  so  sensible  of  their  imperfection  as  those 
who  have  bestowed  most  labor  upon  them ; and  none  are  more 

* To  some  persons  this  may  appear  to  be  a great  number  of  languages  for  one 
country.  But  it  need  not  appear  so  when  the  great  extent  and  poj)ulation  of 
India  are  considered.  Possibly  education  and  social  intercourse  may  hereafter 
be  so  much  increased  that  some  of  these  languages,  in  which  the  New  Tes- 
tament only  has  been  printed,  may  not  be  perpetuated.  But  supposing  there 
should  be  15  different  languages  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  have  distinct 
versions  of  the  whole  Bible,  this  will  be  only  one  version  on  an  average,  taking 
the  whole  country,  for  each  10,000,000  of  its  inhabitants. 


564 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


ready  and  willing  to  consider  every  objection  to  them  and  every 
suggestion  concerning  them,  and  then  bestow  more  labor  upon 
them  for  their  improvement.  But  though  no  one  of  the  lan- 
guages of  India  has  yet  a standard  version  of  the  Scriptures ; a 
version  satisfactory  to  aU  who  use  it,  and  to  continue  for  gener- 
ations without  change,  yet  aU  has  been  done  which  the  number 
and  circumstances  of  missionaries  in  connection  with  the  state 
of  these  languages  and  the  character  of  the  inhabitants  could  ac- 
complish. A great  work  has  been  begun  and  much  progress 
made  in  it,  and  a great  blessing  has  been  bestowed  upon  the 
people.  May  the  former  soon  be  completed,  and  the  latter  be 
realized  and  appreciated  by  the  150  millions  of  India,  and  aU 
become  able  to  read,  each  in  his  owni  language,  of  the  won- 
derful works  and  the  yet  more  wonderful  love  of  God. 

CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE. 

A civilized  heathen  nation  or  tribe  in  many  respects  presents 
a more  encouraging  field  for  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
than  an  ignorant  people,  and  yet  there  are  some  obstacles  and  dif- 
ficulties in  the  former  which  are  not  to  be  encountered  in  the  lat- 
ter. In  a civilized  heathen  nation  or  country,  every  kind  of  pop- 
ular superstition  and  every  form  of  error,  iniquity,  and  depravity 
have  become  incorporated  in  their  litcratm’e.  The  lullabies  of 
the  nursery,  the  stories  of  childhood,  the  dramas  of  the  stage, 
the  songs  of  the  debauchee,  the  religious  rites  of  the  priest,  and 
the  discourses  of  the  philosopher,  all  exhibit  and  in  turn  produce 
a corrupt  taste,  a polluted  imagination,  dissolute  manners,  a re- 
ligion of  frivolous  ceremonies,  and  a vain  and  false  philosophy. 
The  popular  mind  appears  to  be  preoccupied  with  the  things 
contained  in  their  literature,  and  to  be  thoroughly  imbued  with 
its  spirit.  Now  this  literature,  these  numerous  works  so  closely 
interwoven  with  the  history  of  their  fabiilous  heroes  and  the  ex- 
ploits of  their  imaginary  deities,  cannot  be  destroyed.  The 
only  way  to  diminish  their  influence,  and  as  far  as  possible  to 
annihilate  it,  is  to  create  a literature  of  a different  character ; a 
great,  a difficult,  and  yet  a necessary  work,  if  the  people  are 
ever  to  change  their  religious  principles  and  their  moral  charac- 
ter. The  character  and  spirit  of  the  Sanscrit  and  vernacular 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


565 


literature  are  such  that  education  formerly  appeared  to  be  of 
httle  use  except  as  a mere  qualification  for  business,  and  so 
might  just  as  well  be  limited  to  the  objects  for  which  it  was 
wanted,  as  knowledge  of  the  mechanical  arts  and  skill  in  apply- 
ing them  are  limited  to  the  demand  for  them.  And  if  this  ap- 
peared to  be  the  state  of  men  in  respect  to  education,  how 
much  more  so  in  respect  to  women,  who  in  oriental  countries 
do  not  engage  in  business  transactions  requiring  correspond- 
ence, numerical  calculations,  etc.  It  was  often  said  by  some 
who  were  weU  acquainted  with  the  character  of  the  indigenous 
literature,  that  it  was  not  expedient  to  make  any  effort  to  pro- 
mote native  female  education  till  there  should  be  some  works  in 
the  language  which  were  worth  reading,  which  would  not  be 
pernicious  in  their  influence,  and  so  be  worse  than  to  be  igno- 
rant of  them. 

The  Boards  or  Councils  of  Education,  which  have  been  de- 
scribed,* have  published  some  valuable  works,  as  grammars, 
dictionaries,  and  other  school-books  to  be  used  in  the  schools 
and  colleges  under  their  superintendence,  and  they  have  also  pub- 
lished some  useful  works  of  general  literature,  as  history,  geogra- 
phy, chemistry,  etc.  By  such  publications  they  are  performing 
good  service  in  the  cause  of  general  education.  But  it  has  been 
one  of  the  principles  of  these  Boards,  Councils,  and  Committees 
not  to  interfere  in  any  way,  in  their  course  of  education  or  in  their 
publications,  with  the  religious  opinions  and  superstitions  of  any 
class  of  the  native  population.  Their  publications  must  con- 
tam  nothing  against  Hinduism,  or  Mohammedanism,  or  Zoroas- 
trianism. And  some  members  of  these  bodies,  being  natives, 
are  very  careful  that  this  rule  shall  be  observed. 

It  must  be  evident  that  works  prepared  and  published  on  such 
principles,  however  useful  they  might  be  in  promoting  educa- 
tion, would  yet  exert  but  little  moral  influence  on  the  commu- 
nity, and  effect  but  little,  if  any  change  in  their  religious 
principles  and  practices.  They  would  leave  the  native  popula- 
tion stiU  under  the  undisputed  influence  of  their  systems  of  false 
religion  and  debasing  superstition.  A sound,  moral,  and  Chris- 
tian literature  stiU  remained  to  be  supplied.  Missionaries  saw 

* Page  317. 

48 


566 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


tliis  necessity,  and  as  there  appeared  to  be  no  other  way  of  sup- 
plying it,  they  engaged  earnestly  in  this  great  work.  Their 
efforts  have  been  liberally  supported  by  the  Christian  public  in 
India,  in  England,  and  in  America.  There  are  now  in  India 
several  Societies  which  are  engaged  in  this  good  work,  and  they 
are  liberally  assisted  by  similar  Societies  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. Some  of  the  pubhcations  of  these  Societies  are  tracts, 
and  small  books  for  cliildren,  but  others  contain  400  and  500 
pages  each,  and  are  in  no  way  inferior  in  appearance  to  the 
pubhcations  of  similar  Societies  in  Europe  and  America.  The 
series  of  the  pubhcations  issued  by  some  of  these  Societies  now 
include  nearly  100  works  of  different  kinds.  Some  of  these  are 
translations,  some  are  compilations,  but  more  of  them  are  origi- 
nal works,  as  such  are  more  suited  to  the  state  and  character  of 
the  people  than  mere  translations  of  any  European  or  American 
work.  These  pubhcations  are  printed  and  bound  in  a neat  and 
economical  style,  and  they  are  circulated  through  ah  parts  of 
India.  They  are  carried  by  colporteurs  into  vihages  and  neigh- 
borhoods, where  the  voice  of  the  preacher  has  never  been  heard, 
and  into  many  families  from  which  he  is  excluded.  The  pubh- 
cations of  these  Societies  now  amount  to  several  rmlhon  copies. 

For  printing  the  Scriptures,  tracts,  Christian  works,  and 
school-books,  there  are  now  in  Lidia  25  printing  estabhshments. 
Some  of  these  have  type-making  and  book-binding  departments, 
and  employ  more  than  100  men.  Such  printing  estabhshments 
are  essential  to  the  efficiency  and  economy  of  missions,  and  they 
show  the  completeness  of  the  means  and  operations  of  Mission- 
ary Societies  for  accomphshing  the  work  in  which  they  are 
engaged. 

EDUCATION. 

Among  some  heathen  nations,  as  the  aborigines  of  America, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  a large  part  of 
Africa,  education  in  science  and  literature  was  unlaiown  before 
missionaries  went  to  them,  as  they  have  no  science  or  literature, 
not  even  a written  language.  If  such  people  are  intehectuahy 
capable  of  apprehending  the  truths  of  Christianity,  and  morahy 
capable  of  experiencing  its  enhghtening  and  transforming  power, 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


567 


yet  the  history  of  missions  shows  that  while  they  continue  in 
this  state,  their  Christianity  will  bear  little  fruit,  and  cannot  be 
expected  long  to  continue  in  a pure  state.  In  missionary  opera- 
tions among  such  tribes  and  nations,  the  importance  of  educa- 
tion has  always  been  admitted  by  all  Protestant  denominations. 

In  the  most  civilized  heathen  nations,  though  some  persons, 
according  to  the  standard  of  education  in  such  countries,  may 
be  highly  educated,  yet  the  great  body  of  the  people  have 
no  education,  and  many  more  have  not  enough  to  read  the 
Scriptures,  or  any  Christian  work  intelligibly.  And  further,  ed- 
ucation as  it  is  conducted  in  such  countries,  is  so  much  mixed 
up  with  error,  superstition,  and  false  philosophy,  that  the  preju- 
dices it  produces  sometimes  appear  to  put  people  in  a more  un- 
. favorable  state  for  appreciating  and  embracing  the  Gospel,  than 
if  they  were  entirely  uneducated.  Such  is  the  state  and  charac- 
ter of  some  classes  of  people  in  India.  In  commencing  their 
operations,  missionaries  have  generally  seen  the  propriety  and 
importance  of  establishing  schools.  One  reason  for  them  is  to 
educate  the  minds  of  the  people  so  that  they  may  be  more  capa- 
ble of  understanding  and  appreciating  the  facts  and  evidences, 
the  doctrines  and  duties  of  the  Scriptures.  Another  reason  for 
them  is  to  increase  the  influence  of  missionaries  v^dth  the  peo- 
ple by  communicating  some  advantages  which  they  can  appre- 
ciate, and  by  showing  that  Christianity  rests  upon  an  intelligent 
perception  of  its  doctrines,  and  contains  reasons  for  the  perform- 
ance of  all  its  duties.  And  another  reason  for  such  education  is 
in  its  procuring  means  and  opening  ways  of  access  to  the  people, 
and  opportunities  for  preaching  to  them.  One  great  difficulty 
which  missionaries  often  experience,  is  in  obtaining  access  to 
people  in  circumstances  where  Christianity  can  be  made  the 
subject  of  communication,  or  consideration,  or  of  conversation. 
People  in  their  heathen  state  have  no  Sabbath  when  they  meet 
together  for  worship.  While  heathen,  and  attached  to  their 
owTi  superstitions,  they  will  not  leave  their  business  and  occupa- 
tions, and  assemble,  to  any  considerable  extent,  to  hear  Chris- 
tian instruction.  Curiosity  may  induce  some  to  go  a few  times, 
but  this  feeling  is  soon  satisfied,  and  indifference,  if  not  aver- 
sion, succeed.  They  have  holidays  enough  and  too  many,  but 
at  such  times  they  are  generally  intent  upon  keeping  their  holi- 


568 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


days  in  their  usual  manner,  which  is  generally  very  unfavorable 
to  their  hearing  Christian  instruction.  Indeed,  heathen  hohdays 
and  festivals  furnish  much  less  favorable  means  and  opportuni- 
ties among  a fixed  population  for  communicating  or  hearing 
religious  instruction,  than  is  generally  supposed,  hlissionaries 
also  find  it  difficult  to  obtain  suitable  places  for  holdnig  religious 
meetings.  Their  own  houses  (if  they  have  any)  may  be  incon- 
venient, or  distant,  or  people  may  have  some  prejudice  against 
assembhng  in  them  ; the  people  may  not  have  any  suitable  places 
for  meeting,  and  be  unwiUing  that  their  houses  should  be  used  in 
this  way.  In  such  circumstances,  schools  become  very  impor- 
tant as  a medium  of  communication  with  different  classes  of 
people,  with  children  and  parents,  and  with  men  and  women. 
And  school-houses  also  become  important  as  places  for  becom- 
ing acquainted  with  people  for  social  intercourse  and  religious 
worship.  School-houses  become  chapels  under  the  control  of 
missionaries.  Their  use  for  this  purpose  is  often  more  impor- 
tant than  for  education.  These  reasons  for  making  the  educa- 
tion of  the  common  people  a part  of  missionary  operations,  are 
stronger  in  some  heathen  countries  than  in  others,  and  I believe 
they  can  seldom  if  ever  be  adequately  and  fuUy  appreciated  by 
persons  who  have  not  themselves  lived  among  a heathen  popu- 
lation, and  so  had  opportunities  for  becoming  acquainted  with 
their  state  and  character. 

Christian  teachers  should  always  be  employed  in  mission 
schools  if  such  can  be  obtained.  But  it  will  often  be  impossi- 
ble to  obtain  such  till  a mission  has  made  considerable  progress 
and  has  competent  teachers  among  its  converts.  But  shall  any 
mission  ever  employ  heathen  teachers  in  its  schools?  This 
question  must  be  considered  and  decided  in  view  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  supposed  teachers  and  the  circumstances  of  a mis- 
sion. In  the  mission  schools  in  India  the  Scriptures  are  read, 
catechisms  are  taught  and  other-  Cluistian  books  are  used.  Mis- 
sionaries have  also  opportunities  of  giving  much  religious  in- 
struction to  the  teachers,  the  scholars,  and  their  parents.  In 
such  schools  no  heathen  or  nominal  Christian  teacher  should 
be  employed,  if  he  is  immoral  in  his  conduct,  or  if  he  treats  re- 
ligion with  levity,  or  ridicules  any  of  the  facts,  or  doctrines,  or 
duties  of  Christianity,  or  actively  opposes  the  teaching  and  in- 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


569 


flnence  of  the  missionaries.  If  Christian  teachers  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, and  there  are  heathen  teachers  (I  mean  teachers  who 
have  not  yet  professed  Christianity)  of  snch  a character  as  I 
have  often  known,  I believe  it  may  be  expedient  to  employ  them. 
Many  such  teachers  have  become  converts,  and  then  catechists 
and  preachers  of  the  Gospel. 

The  number  of  common  free  schools  in  aU  the  missions  in 
India  and  Ceylon  at  the  latest  accounts  was  1,347,  and  the 
number  of  scholars  in  them  was  47,504.  These  are  aU  put 
down  in  the  accounts  as  schools  for  boys.  But  where  there  are 
no  schools  expressly  for  girls,  they  are  admitted  into  the  schools 
for  boys,  that  is,  in  such  places  the  schools  are  common  for  both 
boys  and  girls,  and  in  many  of  the  schools  for  native  Christians 
a considerable  portion  of  the  scholars  are  girls. 

The  general  and  inveterate  prejudices  against  female  educa- 
tion among  the  IMohammedan  and  Hindu  population  in  India 
are  well  known.  For  a long  time  these  prejudices  were  an  ef- 
fectual obstacle  against  all  efforts  to  introduce  female  education. 
But  by  persevering  and  repeated  efforts  some  schools  expressly 
for  girls  were  opened  in  some  different  missions,  and  now  in 
nearly  all  the  missions  there  are  such  schools.  In  some  places 
girls  and  boys  attend  the  same  schools,  especially  where  the 
scholars  belong  to  native  Christian  families,  but  it  has  generally 
been  found  to  be  expedient  to  have  schools  expressly  for  girls. 
There  are  now  in  connection  with  the  different  missions  347 
free  common  schools  for  girls  in  India,  and  the  scholars  in  them 
amount  to  11,549,  a number  which  would  have  appeared  in- 
credible, had  any  one  predicted  it  a few  years  ago. 

In  nothing  have  the  native  prejudices  yielded  more  to  Euro- 
pean civilization  and  example  than  on  the  subject  of  female  edu- 
cation. This  department  of  education  was  commenced  by  mis- 
sionaries, and  for  some  years  encountered  strong  prejudice  and 
opposition.  But  the  educated  young  men  were  at  length  able  to 
see  the  advantages  of  it  in  some  native  girls,  who  had  been  edu- 
cated in  the  mission  schools,  and  also  in  the  superiority  of  Eu- 
ropean females  over  their  countrywomen  of  corresponding 
wealth  and  social  position.  These  young  men  began  to  feel  a 
desire  that  the  girls  to  whom  they  had  been  betrothed  in  their 
childhood,  and  also  that  their  sisters  should  be  educated,  and 

48* 


570 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


they  commenced  a few  schools  for  this  purpose.  English  ladies 
of  rank,  and  gentlemen  of  high  official  and  social  position,  en- 
couraged this  spirit  and  enterprise.  Donations  and  subscrip- 
tions were  freely  made,  and  female  schools  were  commenced  in 
Calcutta,  INIadras,  Bombay,  and  some  other  large  cities.  Com- 
menced under  such  auspices,  these  schools  were  not  lilcely  to 
fad.  Encouraged  by  their  betrothed  husbands  and  their  broth- 
ers, many  girls  of  the  most  respectable  native  families  began  to 
attend  them.  The  scholars  were  soon  numbered  by  hundreds 
and  now  amount  to  some  thousands.  The  examinations  are 
pubde  and  attended  by  English  gentlemen  and  ladies  of  the 
highest  rank.  Prizes  for  improvement  and  good  scholarship 
are  given,  and  a zeal,  interest,  and  liberality  are  manifested  in 
the  cause  that  woidd  have  appeared  quite  incredible  a few 
years  ago,  to  those  acquainted  only  with  the  bigoted  and  apa- 
thetic Hindus  as  they  then  were.  Some  of  the  aged  and  more 
orthodox  Hindus  stiU  retain  their  prejudices,  and  are  much  con- 
cerned at  the  changes  they  see  taking  place,  and  they  some- 
times predict  the  ruin  of  female  virtue,  and  the  disgrace  of  aU 
respectable  families.  But  the  young  men  of  the  higher  classes 
are  carrying  on  this  cause  with  prudence,  energy,  liberality, 
and  success. 

The  government  of  India,  aware  of  the  changing  state  of  na- 
tive views  and  feelings  and  of  the  importance  of  this  cause  to 
the  well-being  of  the  native  population,  has  recently  included 
female  education  in  their  reformed  system  of  education.  In  a 
late  despatch  from  the  Court  of  Directors  to  the  governor- 
general  of  India  in  council,  they  say  : — 

“ The  importance  of  female  education  in  India  cannot  be 
overrated ; and  we  have  observed  with  pleasure  the  evidence 
which  is  now  afforded  of  an  increased  desire  on  the  part  of 
many  of  the  natives  of  India  to  give  a good  education  to  their 
daughters.  By  this  means  a far  greater  proportion  of  impulse 
is  imparted  to  the  educational  and  moral  tone  of  the  people 
than  by  the  education  of  men.  We  have  already  observed  that 
schools  for  females  are  included  among  those  to  which  grants 
in  aid  may  be  given,  and  we  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  our 
cordial  sympathy  with  the  efforts  which  are  being  made  in  this 
direction.  Our  governor-general  in  coimcil  has  declared  in  a 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


571 


communication  to  the  government  of  Bengal  that  the  govern- 
ment ought  to  give  to  native  female  education  in  India,  its 
frank  and  cordial  support,  and  in  this  we  heartily  concur.” 

I low  different  from  the  state  and  prospect  of  India,  when  the 
missionaries  could  not  find  a native  woman  who  could  read, 
and  when  no  man  wished  his  wife  or  his  daughter  to  learn  to 
read,  believing  and  frankly  avowing  his  belief  that  it  would  be 
better  for  men  and  for  families  and  for  society,  for  all  women 
to  continue  ignorant  as  they  then  were.  Who  can  doubt  that 
a new  era  has  commenced  in  the  social,  moral,  and  intellectual 
state  of  India.  A few  years  have  seen  changes  on  this  subject, 
which  considering  the  inveterate  prejudices  and  peculiar  charac- 
ter of  the  people  we  could’  scarcely  expect  to  see  in  as  many 
generations. 

There  is  another  class  of  missionary  schools  commonly  called 
Boarding  Schools,  because  the  scholars  are  generally  boarded 
on  the  mission  premises,  or  receive  some  allowance  for  their 
support  and  live  in  families  and  in  circumstances  approved  by 
the  missionaries.  These  schools  consist  of  orj:)hans  who  have 
none  to  provide  for  them,  or  are  the  children  of  native  Chris- 
tians who  are  too  poor  or  too  ignorant  to  educate  them,  and  in 
some  instances  of  the  children  of  respectable  Hindus  and  Mo- 
hammedans who  are  willing  they  should  conform  to  the  rules 
of  the  schools.  Li  these  institutions  the  scholars  are  more 
separated  from  the  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  population,  are 
brought  more  directly  under  Christian  influence,  and  receive 
more  religious  instruction  in  public  and  in  private.  In  most  of 
these  schools  the  English  language  is  more  or  less  taught,  and 
in  some  of  them  the  teaching  is  chiefly  in  English.  The  edu- 
cation which  some  such  persons  obtain,  is  of  a high  character, 
being  designed  to  prepare  them  to  become  teachers,  catechists, 
and  preachers.  These  institutions  are  regarded  as  holding  an 
important  place  in  missionary  operations,  and  some  who  were 
educated  in  them,  have  been  very  useful  in  the  missionary 
work.  It  has  generally  been  found  expedient  to  have  separate 
schools  for  boys  and  for  girls.  Sometimes  they  are  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  premises,  but  generally  at  different  stations  of 
the  same  mission.  In  the  last  missionary  reports  and  published 
accounts,  there  were  then  93  Boarding  Schools  for  boys,  con- 


572 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


taining  2,414  scholars ; and  102  Boarding  Schools  for  girls, 
containing  2,779  scholars.  The  principal  reason  for  so  many 
Boarding  Schools  for  girls  is  that  these  schools  furnish  the  only 
means  in  the  country  for  female  education  of  the  higher  kind, 
whereas  many  young  men  are  educated  in  other  institutions 
in  the  English  language,  science,  and  hterature. 

There  is  yet  another  class  of  educational  institutions  con- 
nected with  missions  in  India,  called  English  Schools,  High 
Schools,  Seminaries,  and  Colleges.  In  these  institutions  the 
English  language,  and  general  science  and  literature  are  taught 
in  connection  with  Christianity  and  its  evidences,  its  history,  its 
doctrines,  and  its  duties.  Some  of  these  schools  are  small,  with 
only  one  teacher,  while  others  are  large,  containing  several  hun- 
dred scholars,  and  a number  of  instructors.  The  instruction  is 
generally  gratuitous.  In  some  schools  the  scholars  pay  admis- 
sion fees,  and  for  the  use  of  books,  and  some  of  these  schools  or 
colleges,  as  they  are  called,  have  scholarships  endowed  for  the 
support  of  a certain  number  of  scholars.  Li  Calcutta,  Madras, 
Bombay,  and  in  most  of  the  large  cities,  are  institutions  of  this 
character.  In  these  cities  the  scholars  generally  belong  to  the 
middling  and  higher  classes.  In  some  of  these  institutions  are 
scholars  and  classes,  who  would  not  compare  unfavorably  to 
those  in  the  High  Schools,  and  even  in  some  of  the  Colleges  in 
the  United  States. 

The  whole  number  of  these  English  schools  and  institutions, 
connected  with  the  different  missions  in  India  and  Ceylon  at 
the  latest  accounts,  was  126,  and  the  whole  number  of  scholars 
in  them  was  14,562.  English  education  has  made  more  pro- 
gress in  Bengal,  than  in  any  other  part  of  India.  Some  of  the 
institutions  for  English  education  in  all  its  various  branches  in 
Calcutta  contain  several  hundred  scholars,  and  it  was  recently 
stated  on  reliable  authority  that  the  number  of  scholars  con- 
nected with  these  schools  in  that  city  and  its  vicinity  exceeded 
5,000.  The  policy  of  the  English  government  in  India  in  ex- 
cluding all  religious  instruction  from  their  system  of  education, 
and  the  spirit  of  natural  and  wide-spreading  scepticism,  resulting 
from  that  system,  have  excited  strong  interest  for  these  institu- 
tions, and  obtained  much  support  for  them.  Many,  who  were 
Hindus  and  Mohammedans  when  they  began  their  education  in 


CnRISTIAXITY  IX  IXDIA. 


573 


these  institutions,  became  convinced  of  the  truth  of  Christian- 
ity and  openly  professed  their  faith  in  Christ.  Some  such  are 
now  connected  with  the  dilTerent  missions,  and  are  very  usefully 
employed  as  ordained  missionaries,  licensed  preachers,  and  cate- 
chists ; some  are  filling  important  and  responsible  situations  in 
the  service  of  the  government,  and  some  are  engaged  in  the  pur- 
suits of  private  business.  A view  of  the  government  system  of 
education  and  the  rcsidts  it  has  produced,  and  must  naturally 
produce  in  the  Hindu  mind  in  respect  to  their  sacred  books, 
and  a comparison  of  that  system  and  its  results  with  the  system 
of  education  pursued  in  the  different  missions  and  the  results 
of  this  system,  are  calculated  to  show  the  great  importance  of 
Christian  education  among  the  middle  and  higher  classes  of  the 
native  population.  No  one  well  acquainted  wdth  the  native 
population  can  survey  these  numerous  educational  institutions, 
situated  as  they  generally  are  in  the  great  cities  and  large 
towns,  containing  so  many  students,  all  pursuing  such  a course 
of  education  without  perceiving  that  this  department  of  mission- 
ary operations  is  an  agency  of  great  influence,  not  only  in 
subverting  superstition  and  idolatry,  but  of  diffusing  sound  re- 
ligious knowledge  and  bringing  very  many  to  a saving  ac- 
quaintance with  divine  truth. 


XATTVE  AGEXCT, 

It  must  be  obvious  to  aU  who  contemplate  the  magnitude  of 
the  missionary  work  in  India  — the  evangelization  of  150,000,- 
000  — that  it  can  never  be  accomplished  by  the  direct  personal 
labors  of  men  sent  from  Europe  and  America.  How  is  the 
great  population  of  that  country  ever  to  hear  the  Gospel  ? The 
answer  to  this  inquiry  is  obvious  and  easy  to  find.  This 
great  work  must  be  accomplished  chiefly  by  a native  agency. 
It  is  by  such  an  agency  the  great  body  of  the  people  of  India 
are  to  be  converted  to  Christianity,  and  they  must  then  have  a 
native  ministry. 

The  manner  in  w^hich  the  East  India  Company  acquired  pos- 
session of  that  great  country,  and  still  holds  and  governs  it, 
furnishes  an  appropriate  illustration  of  the  means  by  which  its 
inhabitants  are  to  be  brought  fi-om  their  present  state  of  supersti- 


574 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


tion  and  idolatry  into  the  kingdom  and  under  the  government 
of  Emmanuel.  The  English  acquired  India  by  employing  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  to  conquer  it  for  them.  The  East  In- 
dia Company  sent  agents  and  officers  to  India,  who  enlisted  the 
natives  into  their  service,  formed  them  into  regiments,  instructed 
them  in  military  discipline,  furnished  them  with  weapons  and 
showed  them  how  to  use  them.  These  officers  had  then  to  re- 
tain the  control  of  these  regiments,  support  them  and  accom- 
pany, or  rather  lead  them  from  province  to  province,  and  from 
one  country  to  another.  The  sable  regiments,  thus  enlisted,  dis- 
ciplined, and  supported,  have  been  seen  following  their  English 
officers  and  marching  under  their  banners  not  only  in  every  part 
of  India,  but  in  Egypt,  in  Arabia,  in  Persia,  in  Afghanistan,  in 
Mauritius,  in  Burma,  in  Java,  and  in  China  and  its  islands.  Of 
the  East  India  Company’s  military  force  probably  at  no  time 
within  a century  past  has  more  than  one  fourth,  and  sometimes 
not  more  than  one  eighth  part  been  European,  and  all  the  rest 
have  been  natives  of  the  country.  A similar  course  has  been 
pursued  in  the  civil  government  of  the  country.  Of  the  great 
number  of  men  there  employed  in  government  business  only  a 
very  small  proportion,  probably  not  1 in  100,  are  sent  from  Eng- 
land. But  these  few  employ,  superintend,  direct,  and  control 
the  whole.  To  this  system  of  policy,  civil  and  military,  wisely 
conceived  and  ably  managed,  England  is  indebted  for  the  acqui- 
sition of  her  Asiatic  possessions.  And  she  could  not  now  retain 
and  govern  her  possessions  in  India  by  any  civil  agency  and  mil- 
itary force  she  could  send  from  England.  She  can  only  retain 
and  govern  what  she  has  acquired  by  continuing  to  employ  the 
same  agency  under  her  control.  And  if  the  English  had  not 
pursued  this  course  of  policy,  their  possessions  in  India  would 
now  have  consisted  of  some  scattered  forts  here  and  there,  and 
a few  square  miles  of  territory  around  them. 

Now  the  Christians  of  America  and  Europe  must  pursue  a 
somewhat  analogous  course  in  conquering  India  from  the  pow- 
ers of  darkness  and  bringing  it  under  the  dominion  of  Emman- 
uel. Missionaries  must  first  be  sent  from  Europe  and  America 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  but  they  should  from  the  first  have  the 
work  of  preparing  a native  agency  in  view.  Some  missionary 
societies  have  made  the  preparation  of  such  an  agency  a more 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


575 


prominent  part  of  their  operations  than  others.  The  number 
of  their  converts  may  not  for  a while  have  been  large,  yet  they 
have  acquired  more  influence  in  the  native  population.  Of  the 
ordained  missionaries  now  in  India  about  50  are  natives  of  the 
country,  while  the  number  of  licensed  preachers  and  catechists 
amounts  to  nearly  or  quite  700.  These  facts  show  that  in  some 
missions  a good  beginning  has  been  made.  While  all  mission- 
aries are  agreed  that  a native  agency  is  very  desirable,  all  do  not 
attach  equal  importance  to  labors  of  this  class  of  men.  And 
there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  in  respect  to  the  best  means 
of  creating  such  agency. 

Some  missions  have  institutions  in  which  pious  young  men, 
selected  to  become  missionaries,  catechists,  etc.,  are  educated 
expressly  for  this  work.  Other  missions  have  seminaries,  in 
some  places  called  colleges,  for  general  education  in  English 
science  and  literature  as  well  as  in  the  vernacular  languages  in 
connection  with  Christianity.  These  institutions  are  open  to  all 
classes  of  people  upon  the  same  terms.  There  are  several  such 
institutions  of  a high  character  and  containing  several  hundred 
students  in  the  large  cities.  In  these  institutions  the  students 
who  have  professed  Christianity  are  formed  into  a theological 
class,  and  pursue  an  appropriate  course  of  reading  and  instruc- 
tion under  the  missionaries. 

The  climate  of  India  furnishes  strong  reasons  for  raising  up  a 
native  agency  as  soon  as  practicable.  Though  not  so  unhealthy 
as  has  been  generally  supposed,  yet  the  climate  •will  always  be 
enervating  and  sickly  to  the  European  and  American  constitu- 
tion."* Not  only  is  life  shorter  and  health  more  uncertain,  but 

♦ “ It  is  generally  believed  that  in  this  countiy  [India]  owing  to  the  deadly 
climate  the  average  duration  of  missionaiy  life  is  7 years,  and  many  have  come 
out  as  missionaries  under  the  idea  that  they  would  be  certain  to  meet  with  a pre- 
mature death.  But  this  is  a great  mistake.  From  a careful  induction  of  the 
lives  or  services  of  250  missionaries  we  have  found  that  hitherto  the  average  du- 
ration of  missionaiy  labor  in  India  has  been  1 6 years  and  9 months  each.  It 
was  doubtless  much  less  at  first,  and  numerous  causes  can  be  adduced  in  which 
young  missionaries  were  cut  off  after  a very  short  term  of  labor.  But  a better 
knowledge  of  the  climate  and  of  the  precautions  to  be  used  against  it,  the  use 
of  airy  dwelling-houses  and  light  dress  with  other  circumstances,  have  tended 
very  much  to  reduce  the  injurious  influence  of  the  climate  and  preserve  health, 
so  that  the  average  duration  of  life  and  labor  is  improving  eveiy  year.  As  an 
illustration  of  this  fact  we  may  state  that  out  of  147  missionaries  laboring  in  In- 


576 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


they  have  less  energy  of  body  and  mind  than  in  their  native  cli- 
mate. And  they  can  better  perform  the  labor  of  quaHfj-ing  a 
native  agency  than  they  can  endure  the  fatigue  and  exposure  of 
preaching  to  the  native  population  in  the  only  places  and  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  can  have  access  to  them.  It  is  im-r 
possible  for  missionaries  to  pursue  their  labors  of  itinerating  and 
preaching  in  the  cottages  and  hamlets  and  villages  over  a large 
part  of  India  dm-ing  much  of  the  time  in  the  hot  months  and  in 
the  rainy  season.  But  such  are  the  constitutions  and  habits  of 
the  natives  that  they  could  perform  such  missionary  labors  and 
yet  suffer  little  inconvenience  or  injury  to  health  from  what  has 
often  cost  Europeans  sickness,  sufferings,  and  death. 

The  nature  and  number  of  the  languages  of  India  furnish  a 
strong  reason  for  missionaries  to  prepare  a native  agency  for 
their  work.  It  has  been  said  that  missionaries  have  often  failed 
in  acquiring  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  native  languages  to  use 
them  acceptably  and  intelligibly  to  the  native  population.  But 
those  who  originated  such  an  opinion,  were  mistaken.  They 
were  not  competent  judges  themselves,  and  did  not  take  the 
trouble  to  obtain  the  opinion  of  those  who  were  competent.  A 
few  European  missionaries  have  found  a useful  and  what  ap- 
peared to  them  an  appropriate  sphere  of  labor  in  preaching  to 
their  countrymen  and  Indo-Britons  in  Enghsh,  or  in  teaching 
English  science  and  literature  in  the  mission  seminaries.  But  I 
have  known  no  American  missionary,  who  has  not  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  the  native  language  of  the  people  around  him, 
and  then  made  it  the  principal  medium  of  his  labors.  Probably 
few  Europeans  or  Americans  acquire  the  exact  pronunciation 
of  the  native  languages,  just  as  few  foreigners  ever  acquire  the 
exact  pronunciation  of  aU  the  words  and  sounds  in  the  English 
language.  Some  of  the  native  languages  are  difficult  to  acquire, 
and  in  most  of  these  languages  the  first  missionaries  had  to  pre- 
pare grammars  and  dictionaries.  Missionaries  now  have  many 
and  important  facihties  for  acquiring  the  languages  of  India, 

(lia  and  Ceylon  in  1830,  fifty  (we  can  give  their  names)  are  still  laboring  in 
health  and  usefulness,  while  of  the  97  others  who  have  since  died  or  retired,  20 
labored  more  than  20  years  each.  Several  living  missionaries  have  been  in 
India  more  than  30  years.  It  is  a remarkable  fact  that  the  average  missionary 
life  of  47  of  the  Tranquebar  missionaries  last  century  was  22  years  each.”  — 
Calcutta  Review,  No.  31,  p.  244. 


CnniSTIAXITY  IN  INDIA. 


577 


compared  with  what  their  predecessors  had.  Still  to  acquire 
such  a knowledge  of  any  vernacular  language  as  every  mission- 
ary should  have,  requires  considerable  time  and  labor,  and  during 
all  this  time  he  must  be  supported  from  the  funds  of  the  society 
with  which  he  is  connected.  Now  a native  missionary  would 
not  require  this  time,  labor,  and  expense,  and  would  yet  be  able 
to  use  his  vernacular  language  in  a more  forcible,  efl’ectual,  and 
acceptable  manner,  more  suited  to  persons  of  every  degree  of 
capacity  and  measure  of  intelligence,  than  American  or  Euro- 
pean missionaries  are  ever  likely  to  acquire. 

There  is  yet  another  reason  in  the  languages  of  the  people  for 
a native  agency.  In  most  of  the  large  cities  the  population  is 
composed  of  different  classes,  and  these  classes  have  each  their 
own  language.  Men  of  business  early  and  easily  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  these  different  languages,  and  use  them  fluently 
as  far  as  they  have  occasion.  But  the  people  of  each  class  gen- 
erally understand  and  use  only  their  own  hereditary  language. 
Now  a missionary  has  seldom  time  to  acquire  two  or  more  lan- 
guages so  as  to  use  them  intelligibly  and  acceptably  on  religious 
subjects,  and  yet  for  want  of  understanding  them,  he  often  feels 
that  he  cannot  improve  the  best  opportunities  and  openings  for 
usefulness.  But  a native  missionary  would  not  experience  this 
difficulty,  for  such  educated  men  generally  understand  all  the 
languages  used  in  the  places  where  they  live,  and  they  can 
often  apparently  use  one  as  well  as  another. 

Another  important  reason  for  a native  agency  is  its  cheapness. 
The  expense  of  one  missionary’s  going  to  India  and  of  his  sup- 
port there  till  he  has  become  qualified  for  his  work,  is  ordinarily 
enough  to  educate  several  native  missionaries.  And  then  the 
expense  of  one  American  or  European  missionary  (including  his 
family)  when  reduced  to  the  lowest  rate  consistent  with  a due 
regard  to  health  and  usefulness,  are  ordinarily  enough  to  support 
several  native  missionaries.  The  truth  of  this  is  well  known  to 
all  who  have  any  experience  of  living  in  India,  and  it  corresponds 
to  the  systems  of  salaries  and  allowances  in  use  in  aU  mission- 
ary societies  for  their  European  and  native  agency.* 

* It  may  not  be  improper  to  make  a few  remarks  concerning  the  support  of 
missionaries,  thus  incidentally  brought  into  view.  The  expenses  of  living  for 
Europeans  or  Americans  in  India  in  such  circumstances  as  health  requires,  are 

49 


578 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN. 


I often  heard  native  missionaries  preach  to  their  countrymen, 
and  I have  never  heard  rehgious  services  of  any  kind  and  in 
any  place  with  greater  satisfaction.  Their  sermons  and  exhor- 
,tations  were  sound  in  doctrine,  appropriate  in  manner,  and  fer- 
vent in  spirit.  No  one  can  hear  them  thus  addressing  their  coun- 
trymen on  the  sin,  foUy,  and  absurdity  of  polytheism  and  idola- 
try, describing  the  character  of  Jehovah  as  displayed  in  his  works 
and  revealed  in  his  word,  inculcating  the  duty  and  obhgation  of 
aU  to  love  and  serve  him,  setting  fca-th  his  love  for  mankind  as 
manifested  in  the  way  of  salvation,  and  the  love  of  Christ  as 
exhibited  in  giving  himself  for  an  atoning  sacrifice,  and  now  ex- 
alted to  be  a Saviour,  able,  wiUing,  and  waiting  to  save  aU  that 
come  unto  God  through  him,  and  then  urging  them  to  forsake 
their  idolatry,  turn  to  the  true  God,  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come, 

generally  rather  large.  IMissionaries  have  now  in  nearly  all  places  fixed  sala- 
ries, but  each  missionarj'  society  has  its  own  system  of  economy.  Some  mis- 
sionaries have  a fixed  salary,  designed  for  all  their  expenses  in  the  same  manner 
as  salaries  are  in  the  United  States.  In  some  missions  each  missionary  has  a sal- 
ary for  personal  and  family  expenses,  but  house-rent,  travelling,  etc.,  are  extra 
charges.  The  expenses  of  living  vary  as  much  in  different  places  as  they  do  in 
this  country,  and  this  necessarily  occasions  a difference  in  salaries.  But  no  mis- 
sionary society  gives  any  salary  or  allowance  as  compensation  for  labor  or 
remuneration  for  services.  The  idea  or  principle  of  compensation  has  no  place 
so  far  as  I am  aware  in  the  system  or  economy  of  any  mission  in  India.  Sala- 
ries have  always  been  fixed  with  a view  to  necessary  and  current  expenses,  and 
arc  never  intended  to  exceed  them. 

I saw  much  of  missionary  operations  in  Bengal,  Madras,  Bomb^-,  and  Ceylon. 
Tlie  salaries  of  the  European  missionaries  have  generally  been  fixed  by  com- 
mittees in  India  — men  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  climate,  the  circum- 
stances, the  duties  and  usefulness  of  missionaries,  who  feel  a deep  Interest  in 
the  cause,  and  contribute  liberally  to  promote  it.  Neither  missions,  nor  commit- 
tees, nor  missionaries  in  India  can  be  justly  charged  with  extravagance  in  their 
expenditures.  And  }'et  the  expense  of  one  European  or  American  missionary 
or  family  is  as  much  as  of  several  natives.  This  is  not  a matter  of  choice  on 
the  part  of  the  former,  but  of  necessity,  if  they  have  any  regard  to  their  useful- 
ness, health,  and  life.  For  it  is  just  as  impossible  for  Europeans  and  Americans 
to  live  in  the  manner  and  circumstances  of  the  people  of  that  country,  as  it  is 
for  the  latter  to  acquire  the  features  and  complexion  of  Europeans.  A few  Eu- 
ropeans have  at  different  times  endeavored  to  live  like  the  native  population  on 
the  ground  of  its  being  less  expensive,  of  its  affording  better  opportunities  to 
e.xhibit  the  true  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  in  the  hope  of  acquiring  more  social 
and  personal  intlucnce.  The  result  of  such  experiments  have  not  been  of  a 
nature  to  encourage  them. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


579 


and  lay  hold  on  eternal  life  by  looking  to  Jesus  as  their  Media- 
tor and  Saviour  — no  one  can  hear  these  native  missionaries  thus 
addressing  their  countrymen  without  being  forcibly  impressed 
wnth  the  great  importance  of  a native  ministry,  and  also  with 
the  importance  of  using  all  the  means  which  appear  likely  by 
the  blessing  of  God  to  secure  such  an  agency  in  every  mission 
as  soon  as  possible. 


GENERAL  STATEMENTS  AND  REMARKS. 

The  question  may  naturally  arise,  what  are  the  views  of  the 
native  population  generally  concerning  Christianity  ? Now 
the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants  have  no  clear  and  distinct 
views  on  the  subject.  They  suppose  that  Europeans  have  some 
religion,  and  perhaps  many  of  them  have  somewhere  seen  a 
church.  But  they  have  never  heard  a sermon  preached,  nor 
a word  said  on  the  subject  of  Christianity.  They  have  never 
read  any  part  of  the  Scriptures  nor  any  Christian  book,  nor 
could  they  read  them  if  they  had  them,  for  only  a small  propor- 
tion of  the  people  are  able  to  read.  A view  of  the  great  extent 
of  Lidia,  its  great  population,  and  the  number  and  location  of 
the  missionaries,  will  show  that  such  must  be  the  general  state 
of  the  people.  It  is  melancholy  to  contemplate  them  in  this 
state,  but  such  is  the  fact. 

There  is  another  class  or  portion  of  them,  who  know  that  the 
religion  of  Europeans  inculcates  the  existence  and  worship  of 
only  one  God,  that  it  forbids  idolatry,  and  that  it  has  its  name 
from  Jesus  Christ  who  was  in  some  way  concerned,  who  per- 
formed some  part  they  do  not  know  what,  in  originating  or  es- 
tabhshing  ft.  They  suppose  Christianity  may  be  a good  relig- 
ion for  those  to  whom  it  was  given,  and  who  have  always  prac- 
tised it.  But  they  do  not  suppose  it  claims  to  be  the  only  true 
religion,  and  was  designed  for  aU  mankind.  Such  persons  have 
no  knowledge  of  Christianity  which  impairs  their  confidence 
in  their  own  system,  nor  have  they  generally  any  conviction 
of  its  truth  which  interferes  with  their  observing  all  the  principles 
and  practices  of  their  own  religion.  And  they  have  not  gener- 
ally any  prejudice  against  Christianity,  unless  what  has  been 
excited  by  the  immoral  conduct  of  some  who  profess  it.  For 


580 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


they  do  not  know  enough  of  Christianity,  of  its  nature  and  doc- 
trines, and  its  spirit  and  claims,  to  feel  any  prejudice  against  it. 

There  is  another  class  or  portion  of  the  population  who  know 
more  of  Christianity,  and  are  in  a different  state  of  mind  in  re- 
spect to  it.  They  have  perhaps  been  educated  in  some  of  the 
mission  schools,  or  heard  the  Gospel  preached,  or  read  the  Scrip- 
tures, or  some  Christian  books,  or  have  some  acquaintance  with 
the  native  Christians.  In  these,  or  some  other  ways,  they  have 
acquhed  considerable  knowledge  of  Christianity,  its  history,  its 
doctrines,  and  its  duties.  They  have  often  more  or  less  convic- 
tion of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  and  of  then-  duty  to  embrace  it. 
They  continue,  however,  to  foUow  the  Hindu  religion,  excusing 
themselves  to  their  own  consciences  and  to  others  as  well  as 
they  can,  for  what  they  do.  There  are  strong  motives  of  a 
worldly  natme  to  induce  such  persons  to  continue  in  their  hered- 
itary faith ; at  least  not  to  renounce  it,  if  they  do  not  believe 
and  practise  it.  If  they  should  renounce  their  ancestral  religion 
and  embrace  Christianity,  they  must  incur  sneering,  reproach, 
and  abuse.  They  must  lose  the  good-wiU  of  their  relatives  and 
friends.  They  must  break  the  rules  of  caste  and  become  out- 
castes,  and  though  the  recent  laws  and  decisions  of  the  courts 
now  protect  such  persons  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  personal  and 
property  rights,  yet  the  circumstances  of  those  who  are  expelled 
from  their  caste,  who  in  the  view  of  people  generally  become  out- 
castes,  are  often  very  painful.  In  such  cases  there  is  often  much 
suffering,  which  no  law  and  no  court  can  prevent,  or  relieve,  or 
remove.  The  trials  and  sufferings  which  people  often  have  to 
endure  for  brealdng  the  rules  of  caste  and  becoming  outcastes, 
cannot  well  be  conceived  by  those  who  have  not  experienced 
them,  or  seen  others  actually  enduring  them.  The  members  of 
the  Madras  Missionary  Conference  only  expressed  what  many 
missionaries  have  seen,  when  they  said,  “ Caste  is  one  of  the 
greatest  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  the  Gospel  in  India.”  And 
again,  “ We  have  long  regarded  caste  as  a most  formidable  op- 
ponent of  genuine  Christianity,  and  a deadlier  enemy  in  some 
respects  to  the  souls  of  this  people  than  even  idolatry.”  Many 
of  this  class  of  people  have  peculiar  claims  on  Christians  for 
forbearance  and  sympathy,  and  for  prayer  to  the  God  of  aU 
graee  that  they  may  be  more  enlightened  and  have  strength  of 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


581 


mind  and  purpose  to  act  in  accordance  with  their  convictions 
of  duty  and  to  endure  all  its  consequences. 

There  is  another  large  and  important  class  who  regard  Chris- 
tianity and  ind(>ed  all  religion  in  a diflerent  light,  and  who 
are  actuated  by  a different  spirit.  Many  causes  besides  the 
means  used  to  introduce  and  propagate  Christianity,  have  been 
in  operation  for  many  years  to  undermine  Hinduism.  Some  of 
the  measures  of  the  English  government  necessarily,  though  in- 
directly, have  this  influence.  Foreign  commerce,  personal  inter- 
course with  foreigners,  and  the  knowledge  of  foreign  countries 
which  the  Hindus  are  acquiring  in  various  ways,  have  a strong 
reflex  influence  upon  their  views  of  their  own  country,  its  gov- 
ernment, religion,  usages,  and  customs.  Prominent  among  the 
causes  which  are  coiiperating  to  change  the  religious  opinions 
and  character  of  the  Hindus,  must  be  reckoned  education  in 
modern  science  and  literature.  It  has  been  already  stated  that 
Christianity  is  excluded  from  the  numerous  colleges,  seminaries, 
high  schools  and  vernacular  schools  connected  with  the  govern- 
ment.* But  the  Hindu  sacred  books  are  of  such  a character 
that  education  in  modern  science  and  literature  must  inevitably 
destroy  all  confidence  in  them  and  all  respect  for  them.f  There 
are  now  some  hundreds  of  young  men  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bom- 
bay, and  other  large  cities,  amounting  probably  to  some  thou- 
sands in  aU  India,  who  through  the  influence  of  education  and 
other  causes  have  lost  aU  confidence  in  Hinduism  as  the  system 
was  formerly  taught  and  believed  by  the  learned  and  is  stiU  prac- 
tised by  the  mass  of  the  people.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
hundreds  of  this  class  are  as  well  educated  for  professions  (were 
any  professions  open  before  them)  and  for  social  influence  in 
India,  as  young  men  generally  are  for  the  professions  and  for 
social  influence  in  this  country  when  they  graduate  at  our  col- 
leges. Their  education  has  been  of  a different  character.  Few 
of  them  have  learned  Latin  or  Greek,  but  they  generally  under- 
stand and  can  fluently  use  2 or  3 of  the  modern  languages  of 
India,  and  they  have  acquired  a knowledge  of  the  English  lan- 
guage and  its  literature,  or  of  Sanscrit,  or  of  Persian,  or  of  Arabic. 
The  religious  opinions  of  this  class  are  generally  deistical  and 
are  very  freely  and  fearlessly  avowed  among  themselves. 

* Page  319.  t Pag®  320,  321. 


49* 


582 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


This  class  of  persons  have  clubs,  associations,  and  societies 
for  debates,  discussions,  and  lectures,  and  among  the  subjects 
which  engage  their  attention  at  such  times,  religion  in  some  of 
its  forms  and  claims  has  a prominent  place.  Christianity,  as 
being  the  religion  of  the  English  (now  the  governing  power  .of 
their  country)  and  also  of  Europe,  now  containing  the  most 
highly  civilized  and  powerful  nations  in  the  world,  would  natu- 
rally excite  their  curiosity,  while  its  aggressive  spirit  and 
progressive  state  in  their  country  excites  feelings  of  opposition. 
Their  libraries  are  well  furnished  with  infidel  and  deistical 
works  winch  have  been  procured  from  Europe  and  America. 
The  historical  facts  and  doctrines  of  the  Bible,  the  ordinances  of 
the  Gospel,  and  certain  parts  and  periods  of  the  history  of 
Christianity  are  made  the  subjects  of  inquiry,  discussions,  and 
lectures.  At  such  times  Christianity  and  all  connected  with  it, 
the  Scripture  doctrines  and  characters,  as  well  as  parts  of  its 
history,  are  often  treated  with  levity,  scm-rility,  reviling,  and 
blasphemy.  To  counteract  the  influence  of  such  meetings 
where  no  one  can  speak  for  Christianity,  missionaries  appoint 
meetings  for  delivering  lectures  upon  the  facts,  doctrines,  and 
duties  of  the  Scriptures,  which  they  invite  all  the  natives  to  at- 
tend, and  also  meetings  for  discussion  in  wliich  they  invite  all 
to  take  a part.  These  meetings  are  often  well  attended.  In 
some  instances  they  have  been  continued  once  or  twice  a week 
for  months  and  years,  and  the  natives  have  often  exhibited  in- 
terest, zeal,  and  ability  in  the  discussions.  On  such  occasions 
they  make  a free  use  of  the  works  of  infidel  WTiters,  and  the 
sneers,  cavils,  and  arguments  of  deists  in  Europe  and  America 
are  reproduced  in  India,  to  be  there  again  answered  and  re- 
futed. 

The  same  class  has  also  to  a great  extent  the  management 
and  control  of  the  native  press  in  India.  In  their  journals  much 
appears  of  an  infidel  and  scurrilous  nature  against  Christianity, 
in  perverted  and  distorted  statements  of  its  doctrines  and  du- 
ties, of  its  principles  and  its  precepts,  of  the  conduct  and  charac- 
ter of  its  professors,  and  of  the  ways  and  means  used  for  propa- 
gating it.  To  counteract  the  influence  of  sucli  attacks  and 
statements,  missionaries  and  friends  of  the  missionary  cause 
publisli  and  support  journals  containing  correct  statements  of 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


583 


Christian  doctrines,  expositions  of  Scripture,  religious  intel- 
ligence, etc. 

The  following  facts  show  the  state  of  the  native  mind  in 
India.  The  proprietor  and  editor  of  one  of  the  oldest,  best  sup- 
ported, and  most  ably  managed  newspapers  in  Bombay,  some 
time  ago  expressed  his  views  of  the  state  of  rehgion  among  all 
classes,  and  suggested  what  course  should  be  pursued.  After 
inserting  two  or  three  articles  in  his  paper  to  prepare  the  minds 
of  his  readers,  he  said  it  was  obvious  to  all  that  the  state  of  re- 
ligion was  very  sad  and  becoming  worse,  that  all  elasses  of  peo- 
ple appeared  to  have  lost  all  confidence  in  their  sacred  books  ; 
that  Christians  do  not  believe  in  their  Bible,  for  they  do  not 
keep  the  Sabbath,  many  of  them  are  intemperate,  etc. ; that  the 
Jews,  the  Mohammedans,  the  Hindus,  and  the  Zoroastrians  do 
not  believe  in  their  respective  sacred  books,  because  if  they  do, 
they  would  not  do  so  many  things  which  are  forbidden,  and  ne- 
glect to  do  so  many  that  are  commanded.  He  then  proceeded 
to  say  that  the  sacred  books  of  all  these  different  classes  of  peo- 
ple may  have  been  of  divine  origin,  and  when  first  given  they 
may  have  been  adapted  to  the  then  state  and  circumstances  of 
the  people,  and  have  been  very  useful,  but  that  they  had  become 
unsuitable  to  the  present  advanced  state  of  knowledge  and  im- 
proved state  of  society,  and  that  none  of  these  sacred  books 
could  ever  again  have  the  confidence  of  their  people,  and  be- 
come the  rule  of  their  faith  and  practice,  and  that  if  people 
should  continue  as  they  are,  without  any  system  of  religion 
or  standard  of  moral  conduet,  they  would  become  worse  and 
worse,  and  at  length  become  depraved  beyond  recovery  or  en- 
durance. He  then  suggested  that  a religious  convention  be 
held  in  Bombay,  and  that  each  class  of  people  send  a delegation 
of  their  learned  and  devout  men  with  copies  of  their  sacred 
books,  and  that  the  men  of  this  convention  should  prepare  from 
aU  these  sacred  books  a shastra  suited  to  the  present  state  of 
the  world,  and  adapted  to  all  classes  of  people,  and  he  expressed 
his  befief  that  a shastra  thus  prepared  and  recommended  would 
soon  be  generally  adopted.  In  his  next  paper  he  proceeded 
to  mention  some  of  the  doctrines  which  such  a shastra  should 
contain,  and  among  these  he  said  it  should  inculcate  the  exist- 
ence of  only  one  God,  and  the  worship  of  him  without  any 


584 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


kind  of  idol  or  material  symbol ; and  then  he  would  have  no 
distinctions  of  caste,  which  he  thought  was  one  of  the  great  evUs 
and  absurd  things  in  the  Hindu  rehgion. 

Now  these  opinions  and  suggestions  are  chiefly  remarkable, 
as  exhibiting  the  state  of  the  native  mind.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
say  that  they  are  entirely  subversive  of  Hinduism,  involving  the 
rejection  of  its  sacred  books  as  weU  as  of  its  peculiar  rites  and 
its  most  cherished  practices.  The  writer  of  these  articles  for 
the  public  was  a respectable  and  well-educated  Hindu,  who  had 
not  renounced  the  principles  or  the  practices  of  his  hereditary 
faith,  nor  the  rules  of  caste,  and  yet  we  see  what  a system  of 
religion  he  was  prepared  to  profess,  if  all  the  community  would 
do  the  same.  He  was  proprietor  as  well  as  editor  of  his  paper, 
and  so  he  had  much  interest  in  sustaining  its  popularity  and  in- 
creasing its  circulation.  Indeed,  I was  told  that  he  had  but 
little  property  besides  his  paper,  and  that  he  relied  chiefly  upon 
it  for  his  support.  He  knew  the  state  of  rehgious  opinion 
among  the  Hindus,  and  he  was  weU  assured  that  such  opinions 
and  suggestions  would  not  be  to  the  prejudice  of  his  character, 
nor  to  the  injury  of  his  paper. 

Now  this  man,  the  readers  of  his  paper  and  the  circle  of  his 
acquaintance  show  the  state  of  hundreds  and  thousands  in  In- 
dia, who  are  dissatisfied  with  the  Hindu  religion,  and  having  no 
confidence  in  it  would  gladly  embrace  something  more  reason- 
able, more  easily  practised,  and  which  they  hope  would  exert  a 
better  influence  upon  society  and  the  state  and  character  of  their 
nation.  But  they  are  not  prepared  to  incur  the  reproach,  the 
family  and  social  troubles,  and  in  some  cases  the  loss  of  prop- 
erty, which  would  follow  a renunciation  of  their  ancestral  faith 
and  the  rules  of  caste.  And  so  they  continue  to  be  Hindus  in 
name  and  profession, but  sceptics  in  heart  and  libertines  in  prac- 
tice, so  far  as  they  can  be  without  reproach,  persecution,  loss  of 
character  and  property. 

It  is  now  some  years  since  a spirit  of  infidelity  and  scepticism 
began  to  take  strong  hold  of  the  educated  native  mind  in  India. 
4'his  spirit  was  first  manifested  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bom- 
bay, and  it  is  making  progress  in  all  the  large  cities.  Some 
persons  when  first  awakened  and  enlightened  to  see  the  false- 
hood and  absurdity  of  Hinduism,  have  continued  their  inquiries 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


585 


with  more  or  less  earnestness  till  they  embraced  Christianity  in 
the  full  conviction  of  its  being  the  only  system  of  divine  revela- 
tion. But  many  others  have  passed  from  a conviction  of  this 
falsehood  of  the  Hindu  rehgion  into  a state  of  scepticism  and 
indift’erence  to  all  religion,  unless  when  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity now  and  then  rouses  them  to  oppose  it. 

There  is  yet  another  class  of  the  native  population  which 
owes  its  origin  to  the  influence  of  Christianity  and  other  causes 
cooperating  with  it  to  change  the  religion  of  the  country.  They 
profess  a system  of  reformed  Hinduism.  This  class  or  sect  orig- 
inated many  years  ago,  and  for  a while  there  were  strong  expec- 
tations that  it  would  spread  and  have  great  influence  upon  the 
moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the  Hindus.  Ram  Mohun 
Roy,  whose  opinions  and  wnitings  once  excited  much  interest  in 
America,  was  the  principal  agent  in  originating  this  Society,  and 
in  sustaining  it  while  he  hved.  Aiter  his  decease  (which  occur- 
red in  England  in  1831),  the  Society  declined,  and  for  some 
years  was  appeirently  extinct.  It  was  however  resuscitated  in 
1839,  and  has  been  continued.  The  sect  or  denomination  is  not 
large,  but  it  consists  generally  of  men  of  intelligence,  influence, 
and  wealth.  How  far  their  efforts  to  reform  the  Hindu  religion 
will  succeed,  and  what  form  they  wfll  assume,  remains  to  be 
seen.* 

In  the  brief  history  and  description  of  India,  contained  in  this 
work,  we  have  seen  that  the  inhabitants  for  many  centuries  pro- 
fessed various  forms  of  heathenism,  as  demonolatry,  brahminism, 
and  budhism.  — That  while  professing  these  forms  of  religion, 
though  they  made  progress  in  civilization,  and  their  country  be- 
came populous  and  wealthy,  they  yet  made  no  progress  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  God,  nor  in  any  reasonable  way  of  wor- 
shipping Him,  “ but  became  vain  in  their  imaginations,  and 
their  foolish  heart  was  darkened;  professing  themselves  to  be 
wise  they  became  fools,  and  changed  the  glory  of  the  uncorrup- 
tible God  into  an  image  made  like  to  corruptible  man,  and  to 
birds,  and  to  four-footed  beasts,  and  to  creeping  things.”! — That 
the  Mohammedans  with  the  avowed  object  of  converting  the 
Hindus  to  their  faith,  invaded  and  overran  the  country,  sub- 

* For  a more  particular  account  of  this  Society,  see  Appendix  D. 

■f  Romans  1 : 21-23. 


586 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 

dued  the  people,  and  used  various  means  to  effect  their  con- 
version. — That  having  been  the  predominant  power  in  India  for 
7 or  8 centuries,  their  great  empire  fell  to  pieces,  leaving  nine 
tenths  of  the  inhabitants  still  professing  the  religion  of  their 
ancestors.  — That  the  time  having  arrived  in  the  progress  of 
maritime  diseovery  and  national  intercourse,  when  the  power 
and  civilization  of  Europe  must  come  into  conflict  with  the 
power  and  civilization  of  the  southern  countries  of  Asia,  the 
struggle  for  European  ascendency  and  empire  in  India  was  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  Freneh — the  former  prospeetively  rep- 
resenting Protestantism  with  its  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and 
the  latter  prospectively  representing  Romanism  with  its  despo- 
tism and  intolerance.  — That  in  this  great  and  long-continued 
struggle,  the  English  were  finally  victorious,  and  from  that  time 
they  have  been  extending  their  dominions  and  consolidating 
their  power,  till  their  Indian  empire  now  holds  the  first  place 
among  the  nations  of  Asia,  and  contains  100,000,000  of  people. 
— That  the  English  have  suppressed  many  barbarous  customs 
of  heathenism  and  cruel  rites  of  superstition,  whieh  had  been 
long  practised  among  the  inhabitants.  — That  they  have  opened 
the  country  to  the  introduction  and  spread  of  Christianity.  — 
That  they  have  established  the  freedom  of  the  press,  and  enacted 
laws  securing  equal  rights  and  civil  and  religious  hberty  for  aU 
classes  of  people. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Romanists  made  long  and  vigorous 
efforts  to  introduce  and  propagate  their  religion,  but  without 
the  success  they  expected.  — That  the  different  Protestant 
churches  of  Europe  and  America  have  entered  vigorously  upon 
the  work  of  evangelizing  the  inhabitants. — That  in  removing 
difficulties,  in  creating  means  for  acquiring  the  languages  of  the 
people,  in  making  translations  of  the  Scriptures,  in  preparing  a 
Christian  literature,  in  promoting  general  and  special  education, 
in  preparing  a native  missionary  agency,  and  in  preaching  the 
Gospel  and  gathering  converts  into  churches  — that  in  all  these 
various  ways,  missionaries  have  done  a great  work,  and  that 
they  and  all  the  churches  connected  with  them  have  reason,  in 
view  of  the  history  and  of  the  present  state  and  prospect  of  this 
cause,  to  thank  God  and  to  take  courage. 

The  future  of  India  is  to  us  unknown.  But  whatever  may  be 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


587 


its  political  state  and  relations,  we  believe  that  it  will  one  day 
become  a province  of  the  kingdom  of  Emmanuel.  How  soon 
it  will  become  such,  and  what  changes  are  to  take  place  before 
it  shall  be  included  in  the  dominions  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  we 
know  not.  How  different  has  been  the  history  of  Christianity 
in  all  the  countries  of  Christendom  from  what  at  different  times 
was  expected  ? How  would  the  primitive  Christians  have  been 
astonished,  had  any  one  speaking  by  the  spirit  of  prophecy  told 
them  what  would  be  the  history  of  Christianity  in  all  the  coun- 
tries where  they  were  living  ? And  how  incredulous  they  would 
have  been,  had  any  one  not  inspired  then  expressed  opinions  of 
the  future  state  of  Christianity  in  those  countries,  corresponding 
to  what  has  been  its  true  state  and  history. 

And  whether  the  progress  of  Christianity  in  India  is  to  be 
steadily  onward  till  it  shall  supplant  Plinduism,  Mohammedan- 
ism, and  other  forms  of  error,  and  become  the  religion  of  the 
country ; or  Romanism  is  yet  to  revive,  to  put  forth  its  power, 
renew  its  policy,  and  increase  its  votaries  through  the  land ; or 
the  Mohammedans  are  to  become  animated  with  the  spirit  of 
proselytism,  and  attempt  to  accomplish  by  persuasion  and 
policy  what  they  failed  to  effect  by  force  and  power ; or  some 
reformed  and  pliilosophical  system  of  Hinduism  is  to  take  the 
place  of  the  present  popular  but  absurd  superstition  ; or  general 
scepticism  in  respect  to  all  revelation  and  indifference  to  aU  re- 
ligion is  to  spread  through  the  country ; or  some  new  form  of 
error  and  delusion  is  yet  to  appear  and  for  a while  prevail ; — 
these  things  are  now  beyond  human  knowledge.  And  happily 
our  duty  does  not  depend  upon  our  knowing  them.  “ Secret 
things  belong  to  the  Lord,  but  things  which  are  revealed,” 
whether  in  the  word  or  in  the  providence  of  God,  “ belong  to  us.” 
The  history  of  the  world  from  the  days  of  the  Apostles  has 
never  exhibited  a more  inviting  and  a more  encouraging  field 
for  missionary  enterprise  than  India  now  is.  Should  the  masses 
of  the  Hindu  population,  through  the  progress  of  education  and 
other  causes,  become  excited  and  convinced  of  the  falsehood 
and  foUy  of  the  popular  superstitions,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
Mohammedans  and  Romanists  become  animated  with  a spirit 
of  proselytism,  it  is  painful  to  contemplate  what  might  be  the 
results.  Thus  whether  we  look  at  the  present  state  or  not  im- 


588 


INDIA,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


probable  contingencies  of  India,  it  is  obvious  that  a great  in- 
crease of  the  present  missionary  force  is  urgently  required,  and 
it  is  in  the  power  as  well  as  the  duty  of  Christians  to  furnish  it. 
A reference  to  the  tables  (pages  538, 539)  which  exhibit  the  state 
of  the  missions  in  India  and  Ceylon,  will  show  that  only  one 
fifth  part  of  this  missionary  force  is  from  America,  and  that  five 
sixths  of  it  is  from  Europe.  Now  this  is  a much  less  proportion 
than  is  generally  supposed  in  this  country,  and  much  less  than 
we  ought  to  have. 

The  following  statement  and  appeal  of  the  venerable  Bishop 
of  Calcutta  to  the  people  of  England,  is  equally  deserving  the 
consideration  of  Christians  in  the  United  States : — 

“ What  can  exceed  the  inviting  prospect  which  India  pre- 
sents ? The  fields  white  for  the  harvest,  and  awaiting  the  hand 
of  the  reaper!  Nations  bursting  the  intellectual  sleep  of  30 
centuries ! Superstitions  no  longer  in  the  giant  strength  of 
youth,  but  doting  to  their  faU ! Britain  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  most  extensive  empire  ever  consigned  to  a western  sceptre : 
that  is,  the  only  great  power  of  Europe,  professing  the  Protes- 
tant faith,  intrusted  with  the  thronging  nations  of  Asia,  whom 
she  alone  could  teach!  A paternal  government  employing 
every  year  of  tranquillity  in  elevating  and  blessing  the  people, 
unexpectedly  thrown  upon  its  protection.  No  devastating 
plague,  as  in  Egypt;  no  intestine  wars ; no  despotic  heathen 
or  Mohammedan  dominion  prowling  for  its  prey.  But  legisla- 
tion going  forth  with  her  laws  ; science  lighting  her  lamp ; educa- 
tion scattering  the  seeds  of  knowledge  ; commerce  widening  her 
means  of  intercourse ; the  Britisli  power  ever  ready  to  throw  her 
aegis  of  protection  around  the  pious  and  discreet  missionary. 

“ O where  are  the  first  propagators  and  professors  of  Chris- 
tianity ? Where  are  our  martyrs  and  reformers  ? Where  are 
the  ingenuous,  devoted,  pious  sons  of  our  Universities  ? Where 
are  our  younger  devoted  clergy?  Are  they  studying  their 
ease  ? Are  they  resolved  on  a ministry,  tame,  ordinary,  and 
agreeable  to  the  flesh  ? Are  they  drivelling  after  minute 
literature,  poetry,  fame?  Do  they  shrink  from  that  toil  and 
labor,  which,  as  Augustine  says,  our  Commander,  noster  Impera- 
tor,  accounts  most  blessed?  Let  us  unite  in  removing  miscon- 
ceptions ; let  us  join  in  appeaUng  to  Societies ; let  us  write  to 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA. 


589 


particular  friends,  and  to  public  bodies ; let  us  afford  correct  in- 
telligible information.  Let  us  send  speciBc  and  individual  invi- 
tations ; and  let  us  ‘ pray  the  Lord  of  the  harv'est  that  he  would 
send  forth  more  laborers  into  his  harvest.’  ” 

In  view  of  the  state  of  India  and  the  other  oriental  countries, 
where  God  has  been  preparing  the  nations  for  the  kingdom  of 
the  Redeemer,  we  may  use  the  sublime  prayer  of  the  greatest 
of  the  English  poets : — 

“ Come  forth  out  of  thy  royal  chambers,  O Prince  of  aU  the 
kings  of  the  earth,  put  on  the  visible  robes  of  thy  imperial  Maj- 
esty ; take  up  that  unlimited  sceptre  which  thy  Almighty 
Father  hath  bequeathed  thee,  for  now  the  voice  of  thy  Bride 
calls  thee,  and  all  creatures  sigh  to  be  renewed.”  * 

Our  encouragement  for  making  such  supplications,  and  our 
assurance  that  our  petitions  are  in  accordance  with  the  purposes 
of  Jehovah,  are  found  in  many  declarations  of  his  Word,  like 
the  following : — 

“ From  the  rising  of  the  sun  to  the  going  down  of  the  same, 
my  name  shall  be  great  among  the  Gentiles ; and  in  every  place 
incense  shall  be  offered  unto  my  name,  and  a pure  offering; 
for  my  name  shall  be  great  among  the  Gentiles,  saith  the  Lord 
of  Hosts.”  f 

And  now  in  view  of  these  promises,  and  of  what  we  have 
seen  and  expect  to  see  of  their  fulfilment,  we  close  in  the 
words  of  the  Psalmist : — 

“ Blessed  be  the  Lord  God,  the  God  of  Israel,  who  only  doeth 
wondrous  things  ; and  blessed  be  his  glorious  name  forever  and 
ever ; and  let  the  whole  earth  be  filled  with  his  glory ; Amen,  and 
Amen.”  J 


* Milton’s  Works,  p.  64.  •]■  Malachi,  1 ch.,  11  v. 

J Psalm  72,  V.  18, 19. 


50 


'4 


% 


APPENDIX. 


A.  — p.  357. 

The  State  and  Prospects  of  the  English  Language  in  India;  read  at  a meet- 
ing of  the  American  Oriental  Society  in  New  Haven,  October  26,  1853. 
By  D.  0.  Allen,  D.  D.,  Missionary  of  the  American  Board  in  India. 

The  English  language  is  our  inheritance,  and  we  expect  to  transmit  it  to  our 
posterity.  This  inheritance,  enriched  as  it  is  with  the  science  and  literature  of 
the  English  nation  for  many  centuries,  we  have  reason  to  value  very  highly, 
and  we  naturally  feel  an  interest  in  its  extension  in  the  world.  It  appears  from 
the  designs  of  Providence  as  developed  in  the  course  of  events,  that  English  is 
to  be  the  language  generally  used  in  North  America,  and  that  in  a few  genera- 
tions it  wiU  he  vernacular  over  a larger  part  of  the  world  and  among  a larger 
population  than  has  ever  yet  used  a common  language.  The  state  and  pros- 
pects of  North  America,  the  extensive  colonial  possessions  of  England  and  her 
great  and  increasing  dominions  in  southern  Asia,  are  reasons  for  believing  that 
the  English  language  is  hereafter  to  exert  an  influence  in  the  world  far  beyond 
any  other  language,  ancient  or  modern.  To  some  this  prospect  has  appeared  so 
pleasing  and  gratifying  that  they  are  cherishing  the  opinion  that  the  English 
language  will  be  everywhere  generally  understood,  and  at  a late  public  anniver- 
sarj-  a popular  orator  chose  for  his  subject  — “ The  English  the  future  universal 
language.” 

A large  part — probably  more  than  three  fourths  — of  the  population  subject 
to  the  English  government,  live  in  India,  and  the  English  possessions  in  south- 
ern Asia  appear  likely  to  be  yet  further  extended.  It  becomes  therefore  an 
interesting  question,  how  far  are  these  conquests  likely  to  extend  the  knowledge 
and  use  of  the  English  language  in  those  countries  ? In  examining  this  ques- 
tion, several  facts  and  circumstances  require  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

1.  The  state  of  those  countries  when  they  became  subject  to  the  English  Gov- 
ernment. India  and  the  other  countries  of  southern  Asia  in  which  the  Engbsh 
power  has  been,  or  appears  likely  to  be,  established  and  perpetuated,  have  been 
long  reckoned  among  civilized  nations.  For  many  centuries  — probably  for 
more  than  two  thousand  years  — they  had  regular  governments,  and  their  his- 
tory embraces  dynasties  of  powerful  kings  and  emperors.  For  centuries  they 

(591) 


592 


APPENDIX. 


have  contained  a large  population,  and  they  have  well  formed  and  some  of  them 
highly  polished  languages.  They  have  some  science,  and  the  Sanscrit  and  Ta- 
mul  languages  especially  have  much  literature,  ancient  and  modern,  sacred  and 
profane,  which  they  hold  in  great  veneration,  and  to  which  they  are  strongly 
attached.  In  these  respects  the  inhabitants  of  India  and  the  other  countries  of 
southern  Asia  differ  much  from  the  aborigines  of  America,  as  well  as  of  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  of  Australia,  where  the  inhabitants  were  comparatively 
few  in  number  and  scattered  over  a great  extent  of  countr)-,  having  no  wTitten 
language  and  no  literature  of  any  kind,  with  few  of  the  comforts  and  conven- 
iences and  none  of  the  arts  and  luxuries  of  civilized  nations.  To  the  conquer- 
ors of  people  of  this  character  and  in  these  circumstances,  it  appeared  easier  to 
communicate  a knowledge  of  their  own  language  than  to  acquire  the  languages 
of  so  many  different  uncivilized  tribes,  and  then  reduce  them  to  system  and 
order,  and  so  make  them  a proper  medium  of  communication  for  a Christian 
and  civilized  people. 

2.  Another  means  by  which  nations  have  extended  their  language  with  their 
power,  has  been  by  emigration  to  the  conquered  countries  and  permanent  settle- 
ment in  them.  But  in  tropical  climates  the  European  constitution  cannot  endure 
the  out-door  labor,  which  is  requisite  in  order  to  carry  on  the  various  necessary 
occupations  of  life.  This  is  an  estabbshed  fact.  The  efforts  of  the  Portuguese, 
the  Spanish,  and  the  Dutch  to  found  colonies  in  different  parts  of  southern 
Asia,  and  in  eastern  and  western  Africa,  with  the  expectation  that  they  would 
become  self-perpetuating  and  increasing  communities,  and  retain  the  complexion, 
language,  religion,  customs,  and  manners  of  their  respective  nations,  have  proved 
to  be  failures.  Such  colonies,  in  all  instances,  soon  began  to  deteriorate.  Some 
of  them,  of  which  great  hopes  were  entertained,  have  become  extinct,  and  in 
other  places  they  have  mingled  with  the  indigenous  population  of  the  countrv', 
and  are  becoming  assinrulated  to  them  in  circumstances  and  character.  The  con- 
quests of  the  English  in  southern  Asia  were  subsequent  to  those  of  the  nations 
above  mentioned,  and  so,  having  the  advantage  of  their  experience,  they  have 
never  attempted  to  found  any  colonies  in  their  Asiatic  possessions.  The  very 
low  price  of  labor  in  all  those  countries  is  also  one  of  the  causes  which  have 
prevented  emigration  to  them  from  England.  Europeans  could  not  subsist 
upon  the  common  rate  of  wages  in  those  countries,  without  adopting,  to  a great 
extent,  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants  in  respect  to  food,  clothing, 
houses,  etc. ; and  to  do  this  would  soon  prove  destructive  to  health  and  life.  Eor 
ithese  reasons,  the  English  have  never  emigrated  to  any  of  their  possessions  in 
southern  Asia  so  as  to  form  any  self-perpetuating  community.  Nor  is  it  likely 
they  will  ever  form  any  community  there,  which  will  use  the  English  as  their 
vernacular  language.  All  classes  of  jveople  who  go  from  England  to  those 
countries,  whether  to  engage  in  the  service  of  the  government,  or  for  pursuits  of 
private  enterprise,  intend  at  some  future  time  to  return  to  England,  or  go  to 
some  other  congenial  climate  for  their  permanent  home.  Many  situations  can 
be  filled  only  by  those  who  have  acquired  a knowledge  of  one  or  two  native 
languages,  and  who  have  shown  their  qualifications  by  examinations  before 
committees  appointed  for  this  purpose ; and  Europeans  generally  learn  enough 
of  the  language  in  use  where  they  are,  to  hold  communication  with  the  people 


• APPENDIX. 


593 


in  matters  of  business  and  in  social  and  official  intercourse.  The  native  lan- 
guage thus  becomes  the  medium  of  communication  between  the  European  and 
the  native  population  ; and  it  soon  becomes  as  natural  for  Europeans  to  use  the 
native  language,  in  their  intercourse  with  the  people  of  the  country,  as  it  is  for 
them  to  use  the  English  language  in  their  intercourse  with  the  people  of  their 
own  nation.  Still,  some  natives  acquire  a colloquial  knowledge  of  English,  by 
hearing  it  used,  and  by  using  it  in  intercourse  with  Europeans  before  they  have 
acquired  any  native  language,  and  with  some  who  are  only  transient  residents 
in  the  country.  The  number  of  this  class  of  natives  is  small,  their  pronuncia- 
tion of  English  is  bad,  their  use  of  it  is  ungrammatical,  often  scarcely  intelligi- 
ble, and  their  knowledge  of  it  is  very  limited.  F rom  these  statements  and  re- 
marks it  will  be  apparent  that  the  people  of  India  generally  have  not  so  many 
means  and  opportunities  of  acquiring  a knowledge  of  the  English  language  in 
connection  with  the  government,  or  in  matters  of  business,  or  in  social  inter- 
course, as  might  be  naturally  e.\pected  and  have  been  generally  supposed. 

3.  The  languages  of  conquering  nations  have  sometimes  spread  in  their  ac- 
quired possessions  by  intermarriages  and  a mi.xture  of  the  nations  or  races.  It 
was  so  with  some  nations  which  obtained  possession  of  countries  composing  parts 
of  the  Roman  empire.  But  the  English  language  is  not  likely  to  spread  much 
in  India  in  this  manner.  Europeans  differ  so  much  and  in  so  many  ways  from 
the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  that  intermarriages  to  any  considerable  extent 
arc  not  likely  ever  to  take  place  between  them.  In  most  places  where  Eu- 
ropeans have  lived  for  any  considerable  time  in  southern  Asia,  there  are  some 
of  a mixed  race ; and  in  India  this  class  of  people  generally  understand  the 
English,  and  also  some  native  language  in  use  where  they  live.  But  this  class 
is  not  large,  nor  are  they  likely  to  become  numerous.  They  have  not  now,  nor 
do  they  appear  likely  to  acquire,  a high  social  position,  nor  to  exert  much  politi- 
cal influence.  The  name  by  which  they  are  now  generally  known,  is  Indo- 
Briton.  Some  recent  researches  and  statistics  in  connection  with  the  renewal 
of  the  East  India  Company’s  charter  by  Parliament,  do  not  exhibit  this  class  of 
people  in  so  favorable  a state  in  respect  to  number,  character,  and  prospects  as 
was  generally  expected. 

4.  Another  and  yet  more  important  cause  affecting  the  state  and  prospects  of 
the  English  language  in  India,  is  the  regulations  and  policy  of  the  government. 
In  the  Supreme  Courts  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  the  English  language 
is  used.  But  the  jurisdiction  of  these  Courts  is  limited  to  the  above-mentioned 
cities  and  to  such  Europeans  in  other  parts  of  the  country  as  are  not  subject  to 
military  law.  Much  of  the  business  in  these  Courts  is  transacted  through  inter- 
preters. In  the  public  offices  also  in  these  cities,  the  business,  in  its  summary 
and  written  forms,  is  generally  transacted  and  the  records  are  kept,  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  ; and  the  work  of  this  kind  furnishes  employment  for  many  per- 
sons, as  translators,  copjasts,  etc.  Hence  a knowledge  of  English  becomes  a 
necessarj'  qualification  for  employment  in  these  offices.  The  situations  (as  they 
are  called)  in  them  are  generally  filled  by  natives  of  the  country.  But  their 
knowledge  of  English  is  often  very  imperfect,  being  limited  to  the  mere  routine 
of  business,  while  they  seldom  if  ever  use  it  in  their  families,  or  in  social  inter- 

% 50* 


594 


APPENDIX. 


course,  or  in  matters  of  business  ■with  their  countrjTnen.  In  the  seaports  of 
southern  Asia,  the  English  language  is  used  in  correspondence,  accounts,  etc.,  in 
the  European  mercantile  houses ; and  a considerable  number  of  natives  ■who 
understand  English  more  or  less,  are  thus  employed.  But  the  European  mer- 
chants are  a changing  class  of  the  population,  and  only  a small  part  of  the  prop- 
erty and  commerce  of  these  cities  is  in  their  hands.  When  one  leaves  the  large 
seaports,  the  business  of  all  kinds  with  the  native  population  and  among  them 
is  found  to  be  transacted  in  the  language  of  their  respective  provinces.  AVhether 
in  the  political,  or  the  military,  or  the  financial,  or  the  judicial  departments,  all 
business  is  transacted  in  the  languages  of  the  country,  and  the  English  language 
is  only  used  by  Europeans  in  their  social  intercourse,  and  in  their  business 
transactions  with  each  other  and  with  the  government. 

From  the  origin  of  the  English  power  in  India  the  importance  of  having 
some  one  language  for  general  use  through  the  country,  has  been  a subject  of 
much  consideration  and  inquiry,  and  has  engaged  the  attention  of  man)-  learned 
men  in  the  employment  of  the  government,  and  of  others  connected  with  the 
cause  of  education  and  Christianity.  The  Mohammedan  princes  and  emperors, 
who  governed  India  for  several  centuries,  retained  the  Persian  language  in  use 
among  themselves  and  in  official  transactions.  The  English,  following  the 
example  of  their  predecessoi-s,  used  the  Persian  in  the  courts  and  in  their 
official  transactions  in  Bengal  and  northern  India  for  several  years,  and  some 
learned  men  in  government  employment  were  of  the  opinion  that  it  should  be 
retained,  and  means  be  used  to  make  it  the  common  language  of  the  country. 
Under  the  Mohammedan  sovereigns,  the  Ilindustanee  became  the  common  me- 
dium of  intercourse  among  the  great  body  of  people  professing  their  faith,  and 
it  made  some  progress  among  the  Hindu  population.  Ilindustanee  may  be 
called  the  military  language  of  India.  It  is  easily  acquired  for  colloquial  pur- 
poses, and  is  more  used  than  any  other  by  Europeans  in  their  intercourse  with 
the  native  population.  For  these  reasons,  some  have  been  of  the  opinion  that 
all  lawful  and  proper  means  should  be  used  to  e.xtend  it,  and  make  it  the  general 
language  of  all  classes  of  people.  Some  have  set  forth  the  claims  of  the  San- 
scrit to  become  the  general  language  of  India,  and  some  have  been  of  tlie  opin- 
ion that  English  — the  language  of  the  governing  power  of  the  country  — 
should  become  the  general  language,  and  that  the  intluence  of  the  government 
in  its  official  transactions,  and  in  the  patronage  it  bestows  on  education,  should 
be  directed  to  this  end. 

Each  of  these  difl'erent  languages  has  had  able  and  learned  advocates  for  its 
being  made  the  lingua  franca  of  India;  but  there  are  so  many  objections  and 
obstacles  in  the  way,  that  no  one  of  them  is  likely  to  be  adopted,  or  to  secure 
much  influence  or  effort  for  extending  it.  The  need  of  any  such  general  lan- 
guage, though  experienced  by  Europeans  who  are  often  changing  their  jfiaces 
of  residence,  is  not  felt  to  much  c.xtent  by  the  native  population.  Those  living 
in  the  rural  districts  and  villages,  have  seldom  occasion  to  use  any  but  their  ver- 
nacular tongue,  and  those  who  live  in  the  cities,  easily  acquire  knowledge 
enough  of  the  languages  there  used  to  transact  their  necessary  business.  To 
the  educated  natives  of  India  the  idea  or  plan  of  making  any  one  language  su- 


APPENDIX. 


595 


pcrscJc  those  now  In  use,  and  so  become  the  common  language  of  the  whole 
country,  would  appear  as  unreasonable,  as  it  would  appear  to  the  educated  peo- 
ple of  Europe,  were  it  proposed  to  select  some  language,  as  the  English,  or  the 
French,  or  the  German,  and  endeavor  to  make  it  supersede  all  the  others,  and 
so  become  the  general  and  common  language  of  all  the  people  of  Europe.  In- 
deed, such  a plan  in  India  would  in  some  respects  appear  more  unreasonable,  as 
the  languages  there  have  each  generally  its  distinct  and  different  alphabet 
IMore  extensive  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  people  and  literature  of  India 
will  show  that  the  number  of  distinct  languages  is  not  so  great  as  has  been  gen- 
erally supposed  — that  some,  which  have  been  enumerated  as  different  languages, 
are  merely  dialects,  and  of  limited  use.  Some  of  these  dialects  will  gradually 
disappear.  The  opinion  which,  after  much  discussion  and  consideration  in  the 
ditlercnt  Boards  of  Education,  now  generally  prevails,  is  that  it  is  not  expedient 
to  use  any  means  with  a view  of  making  any  one  language  common  or  general 
through  the  country  — that  the  people  of  dlflerent  parts  of  India  who  have  dis- 
tinct and  well  formed  languages,  as  the  Tamul,  the  Canarese,  the  Telugu,  the 
ilahratta,  the  Gujeratee,  the  Bengalee,  used  each  by  a population  of  from  seven 
or  eight  to  twelve  or  fifteen  millions,  should  retain  each  its  own  language,  and 
that  suitable  and  needed  works  on  religion,  science,  and  literature,  either  original 
or  translated,  should  be  prepared  and  printed,  as  soon  as  practicable,  in  the  dif- 
ferent languages.  In  this  work  of  preparing  such  a native  literature,  very  en- 
couraging progress  has  been  made  in  several  languages. 

e arc  now  to  consider  the  state  and  prospects  of  the  English  language  in 
India  as  it  is  affected  by  education.  From  the  commencement  of  the  English 
power  in  India,  a knowledge  of  both  the  English  and  native  languages  has  been 
a valuable  and  important  qualification  for  business,  and  so  this  acquisition  has 
been  an  object  of  desire  and  exertion.  The  low  price  of  labor  iri  all  southern 
Asia,  compared  with  what  it  is  in  England,  must  always  have  made  it  pecunia- 
rily an  object  for  the  English  to  employ  the  natives  of  the  country  in  all  kinds 
of  work  or  business  for  which  they  could  be  found,  or  could  become,  qualified. 
And  when  the  power  of  the  English  became  permanently  established,  it  was 
for  their  interest  to  encourage  the  acquisition  of  their  language  by  the  natives, 
that  they  might  become  qualified  for  service  in  the  various  departments  of  busi- 
ness. And  as  the  pow’er  and  dominions  of  the  English  have  gradually  increased 
from  a few  factories,  or  trading  establishments,  to  the  supremacy  of  India  and 
the  general  eontrol  over  a hundred  and  fifty  miOions  of  people,  so  there  has 
been  a constantly  increasing  demand  for  persons  qualified  for  business  by  their 
knowledge  of  the  English  language.  And  as  such  qualifications  were  not  com- 
mon, and  could  not  be  acquired  without  much  study  and  time,  they  have  been 
generally  well  remunerated  for  their  service.  Every  increase  of  the  British 
dominions  created  more  situations  for  which  a knowledge  of  the  English  lan- 
guage was  an  indispensable  qualification,  and  so  there  has  been  a constantly  in- 
creasing demand  for  English  education.  Under  the  native  governments,  all 
situations  were  filled  by  natives,  but  as  these  provinces  have  come  successively 
under  the  English  government,  all  the  more  honorable  and  highly  remunerating 
places  have  been  filled  by  Europeans,  and  only  those  of  the  second  or  third  rate 


596 


APPENDIX. 


are  given  to  the  natives.  This  change  in  the  political  state  of  the  country,  and 
the  consequent  proceedings  of  the  governing  power  they  feel  veiy  much,  both 
in  its  humiliating  influence  upon  their  character  and  its  impoverishing  effect 
upon  their  circumstances ; and  many  of  them  endeavor  to  acquire  a knowledge 
of  the  English  language  in  the  hope  that  it  will  in  some  way  be  a qualification 
for  business,  or  a recommendation  for  employment. 

The  educational  institutions  in  which  the  English  language  is  taught  in  India 
are  of  three  kinds. 

1.  Private  schools,  or  those  which  are  supported  by  tuition.  There  have 
been  several  such  in  Calcutta,  hladras,  and  Bombay.  They  have  been  sup- 
ported chiefly  by  the  higher  classes  of  the  native  population,  and  many  persons 
have  been  educated  in  them. 

2.  Schools  connected  with  missionary  and  other  benevolent  societies.  At 
most  of  the  large  missionary  stations  are  schools  of  this  character.  Some  of 
these  have  a large  number  of  scholars,  and  good  means  of  instruction.  The 
primary  object  of  such  schools  is  moral  and  Scriptural  education,  with  a view 
to  prepare  such  persons,  w’hen  educated,  to  become  Christian  teachers,  catechists, 
and  preachers  among  their  countrymen.  But  these  schools  are  generally  open 
for  all  classes  of  people  on  such  terms  as  induce  Hindus  and  Mohammedans,  as 
well  as  professed  Christians,  to  become  eonnected  with  them,  hlany  who  were 
Hindus  and  IMohammedans  when  they  first  entered  these  schools,  became  con- 
vinced, in  the  course  of  their  education,  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion, 
publicly  professed  their  faith  in  it,  and  arc  now  in  the  employment  of  Mission- 
ary Societies,  preaching  the  Gospel  to  their  own  people.  Some  of  these  are 
well  educated,  every  way  respectable  in  talents  and  character,  and  veiy  useful 
in  the  work  of  promoting  Christianity  in  India. 

3.  Schools  supported  by  the  government.  The  government,  in  its  various 
departments,  has  occasion  to  employ  a great  number  of  people,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  fill  particular  situations  and  for  the  performance  of  some  pecu- 
liar kinds  of  service,  that  a part  of  those  to  be  employed  should  understand  the 
English  language.  For  this  purpose  the  government  appropriates  verj'  consid- 
erable sums  from  the  revenues  of  the  country  to  education,  and  the  high  schools 
contain  means  and  facilities  for  learning  English.  The  course  of  study  in  the 
English  department  of  these  schools  is  sufficient  for  acquiring  a good  knowledge 
of  the  language,  and  obtaining  a very  considerable  acquaintance  with  its  science 
and  literature.  Many  who  commence  the  study  of  English,  finding  it  more  dif- 
ficult of  acquisition  than  they  expected,  or  not  seeing  so  much  prospect  of  em- 
ployment as  they  had  hoped  for  at  first,  become  discouraged  and  abandon  it. 
hlany  also  acquire  just  knowledge  enough  of  the  language  to  converse  in  slow, 
familiar,  and  set  phraseology,  but  not  enough  to  use  it  easily  and  fluently,  nor  to 
understand  it  when  so  used  by  othei-s,  nor  to  road  newspapers  and  common 
books  with  case  and  intelligence.  Such  persons  use  the  language  no  more  than 
is  ncce.ssar)'.  The}'  seldom  attempt  to  read  an  English  book,  or  to  improve 
their  knowledge  of  the  language  after  leaving  school.  Indeed,  many  of  them, 
when  they  succeed  in  obtaining  employment,  regard  their  object  in  acquiring 
the  language  as  accomphshed,  and  so  retain  only  what  they  have  occasion  to 


APPENDIX. 


597 


use  as  copyists,  accountants,  etc.  But  in  these  schools,  some,  though  but  a small 
part  of  those  who  commence  the  study  of  the  language,  acquire  a correct  use 
of  it,  become  able  to  converse  in  it  witli  ease  and  propriety,  and  obtain  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  English  science  and  literature.  Yet  even  this  class  never, 
so  far  as  I have  known,  use  the  English  language  in  their  families,  and  very  sel- 
dom in  any  social  intercourse  or  transactions  of  business,  unless  with  Europeans. 

The  vernacular  languages  of  India  contain  but  little  science  or  literature  of 
any  value,  and  something  more  than  these  languages  contain  is  required  for 
mental  discipline  and  practical  knowledge,  in  the  course  of  education.  The 
Sanscrit  is  closely  connected  with  the  languages  now  used  in  the  country  and 
has  much  ancient  literature.  But  however  useful  the  study  of  it  may  be  for 
discipline  of  mind,  and  with  reference  to  philology,  ethnograj)hy,  and  other  ob- 
jects of  antiipiarian  research,  it  contains  but  little  practical  science,  or  authen- 
tic history,  or  correct  religious  doctrine,  and  is  nowhere  now  a vernacular  lan- 
guage. In  these  circumstances,  when  education  is  to  be  extended  beyond  any 
vernacular  language,  the  English  — the  langu.age  of  the  governing  power  of  the 
country,  with  all  its  science  and  literature,  and  especially  its  numerous  and  ex- 
cellent works  on  moral  and  religious  subjects  — has  the  first  claims  to  attention. 

In  America  and  Europe  the  professions  of  theology,  law,  and  medicine,  fur- 
nish the  great  field  of  emploj-ment  for  the  educated  classes.  These  professions 
are  equally  open  to  all,  and  they  require  a large  part  — generally  a majority  — 
of  those  who  obtain  a collegiate  or  liberal  education,  to  fill  them.  But  these 
professions  scarcely  yet  e.xist  among  the  native  population  of  India.  There, 
educated  men,  who  must  engage  in  some  business  for  support  (and  there  are 
very  few  who  are  not  in  this  state),  generally  look  to  the  government  for  ser- 
vice, or  to  teaching,  as  their  employment.  In  the  altered  political  state  and 
relations  of  the  countrj'  — all  the  more  honorable  and  lucrative  situations  being 
filled  by  Europeans  — the  higher  classes  of  the  native  population  find  it  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  obtain  any'  suitable  occupation  and  means  of  resjxjctable  supH 
port,  and  so  they  naturally  turn  their  thoughts  to  the  study  of  the  English 
language,  in  the  hope  that  it  will  prove  a qualification  for  business,  or  a recom- 
mendation for  employment.  This  desire  to  learn  English  has  been  increasing 
for  some  years  past,  and  probably  the  number  now  engaged  in  acquiring  it,  is 
three  times  as  large  as  it  was  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago.  But,  even  at  the 
present  time,  many  who  become  thus  educated,  find  it  very  difficult,  and  some 
find  it  impossible,  to  obtain  such  employment  as  they  expected.  The  supply  of 
such  educated  talent  is  increasing  faster  than  the  demand,  and  it  will  not  be 
many  years  before  the  principal  motives  in  which  this  strong  desire  for  English 
education  had  its  origin,  will  cease,  or  at  least  will  exert  less  influence  than  they 
have  hail  for  some  years  past. 

From  the  view  which  has  been  taken  of  the  state  of  the  English  language  in 
India,  or  southern  Asia,  it  appears : That  England  has  not  founded,  and  is  not 
likely  to  found,  any  colonies  in  any  of  those  countries,  and  that  there  is  no  na- 
tive community,  nor  any  class  of  people,  except  the  Indo-Britons,  who  use  Eng- 
lish as  their  vernacular  language.  — That  the  English  people  who  go  to  India, 
expect  to  reside  there  only  for  a limited  time,  and  then  to  go  to  some  more  con- 


598 


APPENDIX. 


genial  climate.  — That  while  in  India  they  generally  learn  enough  of  the  native 
languages  for  social  and  official  intercourse  with  the  native  population,  and  that 
the  business  of  the  government  is  chiefly  transacted  in  the  languages  of  the 
country.  It  also  appears : That  the  English  language  is  used  in  the  Supreme 
Courts  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay  ; and  that  in  some  of  the  government 
offices  and  mercantile  houses,  in  the  same  cities,  many  natives  more  or  less  edu- 
cated in  the  English  language  find  emplojinent  — That  many  among  the  native 
population  have  a strong  desire  to  learn  English,  and  are  now  eng2iged  in  the 
study  of  it,  in  private,  missionary,  and  government  schools  and  colleges.  — That, 
of  those  who  begin  this  study,  many  do  not  acquire  sufficient  knowledge  for  any 
practical  purpose,  and  only  a small  part  of  them  learn  it  thoroughly.  — That 
when  English  education  among  the  native  population  shall  exceed  the  demand 
for  it  as  a qualification  for  employment,  then  one  of  the  principal  motives  for 
acquiring  it  will  cease,  and  the  desire  now  so  strong  will  exert  much  less  influ- 
ence. — That  the  education  of  the  great  body  of  the  people  will  always  be  in 
their  respective  vernacular  languages,  and  that  those  languages  will  be  improved 
and  enriched  by  works  of  science  and  literature  original  and  translated,  in 
which  encouraging  progress  has  been  made.  — That  the  English  language,  in- 
cluding its  science  and  literature,  will  generally  be  a branch  of  education  in  the 
high  schools  and  colleges ; and  all  who  aspire  to  a liberal  education,  will  be  ex- 
pected to  have  some  knowledge  of  it.  But  that  the  English  is  not  likely  in  any 
part  of  India  or  southern  Asia  to  supersede  the  native  languages,  nor  to  become 
vernacular  in  any  large  community. 


Appendix  B.  p.  433. 

The  following  extract  from  an  able  article  on  Sanscrit  literature  in  the  Cal- 
cutta Review,  confirms  what  has  been  said  of  its  character,  and  may  be  interest- 
ing to  some  who  arc  not  acquainted  with  the  language. 

“1.  The  Sanscrit  language  contains  nothing  of  genuine  history,  no  national 
annals,  no  biography  of  eminent  patriots,  statesmen,  warriors,  philosophers,  poets, 
or  others,  who  have  figured  on  the  theatre  of  Indian  life,  public  or  private.  Not 
a single  page  of  pure  historical  matter  unmixed  with  monstrous  and  absurd 
fable  is  extant,  or  probably  was  ever  written  in  it.  It  supplies  us  with  no  as- 
sistance whatever  in  rescuing  from  eternal  oblivion  the  worthies  or  the  curses  of 
past  ages.  It  aflbrds  no  certain  clue  to  the  discovery  of  even  the  origin  of  the 
races  who  first  spoke  or  adopted  it.  Fabulous  and  extravagant  legends  arc  all, 
that  in  this  class,  it  furnishes.  European  ingenuity,  penetration,  and  persever- 
ance may  indeed  by  dint  of  hard  and  continued  labor  elicit  a few  isolated  facts 
here  and  there,  and  comparison  of  dates  and  circumstances,  rejecting  the  crudi- 
ties and  absurdities  that  have  gathered  round  them,  bring  them  to  bear  upon 
some  point  of  ancient  story,  yet  in  the  depths  of  obscurity.  But  nothing  is  cer- 
tain ; all  is  only  a happy  guess  or  probable  inference  at  best.  The  very  princi- 
ple of  historic  narration  appears  cither  never  to  have  entered  into  the  minds  of 


APPENDIX. 


599 


the  early  writers  in  this  language,  or  else  a base  and  selfish  policy  led  them  to 
falsify  and  obscure  and  mysticize  all  events  in  order  to  conceal  their  own  usur- 
pations, violence,  and  injustice. 

2.  Sanscrit  literature  presents  us  with  nothing  of  geographical  or  statistical 
science.  The  true  theory  of  the  earth  is  not  to  be  tracetl  in  it.  Seas  of  milk, 
and  curds,  and  spirit,  and  butter,  and  sugar-cane  juice,  with  mountains  256,000 
miles  high  bearing  trees  8,000,  or  9,000  miles  tall ; seas  and  continents  ranged 
in  succession  round  a central  nucleus  or  navel,  like  the  peels  of  an  onion  and 
other  similar  extravagancies  and  fooleries,  fonn  the  staple  of  Sanscrit  lore  on 
those  heads. 

3.  Cosmogony  and  geological  science  are  precisely  in  the  same  condition  of 
drivelling  and  hopeless  allegory,  out  of  which  nothing  can  be  drawn  useful  to 
any  purpose  under  heaven. 

4.  Of  natural  history,  the  philosophy  of  nature  and  mechanical  science  (as- 
tronomy and  geometry  partially  excepted),  the  Sanscrit  e.xhibits  nothing  what- 
ever; all  is  cither  impossible  fable,  or  when  natural  and  true,  trivial,  unscientific, 
and  unarranged. 

5.  Hindu  medical  science  is  at  zero.  Empiricism  rules  the  day.  Anatomy  is 
unknown.  Phannacy  is  little  more  than  a knowledge  of  simples,  united  with 
absurd  quackery. 

6.  The  music  of  the  Hindus  is  in  an  extremely  backward  state.  A fantastic 
association  with  an  ideal  superstition  has  served  with  other  causes  to  Linder  its 
advancement  as  a science.  As  an  art  too,  Hindu  music  is  singularly  rude ; it 
knows  nothing  of  harmony  or  counterpart.  The  Sanscrit  musical  shastras  are 
numerous  but  of  small  value. 

7.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  other  fine  arts,  as  painting,  architecture,  and 
statuarj*.  Books  upon  them  are  few  and  unimportant  in  character. 

8.  On  the  mechanical  arts  or  handicrafts  there  are  no  express  treatises ; on 
some  of  them  a few  precepts  of  ordinary  practice  occur,  as  also  on  agriculture, 
etc.,  in  general  writings.  Nothing  in  short  can  well  be  conceived  poorer  than 
Sanscrit  literature  in  all  the  most  important  scientific  or  practical  departments 
of  knowledge.  There  is  positively  nothing  to  serve  any  other  purpose  of  the 
European  student  but  a not  unnatural  curiosity. 

9.  In  every  branch  of  experimental  science  or  natural  philosophy,  Sanscrit  is 
wholly  wanting.  The  Hindu  philosophers  were  rather  poets  than  strict  investi- 
gators of  the  system  of  things.  They  thought  much  and  deeply  but  were  ever 
fonder  of  chasing  the  phantoms  of  a speculative  fancy,  than  of  follo%ving  the 
indications  of  nature.  They  loved  more  to  indulge  in  abstraction  and  ingenious 
theories  than  to  pursue  experimental  inquiries  by  a course  of  rigid  induction. 
Their  philosophy  is  therefore  the  philosophy  of  fancy,  not  of  reality.  It  may 
be  brilliant,  captivating,  and  acute,  ingenious  and  imposing ; but  it  is  after  all, 
empty,  impracticable,  and  useless ; nay  more,  it  is  bewildering  and  injurious ; it 
misleads  and  effeminates ; it  lowers  the  tone  of  the  mind ; it  destroys  the  moral 
sense ; it  lays  open  to  a thousand  deceptions  and  aberrations,  and  it  creates  a 
taste  which  is  incapable  of  relisliing  reality  or  moral  truth. 

10.  In  regard  to  mental  and  physical  science,  Sanscrit  is  nearly  in  the  same 


600 


APPENDIX. 


predicament.  Plenty  of  mental  theory  indeed  there  is,  but  nothing  of  sound 
and  vigorous  reasoning ; nothing  of  rigid  analysis  or  accurate  cla.ssification  of 
mental  phenomena.  All  is  dreamy  and  visionary,  fanciful  and  empirical  asser- 
tion. The  relation  between  cause  and  effect  is  utterly  overlooked.  The  impos- 
sible and  the  absurd  are  treated  with  the  gravity  of  serious  philosophy  and  a 
positiveness  only  becoming  those  who  deal  in  matters  of  fact. 

11.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  pneumatology,  or  the  science  of  God.  The 
psychology  of  man  was  never  investigated  by  those  who  wrote  in  Sanscrit.  The 
true  principle  of  reasoning  a posteriori,  or  from  ascertained  facts  and  observed 
phenomena  alone,  was  never  understood  or  adopted  by  them.  They  are  ever 
afloat  on  a wide  expanse  of  theory  without  chart,  compass,  or  rudder;  nay, 
without  even  a polestar  to  aid  their  navigation.  Of  matter  and  spirit,  of  mind 
and  body,  substance  and  form,  nature  and  accident,  indeed  much,  very  much 
has  been  written,  but  to  vastly  little  purpose  notwithstanding.  Six  philosopliical 
schools  have  put  forth  as  many  systems  of  things  more  or  less  symbolizing  -with 
the  ancient  systems  of  Greece  and  Rome,  only  with  far  less  of  either  accuracy 
of  investigation  or  vigor  of  conception.  The  Hindu  mind  has  ever  delighted  in 
day-dreams  and  reveries ; non-reallties  have  had  far  more  attractions  for  it  than 
actualities ; it  has  pleased  and  lost  itself  in  a luxurious  indulgence  of  an  all-cx- 
cursive  fancy,  that  has  soared  far  above  all  the  coarse  materialities  of  the  actual 
world.  In  the  history  of  no  people  has  the  scriptural  allegation  been  more 
exactly  verified  than  in  that  of  the  Hindus,  that  “ man  by  wisdom  knew  not 
God.”  Not  only  are  they  in  truth  ignorant  of  God  as  to  any  really  useful  and 
practical  purpose  of  philosophy,  religion,  or  morals,  but  their  so-called  wisdom 
and  beautiful  science  has  itself  been  the  cause  of  the  density  and  perpetuation 
of  that  ignorance.  They  have  reasoned  or  rather  theorized,  dreamt  and  dis- 
puted, talked  and  written  of  God  and  nature,  matter  and  spirit,  fate  and  will, 
action  and  passion,  good  and  evil,  till  in  the  multitude  of  words  they  have  wholly 
lost  sight  of  the  objects  of  inquiry.  A blind  fatality,  a visionary  system  of  un- 
realities, a thoughtless,  objectless,  passionless,  soulless  Deity,  without  qualification, 
without  active  intelligence  or  creative  energy ; an  atheistkal  theology  that  iden- 
tifies matter  and  spirit,  God  and  nature,  the  human  soul  and  the  divine ; a sui- 
cidal philosophy  that  destroys  itself,  a denial  of  the  essential  differences  of  things, 
an  assertion  of  the  intrinsic  indifference  of  all  acts  and  feelings  which  makes  the 
character  of  an  action  depend  upon  motive  of  the  performance,  and  the  absolute 
dependence  of  every  agent  on  a superior  power  — these  and  similar  have  been 
the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  Hindu  speculation.  The  Vedas  themselves  which 
arc  asserted  to  have  proceeded  immediately  from  the  mouth  of  God,  arc  a 
strange  and  heterogeneous  assemblage  of  absurd  physics  and  dreamy  mctiphys- 
ics,  of  fanciful  philosophy  and  dreary  superstition,  of  high-sounding  invoca- 
tions and  petty  prayers,  of  incantations  lor  the  injury  or  destruction  of  enemies, 
or  the  averting  of  personal  evils,  of  recipes  for  sacrifices  and  the  like.  In  them 
the  elements  are  deified  at  the  same  time  that  the  doctrine  of  the  universal  soul 
is  asserted.  These  boasted  Shastras  are  stuffed  in  fact  with  all  manner  of  puer- 
ilities and  inconsistencies,  and  are  cvidentlj'  a very  crude  digest  as  it  were,  of 
the  odds  and  ends  of  mutually  opposing  theories,  of  airy  visions  and  gross  idol- 


APPENDIX. 


601 


atries,  containing  neither  true  science,  nor  true  ethics,  nor  elevated  notions  of 
God,  or  of  his  works  and  ways.  Meanwliilc  as  to  practical  religion,  the  bad 
passions  and  depraved  tastes  of  efieminate  and  demoralized  society  have  found 
their  indulged  and  characteristic  exercise  and  gratification  iu  an  idolatry  more 
niultifonu  and  grotesque,  more  absunl  and  baseless,  more  cruel  and  disgusting, 
more  corrupting  and  stupefying,  more  brutalizing  and  demoralizing,  more  inju- 
rious to  social  liberty,  to  domestic  purity,  to  private  virtue  and  to  universal  hap- 
piness than  any  other  that  ever  existed.  — Calcutta  Review,  No.  5,  p.  12-14. 

General  Vans  Kennedy  in  his  learned  work  on  Hindu  ^lythology,  says,  — “It 
must  be  admitted  that  the  sacred  Books  of  the  Hindus  contain  neither  geograph- 
ical. nor  chronological,  nor  historical  information ; that  in  them  the  use  of  num- 
bers with  respect  both  to  time  and  place  is  extravagantly  absurd,  and  that  in 
tljcir  style  and  want  of  arrangement,  they  are  not  only  deficient  in  the  beauties 
by  which  the  immortal  works  of  Greece  and  Rome  are  distinguished,  but  even 
err  against  all  principles  of  refined  taste  and  classical  composition.” 

In  his  View  of  Hindu  Literature,  the  Rev.  IV.  Ward  says  of  Sanscrit  poetry, 
— “ It  abounds  in  the  most  extravagant  metaphors,  and  the  most  licentious 
images.  Some  allowance  may  be  made  for  eastern  manners,  but  granting  every 
possible  latitude,  innumerable  ideas  are  found  in  almost  every  poem  which  could 
have  become  fiunlliar  to  the  imagination  only  amidst  a people,  whose  country 
was  a brothel.”  Referring  to  Mr.  AV.’s  opinion  the  Calcutta  Review  says,  “ This 
is  strong  language,  but  not  too  strong.  It  is  impossible  for  a pure  mind  not  to 
be  perpetually  shocked  and  revolted  by  the  undisguised  licentiousness,  as  it  is 
for  correct  taste  not  to  be  offended  and  disgusted  by  the  outrageous  and  childish 
extravagance  of  metaphoric  ornaments  with  which  all  Hindu  poetry  is  replete.” 


Appendix  C.  p.  554. 

POLYGAMY. 

The  Calcutta  Missionary  Conference,  consisting  of  the  missionaries  of  the  dif- 
ferent Societies,  which  have  missionaries  in  that  city  and  its  vicinity,  after  fre- 
quent consultations  and  much  consideration  on  the  subject  of  polygamy  as  it 
exists  in  India,  were  unanimous  in  the  following  opinions : — 

“1.  It  is  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  Bible  and  the  practice  of  the 
Protestant  Church  to  consider  the  State  as  the  proper  fountain  of  legislation  in 
all  ciril  questions  affecting  marriage  and  divorce. 

“ 2.  The  Bible  being  the  true  standard  of  morals,  ought  to  be  consulted  in 
every  thing  which  it  contains  on  the  subjects  of  marriage  and  divorce,  and  noth- 
ing determined  contrary  to  its  general  principles. 

“ 3.  Married  persons  being  both  Christia7is,  should  not  be  divorced  for  any 
other  cause  than  adulterj’.  But  if  one  of  the  parties  be  an  unbeliever,  and 
though  not  an  adulterer,  wilfully  depart  from  and  desert  the  other,  a divorce 
may  be  properly  sued  for.  They  were  of  the  opinion,  however,  that  such  liberty 

51 


602 


APPENDIX. 


is  allowable  only  in  extreme  cases,  and  where  all  known  means  of  reconciliation 
after  a trial  of  not  less  than  one  year  have  failed. 

“ 4.  Heathen  and  Mohammedan  marriages  and  divorces,  recognized  by  the 
laws  of  the  country,  arc  to  be  held  valid.  But  it  is  strongly  recommended  that 
if  either  party  before  conversion  have  put  away  the  other  on  slight  ground,  the 
divorced  party  should  in  all  practicable  and  desirable,  cases,  be  taken  back  again. 

“ 5.  If  a convert  before  becoming  a Christian  has  married  more  wives  than 
one,  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  Jewsh  and  primitive  Christian 
Churches,  he  shall  be  pennitted  to  keep  them  all ; but  such  a person  is  not  eligi- 
ble to  any  office  in  the  Church.  In  no  other  case  is  polygamy  to  be  tolerated 
among  Christians.” 

The  Calcutta  Christian  Observer  has  contained  at  different  times  some  well 
written  articles  upon  these  subjects.  In  a series  of  articles  some  years  ago,  the 
writer  after  fully  establishing  (as  he  believed)  the  intrinsic  lawfulness  of  polyg- 
amy as  it  existed  among  the  Jews  of  old,  and  as  it  now  exists  among  the  Hin- 
dus, Mohammedans,  and  Jews  in  India,  proceeds  thus  to  give  his  views  of  it  in 
connection  with  the  propagation  of  Christianity : — 

“ The  previous  lawfulness  of  polygamy  abstractedly  considered  and  the  course 
actually  adopted  by  the  Almighty  for  its  ultimate  subversion  suggest  a second 
remark,  that  when  a heathen  man  has  been  legally  married  (i.  e.  according  to 
the  laws  of  his  own  country  and  religion)  to  more  than  one  wife,  whether  any 
distinction  of  grade  or  class  of  wife  or  concubine,  etc.,  be  observed  or  not,  it 
does  not  appear  that  any  thing  in  the  character  of  polygamy  itself  or  in  the  in- 
stitution of  Christianity,  demands  the  putting  away  of  any  one  or  more  of  such 
women.  They  are  his  wives ; he  has  promised  them  duty  of  marriage,  support, 
and  protection.  He  has  no  right  to  diminish  aught  of  their  just  claims.  The 
merciful  provision  of  the  law  of  Moses,  in  kindred  cases,  comes  in  support  of 
my  position.  Exodus  21 : 10,  commands,  even  of  a purchased  slave  whom  her 
master  has  betrothed  to  himself,  that  “ if  he  take  unto  himself  another  wife,  her 
food,  her  raiment,  and  her  duty  of  marriage  shall  he  not  diminish.  And  to 
apply  the  case  to  India : — Wliat  may  be  the  precise  law  of  the  case  I am  not 
informed,  but  assuredly  there  would  be  great  cruelty  and  hardship  in  a man, 
who  becomes  a Christian  having  several  wives,  dismissing  all  but  one,  who,  even 
admitting  that  they  may  be  legally  put  away,  are  by  the  usages  of  the  country 
precluded  from  marrying  another;  and  who,  even  if  the  husband  continues  to 
support  them  (the  difficulty  of  doing  which  will  certainly  be  much  increased 
when  the  household  is  divided),  are  publicly  disgraced  and  exposed,  in  deplora- 
ble moral  ignorance,  weakness,  and  strength  of  passion,  to  very  strong  tempta- 
tions to  pursue  evil  courses.  Again,  if  there  arc  children,  whose  shall  they  be  ? 
the  father’s  ? or  the  mother’s  ? From  one  i)arent  or  the  other  they  arc  certainly 
in  this  case  to  be  separated.  Whose  control,  instruction,  and  affectionate  inter- 
course shall  they  continue  to  enjoy  ? Shall  they  be  held  legitimate  or  othei^ 
wise  ? If  there  are  several  wives,  which  shall  be  retained  ? The  Jirst,  it  may 
be  replied  ; but  by  what  law  is  she  more  a wife  than  the  second,  or  the  thiitl  ? 
To  these  diinculties  add  the  strong  temptation  held  out  to  an  Insincere  profes- 
sion of  Christianity  for  the  mere  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  a wife  or  wives  no 


APPENDIX. 


603 


longer  loved,  or  •whom  the  husband  is  weary  of  supporting,  and  it  appears  to 
me  that  a formidable  mass  of  difficulties  is  raised  against  the  position  combated, 
sufficient  to  prove  it  absolutely  untenable.  Under  the  jilca  of  a previous  un- 
lawfulness supported  by  no  just  reasoning  and  inculcated  by  no  inspired  Scrip- 
tures, helpless  women  legally  united  to  men  sacredly  engaged  to  love,  support, 
and  protect  them,  are  to  be  ejected  from  home,  from  the  honors  and  comforts 
of  wifedom  and  maternity,  exposed  to  fearful  temptations,  cruel  privations  and 
self-denial,  ignominy  and  solitariness,  suffering  a disruption  of  all  the  sweet  ties 
of  domestic  intercourse  and  aflection ; the  education  of  children  is  to  be  neg- 
lected, their  filial  attachments  blighted,  and  a reward  held  out  to  the  purest  acts 
of  injustice,  of  selfish  cruelty  and  impious  hypocrisy  on  the  part  of  husbands 
and  fathers. 

“ Let  no  Christian  after  he  has  been  admitted  into  the  Christian  church,  add 
unto  his  wives  or  support  the  practice  of  polygamy,  however  usual  in  his  nation 
and  country.  But  if  already  a polygamist,  let  him  live,  as  the  ancient  patriarchs 
did,  in  the  holy  and  faithful  fulfilment  of  all  the  duties  of  marriage  alike  with 
all  his  wives  legally  such  ; let  him  not  for  a moment  allow  himself  to  entertain 
the  monstrous  and  unnatural  purpose  of  injuring  those  he  loved  and  swore  to 
love  forever — who  have  lain  in  his  bosom  and  become  the  mothers  of  his  chil- 
dren and  the  partners  of  his  joys  and  sorrows  — by  putting  them  away  for  no 
original  or  after  fault  of  theirs  upon  his  becoming  a Christian.  If  they  indeed 
should  desert  him,  he  is  absolved  by  the  same  rules  that  apply  to  the  case  of  a 
single  heathen  wife  or  husband  voluntarily  departing  from  a partner  who  has 
become  a Christian,  for  then  the  act  is  theirs,  not  his.  ‘ A brother  or  a sister  is 
not  under  bondage  in  such  cases.’  But  short  of  this,  no  legitimate  ground  ap- 
pears to  be  left  for  supporting  the  ground  I have  thus  endeavored  to  prove  un- 
scriptural  and  untenable. 

“ All  the  Calcutta  missionaries,  I believe,  are  firm  in  the  persuasion  not  only 
that  polygamy  is  highly  inexpedient  generally,  but  that  it  is,  as  such,  a practice 
•which  the  genius  and  tendency  of  Christianity  are  to  abolish ; not  however  by 
hastily  and  prematurely  cutting  off  the  allowance  of  it,  and  in  so  doing  commit- 
ting the  greatest  injustice  against  many  helpless  women,  and  violating  the  pure, 
benevolent,  and  peaceable  spirit  of  Christ’s  religion,  but  by  gradually  elevating 
the  human  character  among  the  neophytes,  spiritualizing  and  refining  its  pro- 
fessors, and  silently  throwing  into  disuse  that  which  like  slavery  for  instance  is 
so  ill  adapted  in  many  respects  to  an  advanced  and  cultivated  society  and  to 
maturity  of  devotion  and  domestic  enjoj’ment.  The  missionaries  are  of  opinion 
that  the  veiy  allowance,  which  God  through  Moses  made  for  the  Jews  in  their 
infant  state  as  a people,  is  by  parity  of  reason  to  be  made  now  for  polygamists, 
who  from  heathens  become  Christians ; and  they  believe  moreover  that  by  ‘ the 
original  law  of  marriage,’  it  must  be  as  unlawful  to  abandon  one  ■wife  as  another, 
save  for  the  cause  of  fornication.” — Calcutta  Christian  Observer,  vol.  4,  pp.  91, 
371  and  400. 

The  writer  from  whose  articles  in  the  Calcutta  Christian  Observer,  these  ex- 
tracts are  taken,  had  previously  attempted  to  show  that  polygamy,  as  it  existed 
among  the  Jews  of  old,  was  morally  la^vful,  and  by  consequence  that  it  is  not 


604 


APPENDIX. 


morally  wrong  among  the  Jews,  the  Mohammedans,  and  the  Hindus  in  modem 
times.  The  Jews  practise  polygamy  in  Mohammedan  countries,  and  I believe 
wherever  the  laws  allow  them  to  do  so,  and  they  justify  their  conduct  by  refer- 
ence to  the  examples  of  it  contained  in  the  Old  Testament.  Mohammed  did  not 
originate  the  custom  in  Arabia,  for  it  had  existed  there  for  many  centuries,  prob- 
ably from  the  time  of  the  Jewish  patriarchs.*  He  practised  it  himself  and  de- 
clared it  to  be  lawful  in  the  Koran.  Polygamy  has  existed  among  the  Hindus 
from  an  early  period,  probably  as  early  as  the  days  of  Moses.  There  has  been 
a disposition  in  this  country  to  judge  of  polygamy,  as  it  exists  among  Jews, 
Mohammedans,  and  Hindus,  with  great  severity,  and  these  views  and  feebngs 
are  likely  to  have  some  influence  in  considering  and  determining  how  such  per- 
sons should  be  treated,  if  they  wish  to  profess  Christianity.  Now  if  polygamy 
was  not  morally  wrong,  if  the  custom  even  had  the  divine  approbation,  among 
the  Jews  of  old,  it  must  follow  I believe  by  consequence,  that  it  is  not  intrinsi- 
cally and  morally  wrong  as  it  exists  among  the  Jews,  Mohannnedans,  and  Hin- 
dus ; and  if  it  is  not  morally  wrong  among  them,  then  the  continuance  of  the  rela- 
tion (thus  previously  formed)  after  they  have  become  Christians  and  the  per- 
formance of  all  the  obligations  involved  in  the  relation,  cannot  be  morally  wrong. 

To  those  who  have  doubts  in  respect  to  the  intrinsic  moral  lawfulness  of  polyg- 
amy as  it  existed  among  the  ancient  Jews,  and  who  wish  further  to  examine  this 
subject,  the  consideration  of  the  following  extracts  from  a work  called  “ The- 
iyphthora,”  published  anonymouslyf  many  years  ago  in  England,  is  recommended. 
The  author  of  this  work  says : — 

“ The  best  and  fairest,  and  indeed  the  only  way,  to  get  at  the  truth  on  tliis, 
as  on  every  other  occasion  where  religion  is  concerned,  b to  lay  aside  preju- 
dice, from  whatever  quarter  it  may  be  derived,  and  to  let  the  Bible  speak 
for  itself.  Then  we  shall  see  that  polygamy,  notwithstanding  the  seventh  com- 
mandment, was  allowed  by  God  himself,  who,  however  others  might  mistake  it, 
must  infallibly  know  his  own  mind,  be  perfectly  acquainted  with  his  own  will, 
and  thoroughly  understand  his  own  law.  If  he  did  not  intend  to  allow  polyg- 
amy, but  to  prevent  or  condemn  it,  either  by  the  seventh  commandment,  or  by 
some  other  law,  how  is  it  possible  that  he  should  make  laws  for  its  regulation, 
any  more  than  he  should  make  laws  for  the  regulation  of  theft  or  murder  f How 
is  it  conceivable  that  he  should  give  the  least  countenance  to  it,  or  so  express  his 
approbation  as  even  to  work  miracles  in  support  of  it  ? For  the  making  a wo- 
man/rMiV/uZ  who  was  naturally  barren,  must  have  been  the  efl'ect  of  supernatu- 
ral power.  He  blessed,  and  in  a distinguished  manner  owned,  the  issue,  and 
declared  it  legitimate  to  all  intents  and  purposes.  If  this  bo  not  allowance, 
what  is  ? 

“ As  to  the  first,  namely,  his  making  laws  for  the  regulation  of  polygamy,  let 
us  consider  what  is  written  in  E.xo.  21 ; 10.  //"he  (i.  e.,  the  husband)  take  him 

another  wife  (not,  in  so  doing,  he  sins  against  the  seventh  commandment,  re- 
corded in  the  preceding  chapter,  but),  her  food,  her  raiment,  (i.  e.,  of  the  first 

• Gen.  20  : 2,  6,  17.  26  : 34.  28  : 8,  9. 

t This  work,  though  published  anonymously,  was  generally  understood  to  be  written 
by  Rev.  Martin  Madan,  Chaplain  of  the  Lock  Hospital  in  London. 


APPENDIX. 


605 


■wife),  and  her  duty  of  marriage,  he  shall  not  diminish.  Here  God  positively  for- 
bids a neglect,  mnch  more  the  divorcing  or  putting  away  the  first  -wife,  but  charges 
no  sin  in  taking  the  second. 

“ 2dly.  When  Jacob  married  Rachel  she  was  barren,  and  so  continued  for 
many  years ; but  God  did  not  leave  this  as  a punishment  upon  her  for  marrying 
a man  who  had  another  wife.  It  is  said,  Gen.  30 : 22,  that  God  remembered 
Rachel ; and  God  hearkened  unto  her,  and  opened  her  womb,  and  she  conceived 
and  bare  a son,  and  said,  God  hath  taken  away  my  reproach.  Surely  this  pas- 
sage of  Scripture  ought  to  afford  a complete  answer  to  those  who  bring  the 
wonls  of  the  marriage  bond,  as  cited  by  Christ,  Matt.  19  : 5. — They  twain  shall 
be  one  flesh  — to  prove  polygamy  sinful,  and  should  lead  us  to  construe  them,  as 
by  this  instance  and  many  others  the  Lawgiver  himself  appears  to  have  done  ; 
that  is  to  say,  where  a woman,  not  betrothed  to  another  man,  unites  herself  in 
personal  knowledge  with  the  man  of  her  choice,  let  that  man’s  situation  be  what 
it  may,  they  twain  shall  be  one  flesh.  Uow,  otherwise,  do  we  find  such  a woman 
as  Rachel  united  to  Jacob,  who  had  a wife  then  living,  praying  to  God  for  a 
blessing  on  her  intercourse  with  Jacob,  and  God  hearkening  unto  her,  opening 
her  womb,  removing  her  barrenness,  and  thus  by  miracle  taking  away  her  re- 
proach ? We  also  find  the  olispring  legitimate,  and  inheritors  of  the  land  of 
Canaan ; a plain  proof  that  Joseph  and  Benjamin  were  no  bastards,  or  born  out 
of  lawful  marriage.*  See  a like  palpable  instance  of  God’s  miraculous  blessing 
on  polygamy  in  the  case  of  Hannah,  1 Sam.  i.  and  ii.  These  instances  serv'e 
also  to  prove  that,  in  God’s  account,  the  second  marriage  is  just  as  valid  as  the 
first,  and  as  obligatory ; and  that  our  making  it  less  so,  is  contradictory  to  the 
Divine  wisdom. 

“ idly.  God  blessed  and  owned  the  issue.  How  eminently  this  was  the  case 
with  regard  to  Joseph,  see  Gen.  49:  22-26;  to  Samuel,  see  1 Sam.  3;  19.  It 
was  expressly  commanded  that  a bastard,  or  son  of  a woman  who  was  with  child 
by  whoredom  (ck  nopvric,  LXX.),  should  not  enter  into  the  congregation  of  the 
Lord,  even  to  his  tenth  generation  (Deut.  23:  2).  But  we  find  Samuel,  the 
offspring  of  polygamy,  ministering  to  the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh  even 
in  his  very  childhood,  clothed  with  a linen  ephod,  before  Eli  the  priest.  See  this 
whole  history,  1 Sam.  i.  and  ii.  Who,  then,  can  doubt  of  Samuel’s  legitimacy, 
and  consequently  of  God’s  allowance  of,  and  blessing  on,  polygamy  ? If  such 
second  marriage  was,  in  God’s  account,  null  and  void,  as  a sin  against  the  origi- 
nal law  of  marriage,  or  the  seventh  commandment,  or  any  other  law  of  God,  no 
mark  of  legitimacy  could  have  been  found  on  the  issue ; for  a null  and  void  mar- 
riage is  tantamount  to  no  marriage  at  all ; and  if  no  marriage,  no  legitimacy  of 
the  issue  can  possibly  be.  Instead  of  such  a blessing  as  Hannah  obtained,  we 

• If  polygamy  was  unlawful,  then  Leah  was  the  only  wife  of  Jacob,  and  none  but  her 
children  were  legitimate.  Eaohel  as  well  as  Bilhah  and  ZDpah  were  merely  mistresses  and 
their  children  6 in  number  were  bastards,  the  offspring  of  adultermis  connection.  And  yet 
there  is  no  intimation  of  any  such  views  and  feelings  in  Laban’s  family,  or  in  Jacob’s 
family,  or  in  Jewish  history.  Bilhah  and  Zilpah  are  called  Jacob’s  wives  (Gen.  37:  2). 
God  honored  the  sons  of  Rachel,  Bilhah,  and  Zilpah  equally  with  the  sons  of  Leah,  made 
them  the  patriarchs  of  7 of  the  tribes  of  the  nation,  and  gave  them  equal  inheritance  in 
Canaan.  — D.  0.  A. 

51  * 


606 


APPENDIX. 


should  have  found  her  and  her  husband  Elkanah  eharged  with  adulter}',  dragged 
forth,  and  stoned  to  death;  for  so  was  adultery  to  be  punished.  All  this  furnishes 
us  with  a conclusive  proof,  that  the  having  more  than  one  wife  with  which  a 
man  cohabited,  was  not  adultery  in  the  sight  of  God  ; or,  in  other  words,  that  it 
never  was  reckoned  by  him  any  sin  against  the  seventh  commandment,  or  the 
original  marriage  institution,  or  any  other  law  whatsoever. 

Mhly.  But  there  is  a passage  (Deut.  21 ; 15)  which  is  express  to  the  point, 
and  amounts  to  a demonstration  of  God’s  allowance  of  polygamy.  If  a man 
have  TWO  wives,  one  beloved  and  another  hated,  and  they  have  home  him  chil- 
dren, hath  the  beloved  and  the  hated ; and  if  the  first-born  he  hers  that  was  hated, 
then  it  shall  he,  when  he  malceth  his  sons  to  inherit  that  which  he  hath,  that  he  may 
not  make  the  son  of  the  beloved  first-born  before  the  son  of  the  hated,  which  is, 
indeed,  the  first-born,  by  giving  him  a double  portion  of  all  that  he  hath  ; for  he  is 
the  beginning  of  his  strength,  and  the  right  of  the  first-born  is  his.  On  the  footing 
of  this  law,  the  marriage  of  both  women  is  equally  lawful.  God  calls  them  both 
wives  (for  so  the  word  D‘''rD  naust  be  rendered  in  this  place,  as  the  context 
plainly  shows),  and  he  cannot  be  mistaken ; if  he  calls  them  so,  they  certainly 
were  so.  If  the  second  wife  bore  the  first  son,  that  son  was  to  inherit  before  a 
son  born  afterwards  of  the  first  wife.  Here  the  issue  is  expressly  deemed  legit- 
imate, and  inheritable  to  the  double  portion  of  the  first-born  ; which  could  not 
be,  if  the  second  marriage  were  not  deemed  as  lawful  and  valid  as  the  first. 

“ bthly.  To  say  that  polygamy  is  sinful,  is  to  make  God  the  author  of  sin ; for, 
not  to  forbid  that  which  is  evil,  but  even  to  countenance  and  promote  it,  is  being 
so  far  the  author  of  it,  and  accessory  to  it  in  the  highest  degi-ee.  And  shall  we 
dare  to  say,  or  even  to  think,  that  this  is  chargeable  on  Him  who  is  of  purer  eyes 
than  to  behold  evil,  and  who  cannot  look  on  iniquity  ? (Hab.  1 : 13.)  God  forbid. 

“ 'When  God  is  upbraiding  David,  by  the  prophet  Nathan,  for  his  ingratitude 
towards  his  Almighty  benefactor  (2  Sam.  xii.),  he  does  it  in  the  following 
terms:  — ver.  8,  — 1 gave  thee  thy  master’s  house,  and  tiiy  master’s  avives 
unto  thy  bosom,  and  1 gave  thee  the  house  of  Israel  and  Judah,  and  if  that  had 
been  too  little,  1 would  moreover  have  given  thee  such  and  such  things. 

“ Can  we  suppose  God  giving  more  wives  than  one  into  David’s  bosom,  who 
already  had  more  than  one,  if  it  was  sin  in  David  to  take  them  ? Can  Ave  imag- 
ine that  God  would  thus  transgress  (as  it  were)  his  own  commandment  in  one 
instance,  and  yet  so  severely  reprove  and  chastise  David  for  breaking  it  in 
another?  Is  it  not  rather  plain,  from  the  whole  transaction,  that  David  commit- 
ted mortal  sin  in  taking  another  living  man’s  wife,  but  not  in  taking  the  Avidows 
of  the  deceased  Saul ; and  this,  therefore,  though  the  law  of  God  condemned 
the  first,  yet  it  did  not  condemn  the  second  ? 

“ Gthly.  When  David  took  the  wife  of  Uriah,  he  was  severely  reprimanded  by 
the  prophet  Nathan ; but  after  Uriah’s  death, /te  takes  the  same  woman,  though 
he  had  other  wives  before,  and  no  fault  is  found  with  him ; nor  is  he  charged 
with  the  least  flaw  or  insincerity  in  his  rcj>entancc  on  that  account.  The  child 
which  Avas  the  frait  of  his  intercourse  Avith  Bathsheba,  during  her  husband 
Uriah’s  life,  God  struck  to  death  with  his  own  hand  (2  Sam.  12 : 15).  Solomon, 
born  of  th«  same  woman,  begotten  by  the  same  man,  in  a state  of  polygamy,  is 


APPENDIX. 


607 


acknowledged  by  God  himself  as  David’s  lawful  issue  (1  Kings  5 : 5),  and  as 
such  set  upon  his  throne.  The  law  which  positively  excluded  bastards,  or  those 
born  out  of  lawful  wedlock, /rom  the  congregation  of  the  Lord,  even  unto  the  tenth 
generation  (Deut.  23  : 2),  is  wholly  inconsistent  with  Solomon  being  employed 
to  build  GoiVs  temple  — being  the  mouth  of  the  people  to  God  in  prayer  — and 
offering  sacrifices  in  the  temple  at  its  dedication  — unless  David’s  marriage  with 
Bathsheba  was  a lauful  marriage — Solomon,  the  lauful  issue  of  that  marriage 
— conseciuently  polygamy  no  sin,  either  against  the  primary  institution  of  mar- 
riage, or  against  the  seventh  commandment.  But  so  far  from  Solomon  being 
under  any  disqualification  from  the  law  above  mentioned,  he  is  appointed  by 
God  himself  to  build  the  temple  (1  Kings  8:  19).  llis  prayer  is  heard,  and 
the  house  is  hallowed  (chap.  9 : 3),  and  filed  with  such  glory,  that  the  priests  could 
not  stand  to  minister  (chap.  8:  11).  Solomon,  therefore,  as  well  as  Samuel, 
stands  as  a demonstrable  proof,  that  a child  born  under  the  circumstances  of 
polygamy  is  no  bastard — God  himself  being  the  judge,  whose  judgment  is  accord- 
ing to  truth. 

“ A more  striking  instance  of  God’s  thoughts  on  the  total  difference  between 
polygamy  and  adultery,  does  not  meet  us  anywhere  with  more  force  and  clear- 
ness in  any  part  of  the  sacred  history,  than  in  the  account  which  is  given  us  of 
David  and  Bathsheba,  and  their  issue. 

“ When  David  took  Bathsheba,  she  was  another  man’s  wife ; the  child  which 
he  begat  upon  her  in  that  situation  was  begotten  in  adultery  — and  the  thing 
which  David  had  done  displeased  the  Lord  (2  Sam.  11 : 27).  And  what  was  the 
consequence?  We  are  told,  2 Sam.  12:  1,  the  Lord  sent  Nathan  the  prophet 
unto  David.  Nathan  opened  his  commission  with  a most  beautiful  parable  de- 
scriptive of  David’s  crime ; this  parable  the  prophet  applies  to  the  conviction  of 
the  delinquent,  sets  it  home  upon  his  conscience,  brings  him  to  repentance,  and 
the  poor  penitent  finds  mercy  — his  life  is  spared,  ver.  13.  Yet  God  will  vindi- 
cate the  honor  of  his  moral  government,  and  that  in  the  most  awful  manner  — 
the  murder  of  Uriah  is  to  be  \isited  upon  David  and  his  house.  The  sword 
shall  never  depart  from  thine  house,  ver.  10.  The  adultery  with  Bathsheba  was 
to  be  retaliated  in  the  most  aggravated  manner.  Because  thou  hast  despised  me, 
and  hast  taken  the  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hittite  to  be  thy  wife,  thus  saith  the  Lord,  1 
will  raise  up  evil  against  thee  out  of  thine  own  house,  and  1 will  take  thy  wives 
and  give  them  unto  thy  neighbor  before  thine  eyes  ; and  he  shall  lie  with  iky  wives 
in  sight  of  the  sun  ; for  thou  didst  it  secretly,  but  L will  do  this  thing  before  all 
Israel,  and  before  the  sun.  All  this  was  shortly  fulfilled  in  the  rebellion  and  in- 
cest of  Absalom,  chap.  16  : 21,  22.  And  this  was  done  in  the  way  of  judgment 
on  David  for  taking  and  defiling  the  wife  of  Uriah,  and  was  included  in  the 
curses  threatened  (Deut.  28  : 30)  to  the  despisers  of  God’s  laws. 

“ As  to  the  issue  of  David’s  adulterous  commerce  with  Bathsheba,  it  is  written, 
2 Sam.  12:  15,  The  Lord  struck  the  child  that  Uriah’s  wife  bare  unto  David,  and 
it  was  very  sick.  What  a dreadful  scourge  tliis  was  to  David,  who  could  not  but 
read  his  crime  in  his  punishment,  the  following  verses  declare  — wherein  we 
find  David  almost  frantic  with  grief.  However,  the  child’s  sickness  was  unto 
death,  for,  ver.  18,  on  the  seventh  day  the  child  died. 


608 


APPENDIX. 


“ Now,  let  us  take  a view  of  David’s  act  of  polygamy,  when,  after  Uriah’s 
death,  he  added  Bathsheba  to  his  other  wives  (ver.  24,  25).  And  David  com- 
forted  Bathsheba  his  wife,  and  went  in  unto  her  and  lay  icith  her,  and  she  bare  a 
son,  and  he  called  his  name  (n>2va)  Selomoh  (that  maketh  peace  and  reconcilia- 
tion, or  recompense),  and  the  Lord  loved  him.  Again  we  find  Nathan,  who  had 
been  sent  on  the  former  occasion,  sent  also  on  this,  but  with  a very  different 
message.  And  he  (the  Lord)  sent  by  the  hand  of  JSathan  the  prophet,  and  he 
called  his  ua?ne  Jedidiah  (Dilectus  Domini  — Beloved  of  the  Lord),  because 
of  the  Lord,  — i.  e.,  because  of  the  favor  God  had  towards  him  (ver.  24). 

“ Let  any  read  onward  through  the  whole  history  of  Solomon  ; let  them  con- 
sider the  instances  of  God’s  peculiar  favor  towards  him  already  mentioned,  and 
the  many  others  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  account  we  have  of  him ; let  them 
compare  God’s  dealings  with  the  unhappy  issue  of  David’s  adultery,  and  this 
happy  offspring  of  his  polygamy,  and  if  the  allowance  and  approbation  of  the 
latter  doth  not  as  clearly  appear  as  the  condemnation  and  punishment  of  the 
former,  surely  all  distinction  and  difference  must  be  at  an  end,  and  the  Scrip- 
ture itself  lose  the  force  of  its  own  evidence. 

“ Ithly.  I have  mentioned  the  law  being  explained  by  the  prophets.  These 
were  extraordinary  messengers  which  God  raised  up  and  sent  forth  under  a 
special  commission,  not  only  to  foretell  things  to  come,  but  to  preach  to  the  peo- 
ple, to  hold  forth  the  law,  to  point  out  their  defections  from  it,  and  to  call  them 
to  repentance,  under  the  severest  terms  of  God’s  displeasure  unless  they  obeyed. 
Their  commission,  in  these  respects,  we  find  recorded  in  Isa.  58 : 1,  Cry  aloud, 
spare  not,  lift  up  thy  voice  like  a trumpet : Show  my  people  their  transgression, 
and  the  house  of  Jacob  their  sins.  This  commission  was  to  be  faithfully  executed 
at  the  peril  of  the  prophet’s  own  destruction,  as  appears  from  the  solemn  charge 
given  to  Ezekiel,  chapter  3 : 18,  When  I say  to  the  wicked.  Thou  shall  surely  die, 
and  thou  giuest  him  not  warning,  nor  speakest  to  warn  the  wicked  to  save  his  life, 
the  same  wicked  man  shall  die  in  his  iniquity,  but  his  blood  will  1 require  at  thine  hand. 

“ These  prophets  executed  their  commissions  very  unfaithfully  towards  God 
and  the  people,  as  well  as  most  dangerously  for  themselves,  if  polygamy  was  a 
sm  against  God’s  law,  for  is  was  the  common  practice  of  the  whole  nation,  from 
the  prince  on  the  throne  to  the  lowest  of  the  people;  and  yet  neither  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  nor  any  one  of  the  prophets,  bore  the  least  testimony  against  it. 
They  reproved  them  sharply  and  plainly  for  defling  their  neighbors’  wives,  as 
Jer.  5 : 8.  29:  23,  in  which  fifth  chapter  we  not  only  find  the  prophet  bearing 
testimony  against  adultery,  but  against  whoredom  and  fornication  (ver.  7),  for 
that  they  assembled  themselves  by  troops  in  the  harlots’  houses.  Not  a word 
against  polygamy.  How  is  it  possible,  in  any  reason,  to  think  that  this,  if  a sin, 
should  never  be  mentioned  as  such  by  God,  by  Moses,  or  any  one  of  the 
prophets  ? * 

• Some  have  considered  Malachi  11:  14,  15,  as  a denunciation  of  polygamy.  Bata 
careful  comparison  of  tliese  verses  with  the  11th  verse  and  with  the  state  of  the  .Jews  at 
that  time,  as  described  in  Ezra  10  and  11  chapters,  and  Nehcmiah  13:  23-31,  will  show 
that  tlie  propliet  Iiad  tlien  no  reference  to  polygumj^  but  was  reproving  the  Jews  for  “ hav- 
ing married  tlie  dauglitcrs  of  a strange  god  ; ” tliat  is,  lieatlien  wives,  which  was  strictly 
forbidden  by  the  laws  of  Moses.  Dout.  7 : 3.  Exo.  34 : IG.  — D.  0.  A. 


APPENDIX. 


609 


“ Lastli/.  In  the  Old  Testament,  polygamy  was  not  only  allowed  in  all  cases, 
but  in  some  commanded.  Here,  for  example,  is  the  law  (Deut.  25  : 5-10),  If 
brethren  dwell  together,  and  one  of  them  die  and  have  no  child,  the  wife  of  the 
dead  shall  not  marry  without  unto  a stranger : her  husbaiid’s  brother  shall  go  in 
unto  her,  and  take  her  to  him  to  wife,  and  perform  the  duty  of  an  husband’s 
brother  unto  her.  And  it  shall  be  that  the  frst-born  which  she  bearetk  shall  suc- 
ceed in  the  name  of  his  brother  which  is  dead,  that  his  name  be  not  put  out  of 
Israel,  etc. 

“ This  law  must  certainly  be  looked  upon  as  an  exception  from  the  general 
law  (Lev.  18  : 16),  and  the  reason  of  it  appears  in  the  law  itself,  namely,  ‘ To 
preserve  inheritances  in  the  families  to  wliich  they  belonged.’ ...  As  there  was 
no  law  against  polygamy,  there  was  nothing  to  exempt  a nmrried  man  from  the 
obligation  of  marrying  his  brother’s  widow.  . . . For,  let  us  suppose  that  not 
only  the  surviving  brother,  but  all  the  near  kinsmen,  to  whom  the  marriage  of 
the  widow  and  the  redemption  of  the  inheritance  belonged,  were  married  men 

— if  that  exempted  them  from  the  obligation  of  this  law  — as  they  could  not 
redeem  the  inheritance  unless  they  married  the  widow  (Ruth  4:5)  — the  end  of 
this  important  law  must  in  many  cases  be  defeated  — the  widow  be  tempted  to 
marry  a stranger — to  put  herself  and  the  inheritance  into  his  hands  — and  the 
whole  reason  assigned  for  the  law  itself,  that  of  raising  up  seed  to  the  deceased, 
to  preserve  the  inheritance  in  his  family,  that  his  name  he  not  put  out  of  Israel 

— fall  to  the  ground.  For  which  weighty  reasons,  as  there  was  evidently  no 
law  against  polygamy,  there  could  be  no  exemption  of  a man  from  the  positive 
duty  of  this  law  because  he  was  married.  As  we  say,  Ubi  cadit  ratio,  ibi  idem 
jus.” — Vol.  i.  pp.  108,  131,  260,  267  ; vol.  ii.  p.  244,  402. 


Appendix  D.  p.  585. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  Hindu  sacred  books  will  at  once  show  that  no  one 
who  has  been  educated  in  modern  science  and  literature,  can  have  any  confi- 
dence in  their  divine  origin.  The  accounts  which  the  Purans  give  of  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  of  the  form  of  the  earth,  of  difierent  countries,  of  astronomy, 
philosophy,  and  many  other  subjects,  are  not  only  unreasonable  and  absurd,  but 
are  at  variance  with  well-known  facts.  The  same  Purans  contain  accounts  of 
the  Hindu  deities,  describing  their  immoral  conduct  and  odious  character,  and 
Inculcating  their  worship  by  the  performance  of  degrading  rites  and  disgusting 
ceremonies.  It  was  obvious  to  Europeans  on  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
contents  of  these  works,  that  the  Hindus  would  believe  them  no  longer  than 
they  continued  in  a state  of  ignorance  of  nearly  all  the  world  beyond  their  own 
country.  It  was  evident  that  a knowledge  of  Christianity  and  of  European 
science  and  literature  would  destroy  all  confidence  in  the  popular  superstitions 
of  India,  and  leave  the  people  in  a state  of  scepticism,  or  lead  them  to  embrace 
some  system  of  religion  founded  on  more  reason  and  truth. 

Such  expectations  have  been  realized.  The  progress  of  Christianity,  the  dif- 


610 


APPENDIX. 


fusion  of  general  knowledge,  and  education  in  European  science  and  literature 
aroused  the  native  mind  to  inquiry  and  reflection,  and  many  intelligent  and  dis- 
cerning Hindus  became  satisfied  that  a large  portion  of  their  reputed  sacred 
books  had  no  just  claim  to  divine  authority.  They  saw  that  the  Hindu  religion, 
as  exhibited  in  the  popular  creed  and  generally  practised,  was  no  longer  credi-- 
ble  and  so  must  either  be  reformed  or  abandoned.  The  first  man  who  took  an 
open  and  public  stand  and  fearlessly  declared  his  views  on  this  subject,  was  Ram 
Mohun  Roy,  who  subsequently  acquired  much  celebrity  in  India,  Europe,  and 
America  as  a Hindu  reformer.  He  was  a man  of  much  general  learning  and 
had  given  special  attention  to  the  Vedas.  In  these  works  he  found  the  doctrine 
of  one  God,  “ the  God  of  the  whole  world,”  and  believing  this  to  be  the  basis 
and  sum  of  all  true  religion,  and  the  other  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  Vedas 
to  be  sufficient  for  all  the  practical  purposes  of  life,  he  fixed  on  them  as  being 
the  original  and  genuine  Hindu  Scriptures,  and  rejected  the  Purans  as  mere 
human  compositions,  as  legends,  fables,  and  fictions.  He  felt  a strong  sjunpathy 
with  his  erring  and  deluded  countrjTnen,  and  having,  as  he  believed,  found  the 
truth,  he  determined  to  do  what  he  could  to  communicate  it  to  others.  With 
much  trouble  and  expense  he  collected  the  Upanishads  (works  containing  ex- 
tracts from  the  Vedas  and  commentaries  upon  their  doctrines),  translated  them 
into  the  vernacular  language,  and  circulated  them.  He  incurred  much  censure 
from  his  family  and  friends  and  much  obloquy  from  the  native  community,  but 
he  persevered  year  after  year  in  what  he  felt  was  a good  cause.  He  also  pub- 
lished some  other  works,  among  which  was  one  called  “ the  Precepts  of  Jesus,” 
or  selections  from  the  New  Testament,  all  designed  to  enlighten  and  reform  his 
countrymen.  Other  Hindus  gradually  embraced  his  views,  and  in  1830,  in 
order  to  give  public  expression  of  their  sentiments  and  to  promote  the  reforma- 
tion they  had  begun,  they  established  what  they  called  the  Brahin  Sabha; 
a regularly  organized  society  with  religious  meetings,  somewhat  after  the 
model  of  Christian  assemblies,  in  which  the  Upanishads  should  be  read  and  ex- 
plained, and  the  worship  of  Brahm  (the  Supreme  Being,  not  Brahma,  the  first 
of  the  Hindu  Triad)  should  be  performed  with  prayers  and  praise.  These 
assemblies  were  not  large,  but  their  peculiar  sentiments,  the  reputation  for  learn- 
ing and  piety  of  those  who  composed  them,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  con- 
ducted their  worship,  excited  for  a while  much  attention  among  the  native 
population. 

Ram  Mohun  Roy  left  India  for  England  near  the  close  of  1830.  It  was  his  in- 
tention to  return  and  devote  his  life  to  the  cause  of  reforming  his  countrymen ; but 
he  died  in  England  in  1833.  After  his  departure  from  India  the  Brahm  Sabha 
gradually  declined  and  little  was  heard  of  it  for  some  years.  In  the  mean  time 
the  causes  and  eircumstances  in  which  the  Bralun  Sabha  originated,  continued  to 
operate  with  increasing  force,  and  in  1839  it  was  resuscitated,  or  rather  a new 
Society  embracing  its  essential  religious  principles  with  a superior  and  more  defi- 
nite organization  under  a new  name,  the  Tattivabodhini  Sabha,  was  formed.  One 
avowed  object  of  this  new  society  was  to  propagate  their  principles  and  to  gain 
converts  to  their  creed.  For  this  purpose  they  established  branch  societies  and 
opened  schools  in  several  large  cities.  They  collected  a library  of  religious 


APPENDIX. 


611 


works  in  the  Sanscrit,  Bengalee,  and  English  languages.  They  obtained  a 
printing-press  (it  was  a donation  from  one  of  the  members)  and  issued  a journal 
containing  the  principles  of  the  Society,  and  urging  all  Hindus  to  become  mem- 
bers of  it.  They  have  professed  to  rely  much  upon  the  press  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  their  sentiments,  and  have  published  many  works  on  religious  subjects. 
Some  of  their  works  have  been  in  Sanscrit,  some  have  been  in  the  vernacular 
languages,  and  some  have  been  in  English.  They  found  great  difficulty  in  de- 
termining what  to  select  from  the  great  mass  of  Hindu  sacred  writings  for  the 
basis  of  their  faith,  and  also  what  to  reject  and  what  to  reform  and  retain,  of  the 
popular  superstitions,  traditions,  rites,  and  usages.  On  these  subjects  there  was 
much  dilTerence  of  opinion  among  the  members,  and  great  interest  was  felt  in 
their  proceedings  by  some  Europeans.  In  1850,  a work  was  published  by  au- 
thority, which  contained  a declaration  of  their  principles  and  the  creed  of  those 
who  became  members.  This  work  is  called  Brahtn  Dharma  or  the  Doctrines  of 
Brahm,  and  calls  the  members  Brahmas  or  worshippers  of  Brahm,  the  Supreme 
God.  This  class  of  religionists  arc  also  called  in  some  works  Brahmists  which 
appears  to  be  a more  appropriate  name.  From  this  work  it  appears  that  they  have 
constructed  their  religion  upon  a broader  basis  than  the  brahminical  system.  They 
say,  “ the  doctrines  of  the  Brahmas  or  spiritual  worshippers  of  God,  are  founded 
upon  a broader  and  more  unexceptionable  basis  than  the  Scriptures  of  any  single 
religious  denomination  in  the  earth.  Tlie  volume  of  nature  is  open  to  all,  and 
that  volume  contains  a Revelation  clearly  teaching,  in  strong  and  legible  charac- 
ters, the  great  truths  of  religion  and  morality ; giving  as  much  knowledge  of  our 
state  after  death  as  is  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  future  blessedness ; yet 
adapted  to  the  present  state  of  our  mental  faculties.  Now  as  the  Hindu  religion 
contains  notions  of  God  and  of  human  duty,  which  coincide  with  that  Revela- 
tion, we  have  availed  ourselves  of  extracts  from  works  which  are  great  deposito- 
ries of  the  national  faith,  and  which  have  the  advantage  of  national  associations 
on  their  side,  for  disseminating  the  principles  of  pure  religion  among  our  coun- 
tr}-men.” 

They  believe  in  the  existence  of  beings  whom  they  call  gods,  but  do  not 
recognize  them  as  possessing  any  qualities,  or  having  any  agency  in  human 
affairs,  which  properly  make  them  objects  of  religious  worship.  They  appear 
to  regard  them  as  resembling  the  angels  in  the  Jewish  and  Christian  system. — 
“Brahm  is  the  Supreme  God  of  all  the  gods.” — “The  gods  incessantly  worship 
the  Supreme  Brahm.”  — “ He  is  the  Lord  of  the  gods.”  — “ All  the  gods  offer 
him  worship.” 

Idolatry  is  discarded  in  their  creed,  but  is  excused  and  defended  in  their  works. 
Referring  to  some  places  in  the  Vedic  writings.  Ram  Mohun  Roy  says:  — 
“ These  as  well  as  other  texts  of  the  same  nature  are  not  real  commands  but 
only  direct  those  who  are  unfortunately  incapable  of  adoring  the  invisible  Su- 
preme Being,  to  apply  their  minds  to  any.visible  object  rather  than  allow  them 
to  remain  idle.”  — “We  come  now  to  that  part  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Yedas, 
which  Inculcates  that  those  who  cannot  turn  their  minds  to  God  in  spirit,  should 
worship  him  through  the  medium  of  matter.  There  are  men  of  that  grovelling 
class,  whose  minds  are  Incapable  of  making  a proper  degree  of  exertion,  and 


612 


APPENDIX. 


these  are  required  not  to  lose  themselves  in  the  mazes  of  irreligion,  the  bane  of 
society,  but  rather  to  fix  their  attention  on  some  of  the  grandest  objects  of  the 
world,  and  consider  them  to  be  so  many  manifestations  of  the  supremacy  of  the 
only  true  God  who  pervades  all  creation ; and  to  worship  them  as  so  animated 
by  his  influence  that  thus  their  minds  may  be  gradually  trained  by  spiritual  intu- 
ition to  the  true  mental  adoration  of  the  Supreme  Being.  Such  injunctions 
were  mercifully  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  ignorant  and  untrained.”  — “ The 
rites  and  ceremonies  inculcated  in  the  Vedas  are  intended  to  be  preparatory  to 
the  spiritual  worship  of  God,  and  are  expressly  declared  to  be  useful  to  men 
who  cannot  raise  their  minds  from  nature  up  to  nature’s  God.” — The  Patrika 
their  authorized  journal  says,  “ We  believe  that  every  kind  of  worshipper  will 
have  his  own  species  of  reicard,  from  the  savage  Polynesian,  who  addresses  his 
ejaculations  to  a rude  misshapen  block  of  stone,  to  the  Vedantist  who  adores 
God  in  spirit  and  in  truth.”  This  sentiment  would  excuse  and  justify  nearly  or 
quite  all  the  kinds  of  idolatry  and  worship  in  India. 

The  Brahmists  believe  in  the  doctrine  of  transmigration,  and  that  those  who  are 
not  prepared  for  blessedness  at  death,  must  pass  through  successive  births  on  the 
earth  till  they  become  prepared.  Whether  their  views  are  that  there  are  inter- 
vals of  reward  and  punishment  between  these  births,  or  that  these  births  imme- 
diately succeed  death  as  the  reward  and  punishment  of  the  previous  birth,  does 
not  appear  plain.  — The  Patrika  says:  “ The  man  who  is  ignorant  and  impure 
gains  not  the  rank  (is  not  admitted  to  the  presence)  of  Brahm  at  death,  but 
returns  to  the  world.  The  wise  man  having  gained  that  dignity,  is  born  no 
more.  The  man  who  in  this  world  is  able  to  know  God,  accomplishes  the  ob- 
ject of  his  birth ; having  perceived  God,  he  is  removed  entirely  from  this  world 
and  dies  no  more.”  “ Our  religion  inculcates  that  our  good  and  bad  actions  shall 
all  inevitably  receive  their  proportionate  reward  and  punishment,  with  the 
exception  only  of  expiated  sin,  conformably  to  the  exact  extent  which  is  neces- 
sary for  the  purpose  of  reformation  and  encouragement ; that  we  shall  thus  have 
to  pass  a state  of  probation  during  successive  lives  of  longer  or  shorter  duration, 
until  we  arc  fitted  by  sacred  knowledge  and  entire  devotion  to  the  divine  will 
of  God  to  enjoy  that  supreme  felicity  which  may  be  said  to  be  a participation 
of  the  divine  nature.” 

The  Brahmists  retain  the  distinctions  of  caste  in  their  system.  It  is  not  made 
prominent  in  their  writings,  but  these  contain  nothing  against  caste,  while  they 
receive  and  declare  their  full  belief  in  the  Upanishads,  which  declare  c^lste  to 
be  of  divine  origin.  The  members  of  the  Dharma  Sabha  also  carefully  observe 
all  the  rules  of  caste  among  themselves  and  in  their  intercourse  with  others,  and 
they  have  shown  great  zeal  in  opposing  those  who  wish  to  weaken  and  destroy 
it.  Their  retaining  and  observing  caste,  shows  that  they  have  yet  very  inadequate 
views  of  the  changes  required  to  place  the  Hindus  in  the  social,  intellectual,  and 
moral  state  which  they  profess  to  be  seeking  in  this  reformation. 

The  Brahm  Dharma,  which  is  the  authorized  exponent  of  their  system  of 
reformed  Hinduism,  contains  the  following  : — 


APPENDIX. 


613 


PRINCIPLES  OF  RELIGION. 

“1.  Before  the  production  of  this  world  there  existed  only  the  Supreme 
Brahiii ; nothing  else  existed  whatsoever,  lie  created  all  this. 

“ 2.  lie  is  wisdom,  eternity,  joy,  and  goodness  personified ; the  everlasting, 
ruler  of  all ; all-wise,  without  form,  one  only  without  a second,  most  wonderful 
in  power. 

“ 3.  F rora  his  worship  alone  is  happiness  produced  both  here  and  hereafter. 

“ 4.  That  worship  eonsists  in  loving  him  and  perfoiming  actions  which  give 
liiin  pleasure.” 

The  following  is  the  Covenant  of  the  Society  for  all  who  become  members : — 

“ 1.  This  day,  the day  of  the  month  of , in  the  year , I adopt 

the  religion  of  the  worshippers  of  Bralun. 

“ 2.  I will  live  devoted  to  the  worship  of  that  one  Supreme  Brahm,  who  is 
the  Creator,  the  Preserver,  and  the  Destroyer  of  the  universe ; the  cause  of 
deliverance  ; all-wise ; all-pervading ; full  of  joy ; the  good ; and  without  form. 
I will  worship  him  with  love  and  by  doing  things  that  will  give  him  pleasure. 

“3.  I will  worship  no  created  thing  as  the  Supreme  Brahm,  the  Creator  of  all. 

“ 4.  Except  on  days  of  sickness  or  calamity,  I will  every  day  when  my  mind 
shall  be  at  rest,  in  faith  and  love,  fix  my  thoughts  on  the  Supreme. 

“ 5.  I will  five  earnest  in  the  practice  of  good  deeds. 

“ 6.  I will  endeavor  to  live  free  from  evil  deeds. 

“ 7.  If  overcome  by  temptation  I perchance  do  any  thing  evU,  I will  surely 
desire  to  be  freed  from  it  and  be  careful  for  the  future. 

“ 8.  Every  year  and  in  all  my  worldly  prosperity  I will  offer  gifts  to  the 
Brahm  Sumaj. 

“ O God,  grant  unto  me  strength  that  I may  entirely  observe  this  excellent 
religion.” 

The  members  of  this  Society  carrj^  their  principles  into  effect  by  social  relig- 
ious w'orship.  The  following  is  a description  of  the  manner  in  which  their  wor- 
ship is  conducted. 

“ The  Society  has  from  the  first  endeavored  to  consolidate  itself  and  cultivate 
devout  feelings  among  its  members  by  the  celebration  of  regular  worship.  For 
this  purpose  the  followers  of  this  doctrine,  whether  members  of  the  Tattwabo- 
dhini  Sabha  or  not,  meet  on  Wednesday  evenings  as  a Brahm  Sumaj  (an  assem- 
bly of  the  worshippers  of  Brahm)  at  the  premises  of  the  Society  in  the  Chitpore 
Boad.  Their  long  hall  has  been  neatly  fitted  up  with  pews,  rising  backward 
from  the  centre  to  the  two  ends,  and  well  lighted  by  chandeliers  and  wall-shades. 
In  the  middle  of  the  hall  upon  a dais  of  grained  marble  sit  the  two  pundits,  the 
leaders  in  the  worship,  and  in  a recess  immediately  opposite  to  them  are  the  mu- 
sicians. The  service  commences  with  the  reading  of  various  passages  from  the 
Vedas.  The  Gayutree  * is  then  recited  and  meditated  upon.  A hymn  from  one 
of  the  Upanishads  is  then  chanted  by  all  present.  An  exposition  of  texts  from 

* Page  400,  note. 

52 


614 


APPENDIX. 


the  Vedas,  or  an  essay  on  some  branch  of  natural  theology  then  follows.  The 
pi’csident  or  some  member  of  the  Sabha  then  give.s  a short  discourse,  and  the 
service  closes  with  the  singing  of  Brahmic  hymns  by  the  professional  musicians, 
who  accompany  it  with  their  instruments.  The  whole  service  occupies  about 
an  hour.” 

There  are  some  things  in  this  Society  for  reforming  the  Hindu  religion  (or 
rather  the  Hindus,  for  they  do  not  profess  to  limit  their  principles  to  the  original 
doctrines  of  the  Hindus)  which  appear  well.  Their  pi-inciples  and  their  creed 
are  avowed  and  published.  Their  house  of  worship  is  open  for  all,  whether 
members  of  their  Society  or  not,  to  meet  and  join  with  them.  If  there  is  any 
mystery  or  mysticism  connected  with  them, it  must  be  in  their  doctrines  and  not 
in  their  proceedings  or  practices.  From  1846  to  1851,  the  average  number  of 
members  of  the  Society  in  Calcutta  exceeded  500.  It  is  reported  to  have  some- 
what declined  for  3 or  4 years  past. 


INDEX 


Abbe  Dubois,  Letters  on  the  State  of 
Christianity  in  India,  516,  517,  520, 
522. 

Aboriginal  inhabitants  of  India,  21-23; 
33;  361-363. 

Aeber,  Emperor,  103,  104;  his  systerr) 
of  revenue,  105;  reforms  the  army, 
106;  liis  splendor,  106,  107;  his  relig- 
ious sentiments,  lOS-110;  506-510; 
his  popularity,  110;  his  death,  110; 
his  tomb,  1 1 6,  note. 

Adjunta  eavc  temples,  392. 

Afghan  war,  273-279. 

Agrieulture  in  India,  rude  and  imperfeet, 
440. 

Ahmed  Shah  Abdallee,  invades  India, 
145 ; defeats  the  Mahrattas  at  Pauni- 
put,  146. 

Albuquerque,  Vieeroy,  162-163  ; his  sin- 
gular policy,  511. 

Alexander  the  Great,  Iiis  invasion  of  In- 
dia, 27-31. 

Alla  ud  Deen,  Emperor,  74-S2. 

Allahabad,  suicides  at,  420. 

Altumsh,  Emperor,  60-62. 

Almeida,  Francisco,  Viceroy  of  India, 
161-163. 

American  Missions,  origin,  535. 

Amherst,  Lord,  Governor-General  of  In- 
dia, 559—566. 

Arcot  or  Carnatic,  Nabob  of,  233,  238, 
239. 

Army  of  the  East  India  Company,  306- 
311. 

Architecture  — houses,  451 ; vessels,  451, 
452. 

Ass.ayc,  battle  of,  243,  311. 

Astronomy  of  the  Hindus,  454,  455. 

Auckland,  Governor-General  of  India, 
271-277. 

Aurungzeb,  Emperor,  defeats  his  brother 
Dara,  120;  confines  his  fiuher  for  life, 
120-122  ; seizes  and  confines  his  brother 
Morad,  1 26  ; defeats  his  brother  Shuja, 
126 ; defeats  his  brother  Uara  and 
causes  his  assassination,  127  ; betrays 
and  confines  his  son  Mohammed,  129  ; 


his  device  to  defeat  Bistimia,  130  ; his 
war  with  the  Kajpoots,  131  ; proceeds 
into  the  Deckan,  1.32;  his  camp,  133  ; 
his  war  with  the  IMahrattas,  134 ; liis 
death  and  grave,  135 ; his  character, 
136-1.38. 

Austerities,  prescribed  to  brahmins,  406. 

Baber,  invades  India  and  becomes  Em- 
peror, 94,  95 ; his  war  with  the  Bitj- 
jioots,  96  ; his  death  and  character,  97, 
98. 

Bahadur  Shah,  Emperor,  139. 

Barlow,  Sir  George,  Governor-General, 
249. 

Barnwell,  Mr.,  Member  of  Council,  289. 

Bejapoor,  monuments  and  ruins,  149. 

Bentinck,  Lord  William,  Governor-Gen- 
eral, 267-269. 

Beylol  Lodi,  Emperor,  93. 

Blinrtpore,  besieged  and  taken,  266-270. 

Bible  Societies  in  India,  561. 

Black  hole,  English  confined  in,  174. 

Board  of  Control,  194. 

Bombay,  temperature  at,  6 ; becomes  an 
English  possession,  231. 

Brahma,  374,  375. 

British  conquest  of  India,  Remarks,  ete. 
on,  286-297. 

Bndhism,  34';  484-488. 

Burials,  Hindu,  401. 

Burmese  War,  260-265. 

Burns,  Sir  A.,  272,  275. 

Bussy,  M.,  211. 

Cabral,  Alvarez,  156;  his  barbarity,  157. 

Calcutta,  temperature  at,  5,  173;  con- 
finement, etc.  of  the  English  in  the 
block  hole  at,  174,  175;  commerce  of, 
440  ; early  mission  at,  532-534. 

Campbell,  Sir  A.,  261,  265. 

Canals,  445,  446. 

Catechists,  number  in  India,  551,  575. 

Caste,  origin,  465-467  ; nature,  469-472  ; 
laws  concerning,  472  ; memorial  to  Par- 
liament, 473,  479  ; Romanists  observe 
it,  517-519;  how  regarded  in  Protes- 
tant missions,  549-551 . 

Cave-temples,  391. 


(615) 


616 


INDEX 


Charter  of  the  East  India  Company,  298. 

Chundragupta,  Raja  of  Magadi,  31. 

Christian  Literature  in  India,  how  much 
needed,  564,  565 ; how  far  supplied, 
566. 

Christianity,  how  the  natives  of  India  re- 
gard it,  579-582. 

Chittledroog,  fort  of,  223. 

Chronology,  Hindu,  19,  24. 

Civil  Service  of  the  East  India  Companv, 
301,  302. 

Clavering,  General,  189. 

Clive,  Lord,  175;  gains  the  battle  of 
Plassey,  177,  178;  receives  large  sums 
of  money,  178,  180;  appointed  Gov- 
ernor, 184,  185  ; at  Madras,  204. 

Clive’s  Fund,  185. 

Commerce  in  India,  438-440. 

Complexion  of  tlie  people  of  India,  474. 

Conajee  Angria,  232. 

Coorg,  Raja  of,  dcpo.sed,  267. 

Coote,  Sir  Eyre,  defeats  the  French  at 
AVandcwasii,  215;  defeats  Ilvdcr  Ali, 
225. 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  Governor-General,  194; 
his  system  of  revenue,  195-198;  227, 
228  ; his  death,  248. 

Cotton,  cultivation  of,  442-445. 

Courts  in  India,  304,  305. 

Cuttul)  ud  Deen,  Emperor,  60. 

Cuttub  Minar,  62,  note. 

Ualhousic,  Manjuis  of,  Governor-General, 
his  law  concerning  caste,  472. 

Dancing  in  India,  481. 

Dara  Sheko,  sou  of  Shah  Jehan,  117, 118, 
120,  127. 

Darius,  King  of  Persia,  his  invasion  of 
India,  27. 

Debts  and  Finances  of  the  East  India 
Couipaii}',  315-317. 

Deities,  minor,  of  the  Hindus,  373,  383. 

Deinonolatry,  384. 

Devotees,  407,  408. 

Dost  Mohammed,  273,  278. 

Dramatic  exhibitions,  480. 

Duplcix,  Governor-General  of  Pondi- 
cherry, 203,  205-208,  212,  213. 

East  India  Company,  origin  of,  167. 

Ecclesiastical  Establishment  of  India, 
303,  358. 

Education,  Government  system  of,  317- 
325  ; missionary,  566-573. 

Electric  Telegraph  in  India,  329. 

EIe])hanta  cave-temple,  391. 

Ele])hants,  14. 

Elora  cave-temples,  393-395. 

Ellcnborough,  Lord,  Governor-General, 
277-281. 

Elphinstone,  Hon.  M.,  his  o])inion  of  the 
Hindu  religion,  427. 

English  education  in  India,  317,  571,  572. 

English  language  in  India,  591-598, 
A]>j)endix. 


Eugene,  Pope,  his  bull,  1 52. 

European  population  of  India,  355 ; char- 
acter, 356-358. 

Ezour  Veda,  514. 

Factory,  described,  169,  170. 

Female  education,  569-571. 

Feroze  Shah,  Emperor,  63. 

Ferozepore,  Nabob  of,  publicly  executed, 
268. 

Francis,  Jlr.  Philip,  Member  of  Council, 
189,  192. 

Frazer,  Mr.,  assassinated,  268. 

French  power  in  India,  201,  204,  211, 
213;  217-219. 

Friend  of  India,  paper,  353. 

Futtypoor,  108. 

Future  state,  Hindu  ideas  of,  409-411  ; 
births,  412,  415. 

Gama,  Vasco  de,  sails  round  Africa,  153  ; 
at  Calicut,  155;  at  Lisbon,  156;  his 
barbarity,  158. 

Gaudania,  486. 

Gayutree,  mystical  verse,  400,  note. 

General  Statements  and  Remarks,  579  ; 
how  different  classes  of  the  native  pop- 
ulation reg.ird  Christianity,  579-582; 
scepticism  common  and  increasing  in 
India,  581,  582  ; how  missionaries  treat 
it,  582  ; proposal  of  a Hindu  editor, 
583,  584 ; state  of  many  educated 
young  men  in  India,  581,  584;  eSort 
to  reform  the  Hindu  system  in  Calcutta, 
585,  and  A|)pendix  1). ; appeal  of  the 
Bishop  of  Calcutta,  588 ; conclusion, 
589. 

Ghat  mountains,  10. 

Ghias  ud  Deen  Bulbun,  Emperor,  67- 
69. 

Ghizni,  its  splendor,  53 ; plundered,  56. 

Ghori,  House  of,  56. 

Goa,  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  163  ; siege 
of,  165  ; laws  at,  511. 

Godlieu,  M.,  212. 

Goddard,  General,  234. 

Gods  of  the  Hindus,  373-383. 

Hardinge,  Lord,  Governor-General,  281. 

Hastings,  Marquis,  Governor-General, 
254-259. 

Hastings,  AVarren,  first  Governor-Gen- 
eral of  India,  187;  liis  system  of  reve- 
nue, 188;  at  Benares,  189,  191  ; dis- 
sensions in  his  council,  190  ; returns  to 
England  and  is  iiintcached  and  acquit- 
ted, 192,  193. 

Heaven  of  the  Hindus,  409,  410. 

Heber,  Bishop,  1 1 ; interview  with  the 
Emiteror  of  Delhi,  342-346;  remarks 
on  Hinduism,  430. 

Hell  of  the  Hindus,  410,  411. 

Himalaya  mountains,  11. 

Hindu  chronology,  19. 

Hindustan,  1. 

Holcar,  236,  241,  247,  249. 


INDEX. 


617 


Ilolwcll,  Mr.,  description  of  his  confine- 
ment in  tlie  black  hole,  174. 

Houses  in  India,  450—452. 

Uumayoon,  Emperor,  98;  flees  to  Persia, 
99;  retunis  to  India,  102. 

Hunting  wild  animals,  480. 

Hydcr  Ali,  221  ; his  wars,  222-225. 

Ibrahim  I.a)di,  Emperor,  94. 

Idolatry,  Government  conneetion  with, 
331-337. 

Idols,  their  consecration,  389. 

Indigo,  its  cultivation,  441. 

Indo-llritons,  359. 

Infanticide,  421. 

Inquisition  at  Goa,  506. 

Irrigation,  445,  446. 

Jauts,  war  with,  265. 

Jehanara,  daughter  of  Shah  Jehan,  121. 

Jehanghcer,  Emperor,  111-113. 

Jelal  ud  Deen,  Emperor,  72. 

Jesuits  at  the  Court  of  Aeber,  506-510; 
destroyed  Hindu  temples,  511  ; at  Ma- 
dura, 513,  515,  518. 

Jonah  Khan,  Emperor,  84-86. 

Jugglers  in  India,  482. 

Jypal,  Kaja  of  Lahore,  defeat,  42  ; sacri- 
fiees  himself,  43. 

Kalidas,  36. 

Karlee  eave  temples,  392. 

Kei  Kobad,  Emperor,  70. 

Kennery  cave-temples,  392. 

KItiljee,  House  of,  72,  8.3. 

Khundoba,  temple  of,  383. 

Kiernander,  Mr.  J.,  his  missionary  labors 
in  Ciilcutta,  532-534. 

Krishna,  378-^81. 

Labourdonnais,  attacks  and  takes  Ma- 
dras, 202. 

Latiteau,  158,  162,  note. 

Lake,  Lord,  his  brilliant  victories,  243- 
246. 

Lally,  Count,  besieges  and  takes  St.  Da- 
vid, 214;  besieges  Madras,  215;  de- 
feated at  Wandewash,  215;  his  trial 
and  execution,  116,  117. 

Law,  securing  civil  and  religious  liberty  in 
India,  548. 

Leprosy  of  different  kinds,  9. 

Macnaghten,  Sir  W.,  276. 

Madras,  temperature  at,  5 ; obtained  by 
the  English,  169,  199  ; taken  by  the 
Ercneh,  202;  early  missions  at,  529- 
.531. 

Mahabharat,  368,  379. 

Mahmoml  of  Ghizni,  43 ; his  invasions 
of  India,  43—49 ; takes  and  plunders 
Somnat,  50-52 ; death  and  character, 
53. 

Mahrattas,  origin,  231  ; their  power  and 
wars,  232-234. 

Manduit,  Father,  518. 

Manufactures  of  India,  447-450.  < 

Marriage,  458—462.  I 

52  * 


Medical  Service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, 303. 

Medical  education,  318;  knowledge  of, 
among  the  Hindus,  457. 

Meer  Cossim,  180,  182. 

Mcer  Jatl'er,  177,  180. 

Jlemorial,  Hindu,  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
473. 

Menezes,  Archbi.shop,  501. 

Menu,  Institutes  of,  366. 

Mcru  or  Sumcru,  the  Hindu  heaven,  373. 

Mill,  .James,  remarks  on  his  History  of 
India,  150,  151. 

Minto,  Lord,  Governor-General,  251-253. 

Mirage,  8,  note. 

Mi.ssion  Churches,  number  in  India,  542. 

iloliammcdans,  number  in  India,  488; 
princes,  489  ; polygamy,  490  ; Koran, 
491  ; saints,  492  ; controversy,  492  ; 
progress,  493. 

Moliammcd  Caussim,  38—40. 

Mohammed  Toghluck,  Emperor,  his  pub- 
lic works,  88. 

Mohammedan  Government  of  India,  Re- 
marks upon,  148-151. 

Moguls,  61,  65,  78,  85. 

Monsou,  Colonel,  182. 

Multan,  siege  of,  282. 

Music  of  the  Hindus,  452. 

Nadir  Shah,  142;  invades  India  and 
plunders  Delhi,  143-145. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles,  war  in  Scinde,  279. 

Nasir  ml  Deen,  Emperor,  66. 

Native  missionary  agency,  573  ; need  of 
it,  574-577. 

Native  views  of  the  English  Government 
341-3.52. 

Nellore  mutiny,  250. 

Nepaul  war,  254. 

Nizam  ul  Mulk,  141. 

Noor  Jehan,  111 ; her  character,  112. 

Opium,  trade  of,  314,  manufacture  of,  442. 

Ornaments,  fondness  for,  475. 

Oude  and  Lucknow,  Nabob  of,  239. 

Painting  of  the  Hindus,  453. 

Panniput,  great  battle  of,  146. 

Patna  massacre,  182. 

Parsecs,  number  of,  494 ; scriptures  and 
temples,  495  ; burials,  495  ; character, 
496. 

Perjury  and  bribery,  483. 

Pilgrimage  to  sacred  places,  396. 

Pindarees,  256-258. 

Plassey,  battle  of,  177. 

Polygamv',  462— 465  ; 551-554;  601-609, 
Appendix. 

Popham,  Major,  234. 

Population  of  India,  14. 

Portuguese  sail  round  Africa,  153  ; their 
barbarity,  164;  their  power  and  decline, 
165,  166'. 

Ponis,  Raja,  28. 

Prav'ers,  how  performed,  403. 


618 


INDEX 


Preaching,  its  place  in  missionary  opera- 
tions, 554-559. 

Press  in  India,  made  free,  270. 

Princes,  Native,  338-341 ; Emperor  of 
Delhi,  341-346. 

Public  works,  326 ; canals,  328. 

Purans,  367,  404. 

Kailroads  in  India,  329-331. 

Rama  or  Ramchundra,  378. 

Remarks  on  the  British  conquest  of  India, 
286-297. 

Remarks  on  the  Government  of  India, 
346-354. 

Revenue  of  India,  312-314. 

Rezia,  Sultana,  6.3-65. 

Rites,  Hindu,  399. 

Robert  de  Nobili,  his  remarkable  conduct, 
513. 

Roe,  Sir  Thomas,  114. 

Roman  Catholics,  festivals,  519  ; observe 
caste,  517-519;  number  and  character, 
421-525. 

Russia,  intrigues  in  central  Asia,  272,  278. 

Sacred  days,  399. 

Sacred  places,  397. 

Sacrifices,  402  ; human,  425. 

Sanders,  Mr.,  Governor  of  Madras,  212. 

Sanscrit  language  and  literature,  431- 
435;  598-601,  Ap/)enc7i'a:. 

Sattara,  Raja  of,  deposed,  271. 

Schwartz,  521. 

Scinde,  war  of,  279. 

Scindia,  236,  241. 

Sculpture  of  the  Hindus,  453. 

Self-torture,  422. 

Scringham  temple,  386,  note. 

Scringapatam,  siege  of,  230. 

Shahab  ud  Dcen,  Emperor,  56-58. 

Shah  Namah,  53. 

Shalewahun,  37. 

Shah  .Jehan,  Emperor,  114;  his  liberality, 
115;  his  family,  117  ; confined  for  life, 
122;  his  wealth,  123. 

Shah  Shuja,  273,  277. 

Shekh  Aliai,  100. 

Sherc  Sh.ah,  99,  100. 

Sheriar,  115. 

Sheva,  his  character  and  worship,  381- 
383. 

Shevajeo,  founder  of  the  Mahratta  em- 
pire, 131. 


Shuja,  117,  126,  128,  129. 

Shradh,  401. 

Sikhs,  141,  251,  280-285. 

Somnat  temple,  49 ; taken  and  plundered, 
51,  52. 

Steam  navigation  in  India,  440. 
Subuctagee,  42. 

Suicide,  420. 

Sultan  Ibrahim,  55. 

Supreme  Being,  Hindu  ideas  of,  368- 
372. 

Sur.aja  Dowla,  173-176,  178. 

Surat,  Nalx)b  of,  237. 

Suttee,  269,  347,  417-419. 

Syrian  Christians  in  Malabar,  499-503. 
Tables  showing  the  state  of  Missions  in 
India  and  Ceylon,  538,  539. 

Tamerlane  invades  India  and  plunders 
Delhi,  91-93. 

Tanjore,  Raja  of,  238,  531. 

Taj  Mahal,  124. 

Temples,  387  ; Cave  do.,  391. 
Tcignraouth,  Lord,  (Sir  John  Shore,) 
Governor-General,  199. 

Thuggism,  423-427. 

Tippoo  Sultan,  226-230;  516,  517. 
Thomas,  St.,  traditions  of,  in  India,  497. 
Toghluck,  House  of,  83. 

Tranquebar,  Missions  in,  525-530. 
Translations  of  the  Scriptures  in  India, 
559-564. 

Transmigration  of  souls  in  future  births, 
411-415. 

Travancore,  Raja  of,  251. 

Trichinopoly,  siege  of,  209-211. 
Vansittart,  Mr.,  180. 

Vedas,  362-365 ; 368-373. 

Vernacular  languages  of  India,  433-438. 
Vicram,  36. 

Vishnu,  375-381. 

Vows,  404,  420. 

Welleslev,  ^Marquis,  Governor-General, 
229-248. 

Wellesley,  Sir  Arthur,  242. 

Widows  burned  alive,  419;  state  of,  in 
India,  461. 

Worship,  Hindu,  399. 

Xavier,  Francis,  504,  505,  506,  note. 
Zamorin  of  Calicut,  155,  157,  159-161. 
Zicgcnbalg,  525-528. 


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